For 10th grade students
Seminar lesson “Humanity at the dawn of its history. Primitive Era»
1. Periodization and chronology of the history of primitive society. Methods of absolute and relative chronology. Problems of periodization of primitive history. Correlation of geological and archaeological epochs.
2. Using the knowledge acquired in the lessons of biology, history and social studies, tell us about the most common hypotheses of the origin of man. When did the theory of evolution arise and who is its author? What factors contributed to the separation of man from the natural world? What role did interspecific and intraspecific struggle play in the process of human evolution?
3. Name the directions of evolution of the human race. What was the significance of the accumulation of knowledge for ancient man in the struggle for survival? What regions are the ancestral home of mankind? Name the humanoid ancestors of humans. Track the changes in the anthropological type of a person in the process of evolution.
4. What achievements of man in the era of the early Paleolithic allowed him to survive in the ice age? At what stage of primitive history did human settlement occur on the continents of the planet? When do rock art and religious beliefs emerge in human groups? What function did they perform?
5. What changes in human economic activity gave grounds to talk about the Neolithic revolution? What problems in the relationship between man and nature have been caused by the improvement of tools? What were the consequences of the first crisis in the development of civilization?
6. Tell us about the process of transition from appropriating to producing type of economy. Explain how the division of labor and the specialization of activities influenced the complication of social relations and the change in the nature of exchange. What items were used as an equivalent of the cost of goods? Specify the factors that contributed to the emergence of wealth inequality and the emergence of private property. Explain the concepts: matriarchy, patriarchy. Think about how the processes are interconnected: the folding of private property and the transition to patriarchy.
7. Origin of art. Time and place of origin of art in the primitive era. Functions of art. Types and genres. The role of art in the development of tribal relations. At what stage of development did the separation of language groups occur?
8. Signs of the addition of civilizations. The role of metal in the destruction of tribal relations. Change in the structure of the economy of the period of decomposition of primitive relations. The importance of the development of metallurgy for the development of the economy and society.
Literature for everyone
1. “General history from ancient times to the end of the 19th century”, grade 10, Zagladin N.V., Simonia N.A. for grade 10 educational institutions. - M .: LLC "TID "Russian Word - RS", 2006. § 4, 5
2.Avanta+. Encyclopedia for children. Volume 1. World history.
3.Internet resources:

http :// www. bibliotekar. ru/culturologia/6. htm

http://www.gumer.info/bibliotek_Buks/History/vsem_ist/01.php

http://worldhistory4.narod.ru/Pervobutnuistroi.html

http://www.portal-student.ru/Vsem-1.php

http :// www. art project. ru/ library/ arthistory1/ st002. htm The main stages in the development of primitive art.

4. Lecture-presentation “On the way to the first civilizations (see on the website 10 V http://lingvoshili.3dn.ru/:)
Literature for the Curious
Alekseev V.P., Pershits A.I. History of primitive society. M., Higher School, 2001.
Eremeev A.F. Origin of Art M., 1970
History of primitive society. General issues. Problems of anthroposociogenesis. M., 1983.
History of primitive society. Ancestral community. M., 1985
Zolotarev A.M. Tribal system and primitive mythology. M., 1964.
Zubov A.A. Controversial issues of the theory of anthropogenesis// EO, 1994, No. 6,
Martynov A.I. Archeology. Moscow: Higher school, 2008.
Masson V.F. The first civilizations L., 1989.
Morgan L. G. Ancient society. L., 1934.
Ryndina N.V., Degtyareva L.A. Eneolithic and Bronze Age. M., 2001
Tokarev S.A. Early forms of religion and their development. M., 1990.
Engels F. The origin of the family, private property and the state. M.: IPL, 1982

1. What changes in human economic activity gave grounds to talk about the Neolithic revolution?

It is about the revolution in the Neolithic era that we can talk about the transition from an appropriating type of economy (hunting and gathering) to a productive one (agriculture and cattle breeding). This has led to changes in all spheres of life and activity of people.

2. What problems in the relationship between man and nature have been caused by the improvement of tools? What were the consequences of the first crisis in the development of civilization?

The transition from an appropriating type of economy to a producing one is not recorded by written sources, since writing did not yet exist at that time. Because we can only build hypotheses and the causes and course of this process. A popular theory is that people, more and more improving hunting tools, have exterminated or almost exterminated the game that they hunted. But agriculture arose in only a few fairly local centers. For example - on the territory of the so-called Fertile Crescent. On those lands, it was during the Neolithic revolution that significant climatic changes took place: as a result of the further retreat of the glacier far to the north, in the Fertile Crescent, the savannah gave way to semi-deserts with separate oases. Large animals, followed by people, retreated to oases and river valleys, where they were trapped surrounded by desert. It was there, in the oases and river valleys, that also trapped people faced starvation due to the sharply reduced numbers of their game.

3. Tell us about the transition from appropriating to producing type of economy.

Perhaps the development of the producing type of economy occurred as a result of a chain of accidents. Hunters accidentally left the cubs of dead animals alive and brought them home, accidentally ate not all the collected seeds, etc. The version of necessity is very plausible, which made us think about the results of such random experiments (set out in the answer to the previous question). But it is important to emphasize that the development, at least, of agriculture, occurred due to the randomness of evolution. Ripe seeds of wild varieties of cereals crumble as soon as they are touched. Mankind is very lucky that, as a result of a random mutation, species appeared whose seeds held tighter to the stems. In the wild, such plants had less chance of survival, but it was they who turned out to be suitable for humans to grow, because, unlike their relatives, they can be collected, tied into sheaves, and only then grain can be knocked out of the ears.

4. Explain how the division of labor and the specialization of activities influenced the complication of social relations and exchange. What items were used as equivalent value of goods?

The first division of labor is the division into some people who get food (engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding) and others who make certain items (for example, dishes or tools). The latter are called artisans. Thus, if earlier everything necessary was produced within the framework of one family, now those who did not grow either plants or animals needed to receive food, and farmers and pastoralists needed to receive the products of artisans. This led to the emergence of an exchange. Before the invention of real money, the so-called commodity-money was used as an equivalent of exchange (cattle, salt, rare shells, skins of certain animals with valuable fur, etc.). The processes of product exchange caused a complication of social relations, since, being new to society, they required new regulatory mechanisms.

5. Specify the factors that contributed to the emergence of wealth inequality and the emergence of private property.

The appearance as a result of the exchange of equivalents of this exchange, which were values;

Accumulation by exchange of more values ​​in some people than in others;

A better life (the ability to eat better, dress better, etc.) thanks to the accumulated values;

An opportunity for people with more values ​​to share with their fellow tribesmen, allowing them to eat better and dress better in exchange for respect.

6. Explain the concepts: "matriarchy", "patriarchy". Consider the relationship between the folding of private property and the transition to patriarchy.

"Matriarchy" means the dominant role of women in society and the account of kinship on the maternal side, respectively, "patriarchy" - the dominant role of men in society and the account of kinship on the paternal side. According to the theory dating back to L. Morgan, the transition from matriarchy to patriarchy led to the emergence of the institution of the family, and the emergence of the family seriously influenced the accumulation of values ​​(and hence the formation of private property), since it made it possible to transfer the accumulated by inheritance.

7. At what stage of development did the allocation of language groups occur?

The currently existing language groups developed in the Eneolithic era in the 5th-4th centuries BC. But this in itself does not mean that there were no representatives of other, more ancient language groups that have not survived to our time on Earth.

8. What changes have occurred in human society with the beginning of the development of metals?

Tools made of metal, unlike those made of stone, can be repaired (in extreme cases, melted down). In addition, metallurgy itself is not a simple matter. In the beginning, people began to use copper, soon switched to bronze. Making high-quality bronze, that is, mixing tin with copper in the right proportions, subject to the necessary conditions, is not an easy task. The emergence of metallurgy led to the complexity of the technologies of artisans. In addition, copper and tin are relatively rare metals, and their deposits are almost always located in areas remote from each other. Therefore, the use of bronze also led to the development of exchange, the transfer of materials, ultimately over long distances. All this led to the complication of social relations, and therefore contributed to the emergence of the first states (although it was hardly the only factor that led to the emergence of these states).

KGBOU SPO

"Sosnovoborsky Automechanical College"

Methodical instructions and control tasks

for part-time students

KGBOU SPO "Sosnovoborsk Automotive Technical School"

specialty 080110 Economics and accounting (by industry)

EXPLANATORY NOTE

According to the "Recommendations for the implementation of the educational program of secondary (complete) general education in educational institutions of secondary vocational education in accordance with the federal basic curriculum and exemplary curricula for educational institutions of the Russian Federation implementing general education programs" (letter from the Department of State Policy and Regulatory regulation in the field of education of the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia dated May 29, 2007 No. 03-1180), history is studied in institutions of secondary vocational education as a basic academic discipline of a socio-economic profile (third generation standards).

The study of the discipline "History" is focused on achieving the following goals:

· upbringing citizenship, national identity, the development of students' worldview beliefs on the basis of their understanding of historically established cultural, religious, ethno-national traditions, moral and social attitudes, ideological doctrines;

· development the ability to understand the historical conditionality of the phenomena and processes of the modern world, to determine one's own position in relation to the surrounding reality, to correlate one's views and principles with historically emerged worldview systems;

· development systematized knowledge about the history of mankind, the formation of a holistic view of the place and role of Russia in the world-historical process;

· mastery skills and abilities of search, systematization and complex analysis of historical information;

· formation historical thinking - the ability to consider events and phenomena from the point of view of their historical conditionality, to compare different versions and assessments of historical events and personalities, to determine one's own attitude to the debatable problems of the past and the present.

The basis of the program of the discipline "History" is the content, consistent with the requirements of the federal component of the state standard of secondary (complete) general education of the basic level. The content of the educational material is structured according to the problem-chronological principle, taking into account the knowledge and skills acquired by students in a general education school. For this, the following structure of the content of the educational material was used: Introduction, 1. The oldest stage of the history of mankind, 2. Civilizations of the Ancient World, 3. Civilizations of the West and East in the Middle Ages, 4. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century, 5. Origins of the industrial civilizations: the countries of Western Europe in the 16th - 18th centuries, 6. Russia in the 18th century, 7. The formation of an industrial civilization, 8. The process of modernization in traditional societies of the East, 9. Russia in the 19th century, 10. From New History to the Newest , 11. Between world wars, 12. World War II, 13. World in the second half of the 20th century, 14. USSR in 1945-1991, 15. Russia and the world at the turn of the 20th - 21st centuries.

Educational material on the history of Russia is presented in the context of world history, which allows students to form a holistic picture of the world for students, to trace the country's historical path in its originality and involvement in the development of mankind as a whole. In addition, an integrated presentation of domestic and foreign history, continuity and compatibility of educational material "horizontally" are proposed. The object of study is the main stages of the historical and civilizational development of Russia and the world as a whole.

Also, a comparative examination of individual processes and phenomena of domestic and general history is carried out, such as socio-economic and political relations in Europe and in Russia in the earlier Middle Ages, political fragmentation and the formation of centralized states, relations between secular and church authorities, the history of class-representative bodies , the formation of absolutism, industrialization, etc. At the same time, not only internal, but also external factors that influenced the development of the country are revealed. Comparative analysis allows comparing social, economic and mental structures, political and legal systems, culture and everyday life in Russia and foreign countries.

Particular importance is attached to the role of our country in the context of world history of the XX-XXI centuries.

A significant part of the material is devoted to the role of the geographical environment and climate, ways and means of communication, the peculiarities of the organization of settlements and dwellings, clothing and food, that is, what determines the living conditions of people. Attention is drawn to the forms of organization of social life (from the family to the state) and the "mechanisms" of their functioning. Acquaintance with religious and philosophical systems is carried out from the point of view of a member of the society professing them, it is shown how this or that religion or ethical system determined the social values ​​of society.

Great importance is attached to the coverage of the "dialogue" of civilizations, which is presented as one of the most characteristic features of the world-historical process of the 19th - 21st centuries. Such an approach makes it possible to avoid discreteness in the study of the recent history of Russia.

During the study of the discipline "History" students should achieve the following results:

Know/Understand:

· the main facts, processes and phenomena that characterize the integrity of national and world history;

periodization of world and national history;

· modern versions and interpretations of the most important problems of national and world history;

· features of the historical path of Russia, its role in the world community;

basic historical terms and dates.

Be able to:

Analyze historical information presented in different sign systems (text, map, table, diagram, audiovisual series);

distinguish between facts and opinions, historical descriptions and historical explanations in historical information;

· establish causal relationships between phenomena, spatial and temporal framework of the studied historical processes and phenomena;

· present the results of the study of historical material in the form of abstracts, abstracts, reviews.

Use the acquired knowledge and skills in practical activities and everyday life for:

determining one's own position in relation to the phenomena of modern life, based on their historical conditionality;

· using the skills of historical analysis in the critical perception of social information received from outside;

Correlating one's actions and the actions of others with historically emerging forms of social behavior;

· awareness of oneself as a representative of a historically established civil, ethno-cultural, confessional community, a citizen of Russia.

The study of the discipline "History" is associated with the disciplines: "Geography", "Social Studies", "Literature", "Economics", "Ecology", "Fundamentals of Sociology and Political Science".

For the study of the discipline "History" the curriculum allocates 117 hours of theoretical classes for full-time education. For part-time students, most of these hours are included in the independent study load.

Independent work on the study of the discipline "History" is recommended to be carried out in the following order:

2 Answer self-control questions on each educational topic;

3 Complete the tasks of the control work;

4 Prepare for the exam and test.

According to the curriculum, students of the correspondence department, studying in the specialty 080110 on the basis of 9 classes, pass an intermediate certification in the discipline "History" in the first semester in the form of an exam, in the second semester in the form of a test. The exam is conducted in the form of oral answers on tickets, questions for the exam are presented in these guidelines (p. 59). The test is carried out in the form of testing using a universal test shell on a PC, tests for preparing for the test are presented in these guidelines (p. 61).

Also, according to the curriculum, students of the correspondence department must necessarily complete homework tests in the discipline "History" in the second semester. Tasks for the control work are presented in the guidelines (p. 49) and compiled in ten versions. The student must complete the variant of the tasks that corresponds to the last digit of the cipher book number.

Requirements for doing homework

control work:

1 The test must be done in a separate notebook by hand or printed and bound in a folder.

2 In the control work, there must be a title page indicating the last name, first name, patronymic of the student and teacher, the cipher, number of the option, the student's address.

3 If the work is done in handwritten form, the student must provide margins and maintain an interval between lines of at least one cell.

4 The volume of the control work in the handwritten version should be at least 24 pages, in printed form - at least 15 pages.

5 When completing each task, you must indicate the number of the question, provide an answer plan, and then state the answer itself.

6 The student can change the sequence of tasks, but must complete the tasks in his own way

7 Answers to the questions of the tasks of the control work should be consistent and concise, they should show the student's understanding and comprehension of the material presented.

8 At the end of the test must be a list of used literature in accordance with established standards.

9 The completed test must be handed over to the secretary of the correspondence department a week before the start of the session.

10 The assessment for the control work is put in the form of a test.

1 PROGRAM OF THE DISCIPLINE "HISTORY"

Introduction

The student must:

Know:

Periodization of world history;

Concepts of historical development

Be able to:

Explain the influence of various factors on historical development;

Explain the role of Russian history in world history.

Basic provisions

Historical knowledge, its reliability and sources. Concepts of historical development: civilizational and formational approaches to the study of history. Factors of historical development: natural-climatic, ethnic, cultural-political, etc. History of Russia: cognitive, moral, cultural significance. Russian history as part of world and European history. Patterns of Russian history. Periodization of world history.

Section 1 The oldest stage of human history

The student must:

Know:

The concepts of civilization, anthropogenesis, tribal system, Neolithic revolution.

Be able to:

Basic provisions

Natural and social in man and the human community of the primitive era. Isolation of man from the animal world. Dispersal of people around the world. Habitat. Beginning of social life. generic

community. Human consequences of global climate change. Neolithic revolution. Changes in the way of life and forms of social ties. The origins of agriculture and cattle breeding in the Old and New

Light. Social consequences of the transition from the appropriating to the producing economy. The emergence of private property. The breakdown of the family structure. The role of the tribal leadership. Slaves and slavery. Division of labor. Prerequisites for the emergence of civilization.

Questions for self-control:

1 What are the most common hypotheses for the origin of man?

2 What factors contributed to the separation of man from the natural world?

3 What regions are the ancestral home of mankind?

4 When did rock art and religious beliefs emerge in human communities?

5 What changes in human economic activity occurred during the Neolithic period?

6 How did the division of labor and the specialization of activities affect the complication of social relations?

7 Specify the factors that contributed to the emergence of wealth inequality and the emergence of private property.

Section 2 Civilizations of the Ancient World

Topic 2.1 Early civilizations, their distinctive features

The student must:

Know:

The concepts of civilization, anthropogenesis, tribal system, Neolithic revolution;

Periodization of primitive history;

Prerequisites for the emergence of civilizations.

Be able to:

Establish causal relationships between geographical conditions and areas of human settlement;

Analyze the map of the settlement of ancient people;

Give an assessment of the Neolithic revolution in the history of mankind;

To assess the emergence of private property and slavery;

Highlight the characteristic features of civilizations.

Basic provisions

Chronological framework of the history of the ancient world. Early civilizations: Egypt, Western Asia, India, China. Material culture and economy of early civilizations. Social system. Political and military organization. Ideology. Features of Eastern civilization.

Topic 2.2 Ancient civilization

The student must:

Know:

Chronological and geographical framework of the first civilizations;

Features of Western and Eastern civilization

Be able to:

Distinguish between the first eastern and ancient civilizations;

Give examples of cultural achievements and traditions of the first civilizations;

Describe the political and economic development of the first civilizations.

Basic provisions

Formation of the polis civilization in Greece: geographical and social background. The essence of the Greek policy. The role of Athens and Sparta in the life of the Greek world. Alexander the Great and Hellenism. Ancient Rome: stages of the formation of society and the state. Economy, social system, state apparatus in republican and imperial Rome. features of Western civilization.

Questions for self-control:

1 Where and when did the most ancient civilizations of the world originate? Why are they called "river" civilizations?

2 What are the reasons for the emergence of the first states?

3 What is despotism? What are its main features? How did relations between the state and the individual develop in the Ancient East?

4 What were the features of aristocratic and democratic forms of government?

5 What features of Eastern society were adopted by the Greek and Roman worlds during the era of Hellenism and the Roman Empire?

Section 3 Civilizations of the West and East in the Middle Ages

Topic 3.1 Features of the development of civilizations of the East in the Middle Ages

The student must:

Know:

Periodization of the history of the countries of the East in the Middle Ages;

Ruling Dynasties of Ancient China and India

Be able to:

Explain the main tenets of Confucianism and Buddhism;

Give examples of the cultural heritage of the countries of the East.

Basic provisions

Sino-Confucian Civilization. Periodization of the medieval history of China. Ruling dynasties, capitals, borders. The role of historical traditions for the Chinese Middle Ages. Invasion of China in the 4th - 13th centuries: barbarism and civilization. The nature of the Mongol rule. Periodization of the medieval history of India, ruling dynasties, capitals, borders. Indian Society in the Middle Ages. Essence of Buddhism. Features of the spread of Buddhism.

Topic 3.2 The formation of Western European medieval civilization

The student must:

Know:

Chronology of the history of Western countries;

The concept of the Great Migration of Nations;

The concept of political fragmentation

Be able to:

Explain the meaning and historical results of the Great Migration;

Explain the formation of barbarian kingdoms.

Basic provisions

Chronological framework of the Western Middle Ages. The meeting of ancient civilization and the barbarian world. The main stages of the relationship between the Romans and the Germans (I century BC - V century AD). The great migration of peoples and its historical results. The process of Christianization of the barbarian kingdoms. Historical results of the early medieval period. States of Europe in the VIII - XI century. Political fragmentation and its causes.

Questions for self-control:

1 What were the socio-economic and internal political causes of the crisis of the Roman Empire?

2 What were the causes of the Great Migration?

3 In what sphere of the life of medieval society did the heritage of antiquity affect the most?

4 What peoples participated in the creation of the medieval Western European civilization?

5 What is the role of Christianity in the birth of European civilization?

6 What are the reasons for the feudal fragmentation of the barbarian kingdoms?

Topic 3.3 Arab-Muslim Civilization

The student must:

Know:

The concept of Islam;

Be able to:

Explain the rise of Islam;

Name the features of the Islamic state;

Describe the Islamic state;

Assess the influence of Islam on the states of the East

Basic provisions

The rise of Islam. Muhammad. The essence of Islam as a creed. Features of the state and social system of the Arabs. Arab conquests. Islamization: ways and methods, folding the world of Islam. Geographical and political boundaries of the world of Islam by the end of the 15th century.

Questions for self-control:

1 What are the main provisions of the Muslim faith?

2 What are the characteristic features of Islamic civilization?

3 What are the reasons for the successful conquests of the Arabs?

4 What are the reasons for the collapse of the Arab Caliphate?

5 What was the impact of Islamic civilization on other countries?

Topic 3.4 The main features and stages of development of the Eastern Christian civilization

The student must:

Know:

Periodization of the history of Byzantium;

The concept of Orthodoxy.

Be able to:

Explain the influence of the ancient heritage on the culture of Byzantium;

Name the features of the Byzantine state;

Assess the influence of Byzantium on neighboring states

Basic provisions

The role of ancient traditions in the development of Eastern Christian civilization. Byzantine state, church, society. Features of relations of land ownership. City and countryside: high level of development. Culture and Orthodoxy. Ways and stages of the spread of Orthodoxy. Internal and external causes of the death of Byzantium.

Questions for self-control:

1 What was the influence of the ancient heritage on the history and culture of Byzantium?

2 What is the role of the imperial power and the Orthodox Church in the life of the Byzantines?

3 What was the difference between Eastern and Western Christendom?

4 How did relations develop between Byzantium and the Slavs?

5 What are the reasons for the death of Byzantium?

Topic 3.5 The rise of Western European civilization

The student must:

Know:

The concepts of feud, vassal relations;

Main medieval estates;

Features of the medieval civilization of Europe;

Periodization of the medieval history of Europe.

Be able to:

Describe a medieval city;

Explain the interaction of church, state and society;

Give examples of social conflicts;

Assess the significance of the Crusades in the history of the Middle Ages.

Basic provisions

Socio-economic features of the period. The formation of medieval classes and estates. Property relations. Feud. Vassal connections. The agrarian character of medieval civilization. The phenomenon of the medieval city. The main forms of state power. Estate-representative monarchies. Church and secular authorities, church and society. Social conflicts in the Middle Ages: heresies, peasant uprisings, popular movements. Crusades. The meeting of Eastern Christian, Muslim and Western Christian civilizations. Mutual influence

in material life, science, culture.

Questions for self-control:

1 What are the main features of feudalism. What are the causes of feudal fragmentation?

2 Describe the position of the medieval estates. What were their privileges and responsibilities?

3 What was the role of the Christian church and papacy in medieval Europe?

4 What were the reasons for the Crusades?

Section 4 History of Russia from ancient times to the end XVII century

Topic 4.1 Tribes and peoples of Eastern Europe in antiquity

The student must:

Know:

The concept of Indo-European community, tribal unions;

Be able to:

Characterize the way of life, social relations, religious beliefs of the Eastern Slavs;

Explain the interaction of the Eastern Slavs with neighboring tribes.

Basic provisions

The influence of the geographical features of Eastern Europe on the way of life of the people who inhabited it. Settlement of Eastern Europe. Tribes and peoples of the Northern Black Sea region in the 1st millennium BC Disputes about the origin and ancestral home of the Slavs. Slavs and the Great Migration of Peoples (IV - VI centuries). His reasons. Germanic and Slavic tribes in Europe. Avar and Khazar Khaganates. Finno-Ugric tribes. Byzantium and the peoples of Eastern Europe. Life and economy of the Eastern Slavs. Dwelling. Clothing. Business forms. Public relations. A family. Beliefs. Slavic pantheon and pagan rites.

Questions for self-control:

1 What East Slavic tribes do you know? Where did they live?

2 What peoples inhabited the territory of Eastern Europe?

3 Describe the main occupations of the Slavs. Compare them with the occupations of Europeans in the early Middle Ages.

4 Tell us about the beliefs of the Eastern Slavs.

Topic 4.2 Formation of the foundations of the statehood of the Eastern Slavs

The student must:

Know:

Chronology of the formation of the ancient Russian state;

The concepts of veche, squad, tribute

Be able to:

To characterize points of view on the origin of the ancient Russian state;

Describe the activities of the first Russian princes.

Basic provisions

Prerequisites for the formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs. Decomposition of the primitive communal system. Formation of tribal alliances. Veche and its role in ancient Slavic society. Princes and warriors: origin and social status. "The Way from the Varangians to the Greeks". Disputes about the origin and role of the Varangians. Points of view on the nature of statehood in Russia. The first Russian princes and their activities: military campaigns and reforms. Tribute and tribute.

Questions for self-control:

1 What were the prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state?

2 What is the essence of the Norman theory of the emergence of the Old Russian state?

3 What are the key events in the process of formation of the Old Russian state.

4 What is polyudie?

Topic 4.3 Russia and its neighbors in X -beginning XII century

The student must:

Know:

The concept of Christianity, Catholicism, Orthodoxy.

Be able to:

Explain the meaning of accepting Christianity;

Describe the first set of laws in Russia;

To characterize the main categories of the population of Russia;

Describe the cultural heritage of Ancient Russia.

Basic provisions

Ethnopolitical features of Ancient Russia. Military, diplomatic and trade contacts of Russia and Byzantium in the 9th - 10th centuries. Vladimir Saint. Introduction to Christianity. Cultural and historical significance of Christianization. Synthesis of paganism and Orthodoxy. Relations between Russia and Byzantium in the XI - XII centuries. Russia and the nomadic peoples of the southern Russian steppes: military confrontation, ethnic and cultural mutual influence. Russia in the system of cultural and political contacts between the West and the East. Law in Ancient Russia. Yaroslav the Wise. "Russian Truth". Power and property. The main categories of the population. Prince and boyars. Nobles and commoners. Free and unfree. City and citizens. The origins of Russian culture. Folklore. Slavic writing. Architecture. Painting.

Questions for self-control:

1 Why did Vladimir Svyatoslavich choose Orthodoxy? What did it matter?

2 How did Russia develop relations with neighboring countries?

3 What are the main groups of the population of the Old Russian state?

4 What is a fiefdom? How was she managed? Who made up the population of the estate?

5 What impact did the baptism of Russia have on the development of ancient Russian culture?

6 List the most important architectural structures of Russia.

7 Name the genres of ancient Russian literature.

8 What testified to the development of writing and literacy in Ancient Russia?

9 What were the ancient Russian chronicles?

Topic 4.4 Ancient Russia in the era of political fragmentation

The student must:

Know:

The concept of feudal fragmentation

Be able to:

Characterize the internecine war of princes;

Explain the causes and consequences of feudal fragmentation;

Compare the economic, social and political development of the largest principalities of Russia during the fragmentation period.

Basic provisions

Reasons for fragmentation. Internecine struggle of princes. Ancient Russia and the Great Steppe. The largest lands and principalities of Russia, their features. Velikiy Novgorod. Economic, social and political development. Vladimir-Suzdal principality. The role of cities and crafts. political device. Galicia-Volyn principality. Agriculture, cities and craft. The role of the boyars. The unification of the principality under Roman Mstilavich and Daniel of Galicia.

Questions for self-control:

1 What are the reasons for the feudal fragmentation of Russia?

2 What is common and what are the differences between fragmentation in Russia and in Europe?

3 What were the main directions of the policy of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes?

4 What role did princely power play in Novgorod? Why did the Novgorod land avoid further fragmentation?

5 What changes occurred during the period of fragmentation in the cultural development of Ancient Russia?

Topic 4.5 Russia's struggle against foreign invaders

The student must:

Know:

The concept of the Mongol-Tatar yoke;

Chronology of the invasion of Russia.

Be able to:

Describe the conquests of the Mongols;

To assess the resistance of the Russian principalities to the Mongol conquest;

Explain the economic and political dependence of Russia on the Golden Horde;

Give an assessment of the aggression of Catholicism against Russia;

Explain the consequences of the Mongol invasion.

Basic provisions

Socio-economic structure of the Mongolian tribes. The formation of the power of Genghis Khan and the Mongol conquests. Batu's invasion of Russia. The formation of the Golden Horde, its socio-economic and political

device. Russia under the rule of the Golden Horde. Baltic at the beginning of the XIII century. Aggression of the crusaders in the Baltic lands. Knightly orders. The struggle of the peoples of the Baltic and Russia against the crusaders. The defeat of the Swedes on the Neva.

Battle on the Ice. Prince Alexander Nevsky: the policy of subjugation to the Horde and opposition to Catholicism. The unification of the Lithuanian lands and the formation of the Lithuanian state. Russian lands within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Questions for self-control:

1 Why did the Mongols manage to carry out such extensive conquests?

2 Tell us about the campaigns of Batu in Russia. Prove that the warriors and inhabitants of Ancient Russia put up fierce resistance to the invaders?

3 What was the significance of the struggle of the peoples of Russia against the Mongol invasion for the fate of medieval European civilization?

4 What was the political and economic dependence of Russia on the Golden Horde?

5 What goals did the German and Swedish knights pursue in relation to Russia?

Topic 4.6 Russia on the way to revival

The student must:

Know:

The concept of a unifying process;

The main centers of the unification of Russia;

The concepts of boyars, nobility.

Be able to:

Describe the merging process;

Explain the role of various centers in the unification;

Describe the economic and political strengthening of Moscow;

Give an assessment of the rise of the Moscow principality;

Give an assessment of the Battle of Kulikovo.

Basic provisions

Restoration of the economic level after the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars. Agriculture and land ownership. Forms of ownership and categories of the population. The prince and his entourage. The role of the boyars. Formation of the nobility. City and craft. Church and clergy. Russia and the Golden Horde in the XIV century. The struggle for the great reign. Economic and political strengthening of the Moscow principality. Fight between Moscow and Tver. Ivan Kalita. Dmitry Donskoy and the beginning of the struggle to overthrow the Horde yoke. Battle of Kulikovo and its significance. Separation of the western territories of Russia. Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland. The struggle of Russia, Lithuania and the Horde for political dominance in Eastern Europe. The special position of the Novgorod Republic.

Questions for self-control:

1 What were the features of the process of state unification of Russian lands?

2 What do you think, could the Novgorod Republic lead the process of the unification of Russia?

3 What was the difference between the policies of Ivan Kalita and Dmitry Donskoy?

4 What was the historical significance of the victory of the Russian troops in the Battle of Kulikovo?

5 What were the reasons for the collapse of the Golden Horde? How did this affect the historical fate of Russia?

Topic 4.7 From Russia to Russia

The student must:

Know:

Be able to:

To characterize the process of formation of a unified Russian state;

Characterize the prerequisites for the centralization of the state;

Characterize the content of the Sudebnik of 1497;

Explain the formation of authorities in the Russian state;

Explain the idea of ​​"Moscow is the third Rome";

Evaluate the formation of a single state

Basic provisions

The nature and features of the unification of Russia. Ivan III. Annexation of Novgorod and other lands. The overthrow of the Horde yoke (1480). Completion of the formation of a unified Russian state. Prerequisites for centralization. Political system. Sudebnik 1497. Formation of central and local authorities. The origin of the order. Boyar Duma. The sovereign's court. Army organization. Church and royal power. Church-political theory "Moscow - the third Rome". The contribution of the Orthodox Church to the strengthening of the unified state.

Questions for self-control:

1 What factors contributed to the fact that it was under Ivan III and Vasily III that Russia's dependence on the Horde was eliminated and the unification of Russia was completed?

2 Give the characteristic of system of authorities of the Russian centralized state.

3 How do you understand the political significance of the idea “Moscow is the third Rome”?

4 Which of the symbols of the Russian state have survived to this day?

Topic 4.8 Russia in the reign of Ivan the Terrible

The student must:

Know:

The main events of the era of Ivan the Terrible;

The concept of oprichnina.

Be able to:

Describe the reforms of Ivan the Terrible;

Explain the causes and consequences of the oprichnina;

Give an assessment of the internal policy of the king;

Describe the foreign policy of Russia in the 16th century.

Basic provisions

Territory and population of Russia in the 16th century. Boyar rule. The crowning of Ivan the Terrible, the formation of an autocratic ideology. Elected Rada and its reforms. Elements of a class-representative monarchy in Russia. Sudebnik 1550. Church and State. Stoglav Cathedral. military transformation. Oprichnina and the reasons for its introduction. Oprichny terror. Socio-economic and political consequences of the oprichnina. Ivan the Terrible and Andrei Kurbsky. Metropolitan Philip. Economic situation and socio-political contradictions in Russian society at the end of the 16th century. The main directions of the foreign policy of Ivan the Terrible. Accession of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates. The entry of the Bashkir lands into Russia. Strengthening Russia's position in the Caucasus. Relations with the Crimean Khanate. "Wild Field". Cossacks. Fight for access to the Baltic Sea. Livonian War (1558-1583). Formation of the Commonwealth (1569). The peoples of the Urals and the Urals as part of the Siberian Khanate. Yermak's campaign. The entry of Western Siberia into the Russian state.

Questions for self-control:

1 Describe the policy of Ivan the Terrible aimed at establishing absolutism in Russia.

2 What were the results and significance of the Livonian War for Russia?

3 What were the reasons for the introduction of the oprichnina?

Topic 4.9 Troubles in Russia began XVII century

The student must:

Know:

The main dates and events of the Time of Troubles;

Be able to:

Describe the events of the Time of Troubles;

Name the main participants in the events;

Give an assessment for the history of Russia of the victory of the people's militia in 1613.

Basic provisions

Background of the Time of Troubles in Russia. dynastic question. Boris Godunov and his politics. Establishment of the Patriarchate. The beginning of the civil war in Russia. Impostors. Popular uprisings. Intervention of Poland and Sweden in the internal affairs of Russia. Seven Boyars. Polish troops in Moscow. The first and second militias. Kuzma Minin, Dmitry Pozharsky. Zemsky Sobor 1613 and the beginning of the reign of the Romanovs. End of the civil war. Features of the estate-representative monarchy in Russia.

Questions for self-control:

1 What were the causes of the Troubles in Russia?

2 What was the connection between the activities of Ivan the Terrible and the events of the Time of Troubles?

3 What social strata participated in the events of the Time of Troubles? Describe their goals.

4 What were the goals pursued by the Polish and Swedish rulers, interfering in the affairs of Russia?

5 What is the role of the people's militia of K. Minin and D. Pozharsky in the expulsion of the Poles from Russia?

6 Why can we say that the period of the end of the Troubles became an important milestone in the formation of the national identity of the Russian people?

Topic 4.10 Russia in the middle and second half XVII century

The student must:

Know:

Key dates and events of the second half of the 17th century;

The concept of autocracy.

Be able to:

Describe the strengthening of royal power during the reign of Alexei

Mikhailovich;

Explain the process of enslavement of peasants and legal registration

serfdom;

Describe church reform;

Describe the peasant war led by Stepan Razin;

Describe the foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century;

To assess the accession to Russia of the Left-Bank Ukraine, Siberia and the Far East.

Basic provisions

Territory and population. Land use forms. Cities. Crafts. Trade. Cathedral Code of 1649 Legal registration of serfdom. Urban uprisings in the middle of the 17th century. The political system of Russia. The development of the command system. The fall of the role of the Boyar Duma and Zemsky Sobors. The nature and features of the Russian autocracy. Nikon's reforms and church schism. Cultural and political significance. Peasant war led by Stepan Razin. The main directions of Russia's foreign policy. Annexation of Left-bank Ukraine. Wars with Sweden and Turkey. Development of Siberia and the Far East. The nature of Russian colonization.

Questions for self-control:

1 What tasks did Alexei Mikhailovich face during his reign?

3 What is serfdom? What impact did it have on the development of Russia?

4 What are the causes of urban uprisings in the 17th century?

5 Describe the state authorities of Russia in the XVII century.

6 What is the essence of Nikon's church reform? What are the implications of this reform?

7 What are the causes and consequences of the peasant war led by S. Razin?

8 What was the significance of the accession of Ukraine to Russia?

Section 5 The origins of industrial civilization: the countries of Western Europe in XVI - XVIII c.c.

Topic 5.1 Modernization as a process of transition from a traditional to an industrial society

The student must:

Know:

The concept and periodization of the New Time;

The concept of modernization;

Be able to:

Describe the great geographical discoveries;

Explain the process of penetration of different cultures and civilizations;

Name the consequences of V.g.o.;

Describe the causes and consequences of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation in

Basic provisions

The emergence of the phenomenon of modernization and its content. The concept and periodization of the New Time. Europe during the Reformation and Counter-Reformation. Humanism. Orientation of a person to an active life position. Great geographical discoveries. World map. The beginning of an intercivilizational dialogue and its impact on the fate of the participants.

Questions for self-control:

1 What was the reason for the changes in the economy of Europe in the early modern period?

2 What changes have occurred in the social structure of Western European society?

3 What were the causes and consequences of the Great Geographical Discoveries?

4 How is the Protestant faith different from the Catholic faith?

5 What is the Reformation? What impact did it have on the history of Europe?

6 How did the Catholic Church try to resist the Reformation?

7 Why did the papacy fail to suppress heresies?

Topic 5.2 State and power in the era of transition to an industrial civilization

The student must:

Know:

The concept of a centralized state

Concepts of the nation state and empire;

The concept of absolutism;

Be able to:

Describe the process of formation of centralized states in Europe;

To assess the pan-European conflicts and the role of Russia in them.

Basic provisions

Formation of centralized states. Empires and nation-states. Absolutism. The fate of class-representative institutions under absolutism. Two concepts of Europe. Francis I and Charles V. Threat from Turkey. Holy League. "Invincible armada". First European War - Thirty Years' War. Westphalian peace. Russia's participation in pan-European conflicts.

Questions for self-control:

1 What states appeared in Europe at the end of the 16th century?

2 What were the features of the formation of centralized states?

3 What were the characteristics of absolutism?

4 What are the features of absolutism in England and France. Why did resistance to him take on religious forms?

5 What are the causes and results of the first all-European war?

Topic 5.3 Europe in XVII century

The student must:

Know:

The concepts of the bourgeois revolution, the Enlightenment, the industrial revolution.

Be able to:

Describe the main events of the English Revolution;

Explain the process of modernization of the Western world;

To evaluate the bourgeois transformations;

Describe the main stages of the industrial revolution;

Give examples of technical inventions of the 17th century;

Name the main features of the manufactory and factory;

Characterize theories of social equality and "social contract"

Basic provisions

The era of the general European crisis. English revolution of the 17th century and its significance for Europe. Synchronicity of crisis situations in different countries. The process of modernization of the Western world. The emergence of a new economic structure in the economy. Urbanization. New in the shape of cities and dwellings. Blurring of the estate system and the desire to fix the external features of the estate. Secularization of public consciousness. The concept of "Enlightenment" and its content. Theory of natural equality. "Social Contract". Idea of ​​progress. enlightened absolutism. Technical inventions and changing attitudes towards them in society. From manufactory to factory. The beginning of the industrial revolution in England: manifestations of the process in economic and social life.

Questions for self-control:

1 What changes in the socio-economic life of Western Europe occurred in the XVII century?

2 What are the causes of the crisis of the absolutist regime in England.

3 What are the main stages of the English Revolution?

4 What is a bourgeois revolution?

5 What were the results of the English Revolution?

6 How do you understand the term "Enlightenment"? Why is the 18th century referred to as the Age of Enlightenment?

7 Describe the views of the main representatives of the Enlightenment.

Topic 5.5 Revolutions XVIII centuries and their significance for the establishment of an industrial society

The student must:

Know:

Major dates of the French and American revolutions;

Be able to:

Describe the consequences of the bourgeois revolutions of the 18th century;

Assess democratic reforms, the adoption of constitutions in

USA and France

Name the consequences of bourgeois transformations

Basic provisions

The War for the Independence of the North American Colonies and an Attempt to Realize Enlightenment Ideals. US education. The impact of North American events on European society. French Revolution of the 18th century. Political regimes of the period of the Revolution. Constitution. Socio-economic consequences of the revolutions of the XVIII century.

Questions for self-control:

1 What were the contradictions between England and its North American colonies?

2 How did the ideas of the Enlightenment influence the revolutionary events in North America and France?

3 Tell us about the US constitution and government. What principles were they based on?

4 Name the main events of the French Revolution. What were the consequences of the Jacobin terror?

Section 6 Russia in XVIII century

Topic 6.1 Russia during the reforms of Peter I

The student must:

Know:

Be able to:

Characterize the socio-economic policy of Peter I;

Evaluate reforms;

Describe Russia's foreign policy;

Give examples of the perception of reforms by contemporaries;

Describe the cultural upheaval of Peter's time.

Basic provisions

Prerequisites for the reforms of Peter I. Features of the modernization process in Russia. Northern war and its results. Changes in the place of Russia in the world, the proclamation of its empire. Socio-economic policy of Peter I and the social structure of Russian society. Fortress economy. "Regular State". Cultural upheaval of Peter's time. Enlightenment and science. Architecture and urban planning. Art. Household reform. Perception of reforms by contemporaries.

Questions for self-control:

1 What caused the need for reforms in Russia?

2 What is a "regular" state? What features of it were embodied in the state structure of the Russian Empire in the 18th century?

3 What was the significance of the victory in the Northern War for the development of Russia?

4 What are the manifestations of the cultural upheaval of Peter's time?

Topic 6.2 Domestic and foreign policy of Peter's successors I (1725 - 1762)

The student must:

Know:

Causes and content of palace coups;

Be able to:

To characterize the change of Russian rulers after the death of Peter I;

Explain Russia's influence on European politics.

Basic provisions

Causes of palace coups. Catherine I. Supreme Privy Council. Peter II. Accession of Anna Ioannovna. Bironovshchina. Political

struggle and palace coup of 1741. Socio-economic policy of Elizaveta Petrovna. Russia's participation in the Seven Years' War. The reign of Peter III. Palace coup 1762. and the accession of Catherine II.

Questions for self-control:

1 What caused the palace coups in the first half of the 18th century? How did they affect the development of Russian society?

2 What were the main directions of the domestic policy of Elizabeth Petrovna?

3 What are the results of Russia's participation in the Seven Years' War?

Topic 6.3 Russia in the second half XVIII century

The student must:

Know:

Features of the policy of enlightened absolutism in Russia;

Be able to:

Describe the reforms of Catherine II;

Describe the personality of the Empress;

To evaluate the results of Catherine's reign;

Give an assessment of the uprising led by E. Pugachev.

Basic provisions

"Enlightened absolutism" of Catherine II. Uprising led by Yemelyan

Pugachev. The nature and direction of the reforms of Catherine the Great. Paul I - personality characteristics and the main directions of his policy. Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the 18th century. Russia's access to the Black Sea.

Sections of the Commonwealth and the entry of Ukrainian and Belarusian lands into Russia. Russian culture in the middle of the XVIII century. Ideas of the Enlightenment and enlightened society in Russia. Achievements of architecture and fine arts.

Questions for self-control:

1 Describe the main directions of the state policy of Catherine II.

2 What were the features of the Russian version of the policy of "enlightened absolutism"?

3 What kind of wars did Russia wage in the 18th century?

4 What were the features of the development of Poland in the XVIII century? What allowed Russia, Prussia and Austria to divide this state?

5 Describe the changes that have taken place in the position of class groups in Russian society.

6 What cultural achievements were typical in Russia in the 18th century?

Section 7 The Rise of the Industrial Civilization of the West

Topic 7.1 Different European models of transition from traditional to industrial society

The student must:

Know:

Concepts of revolution and reforms, civil society, conservatism. liberalism, socialism;

Be able to:

Describe the revolutions in Europe in the 19th century;

Explain the main requirements, forms of organization, the effectiveness of reforms;

Explain the process of unification of Germany and Italy;

Name the main events of the American Civil War.

Basic provisions

Options for the political reorganization of society: reform or revolution. European revolutions of the 19th century. Reform movements: demands, forms of organization, results. Change in the ideological and legal foundations of statehood. Unification processes in Europe and America. Unification of Germany and Italy. American Civil War.

Questions for self-control:

1 What ideas and demands were defended by the participants in European revolutions? To what extent have they been implemented?

2 What political changes took place in Europe in the second half of the 19th century?

3 Why do you think Britain managed to avoid revolutionary upheavals?

4 Why did the victory of the North in the American Civil War stimulate the industrial development of the country?

Topic 7.2 The development of capitalist relations and the social structure of industrial society in XIX century

The student must:

Know:

The concepts of "middle class", the scientific picture of the world, industrial society;

Be able to:

Characterize the social composition of society in Western countries;

To characterize changes in the lifestyle and worldview of a person in an industrial society;

Give examples of changes in the understanding of the world.

Basic provisions

The social composition of society: old and new components. Nobility. Middle class. Peasantry. Proletariat. Village society. Urban population: quantitative growth, new way of life, new forms of activity. City family. Movement for the emancipation of women. Weekdays and holidays of citizens. The worldview of a person in an industrial society. Faith in progress and the cult of "positive" knowledge. Formation of the classical scientific picture of the world.

Questions for self-control:

1 What changes took place in the social composition of society in the 19th century?

2 How has the urban and rural population changed?

3 Define the middle class, industrial society.

4 Thanks to what achievements in various branches of science was the evolutionary picture of the world formed?

5 Describe the life of an average European urban family at the beginning of the 19th century, at the end of the 19th century.

6 Explain why the main scientific discoveries and inventions were made in European countries and the USA.

Section 8 The Process of Modernization in the Traditional Societies of the East

The student must:

Know:

The concept of colonial empires;

Be able to:

Describe the process of colonization of the countries of the East and Africa;

Explain the content of the "Eastern Question";

Compare options for the reaction of the civilizations of the East to the expansion of the West;

Evaluate colonization.

Basic provisions

Variants of the reaction of the civilizations of the East to the expansion of the West . Colonial rivalry and its significance. Creation of colonial empires, forms of their organization. Exploration of Africa. The fate of India. "Eastern question" from the point of view of intercivilizational dialogue. The Suez Canal problem. Modernization attempts in the Ottoman Empire. Japan: from self-isolation to the practice of modernization. China's policy in the struggle to preserve its identity.

Questions for self-control:

1 Formulate the features of colonialism on the example of the policy of England in India.

2 Describe the situation of the Indian population. Specify the reasons for the uprising of the sepoys. How did the rebellion affect British colonial policy in India?

3 Identify the main stages of the colonization of China. What role did the Opium Wars play in subjugating China?

4 Why did Japan manage to avoid being enslaved by industrialized countries?

Section 9 Russia in XIX century

Topic 9.1. Russia in the first half XIX in

The student must:

Know:

Features of the reign of Alexander I and Nicholas I;

Be able to:

Describe the national question in Russia;

To characterize the problems of the socio-economic and political development of Russia in the first half of the 19th century;

Describe the reform attempts of Alexander I;

Explain the reasons for the Decembrist uprising;

To assess the reign of Alexander I;

Describe the policy of Nicholas I;

Describe the socio-political ideas of the middle of the XIX century.

Basic provisions

Territory and population of the empire. Features of Russian colonization. The role of the geographical factor in the socio-economic and political development of Russia. national question. social structure. Reforms at the beginning of the reign of Alexander I. The problem of the relationship between education and autocracy. noble conservatism. aristocratic opposition. Ideological struggle. MM. Speransky. Russia in 1815-1825 constitutional projects. Reasons for the failure of the reforms of Alexander I. A.A. Arakcheev. military settlements. Social movement. Decembrists. Nicholas I. Change of political priorities. The role of the bureaucracy. official nationalism. Conservatism in the state-legal and ideological spheres. The crisis of the ideology of autocracy.

Questions for self-control:

1 Describe the policy of Alexander I. Why were the reforms he planned not implemented?

2 What were the main demands of the Decembrists?

3 What were the features of the policy of Nicholas I? What methods did he seek to strengthen the Russian Empire? Where do you see the limitations of his policy?

Topic 9.2 Alexander's foreign policy I and Nicholas I

The student must:

Know:

Dates of the main foreign policy events of the first half of the 19th century;

Be able to:

Describe the Patriotic War of 1812;

Name the battles of the Patriotic War;

Give an assessment of the battle at Borodino;

Characterize the "Eastern Question" in Russia's foreign policy;

Describe Russia's participation in the Crimean War;

Give an assessment of Russia's defeat in the war.

Basic provisions

Geopolitical position of Russia at the beginning of the 19th century. The main directions and principles of foreign policy. Anti-French coalitions and the Patriotic War of 1812. Europe after Napoleon. "Holy Union" and

legitimacy ideals. Fight against the Ottoman Empire. Russia and the Christian peoples of the Balkan Peninsula. The Russian Empire and the Muslim peoples of the Caucasus. Caucasian war Transcaucasia in the policy of the Russian Empire: the struggle with Iran for territories and influence. The entry of Transcaucasia into Russia. Russia and European revolutions of 1830-1831, 1848-1849 The Crimean War and the collapse of the Vienna system.

Questions for self-control:

1 How did Napoleon Bonaparte come to power in France?

2 What were the reasons for the success of France during the Napoleonic Wars?

3 Why did Napoleon fail to solve his problems in the war with Russia?

4 Why did the Napoleonic empire fail?

5 What principles underlay the reorganization of Europe at the Congress of Vienna?

6 Expand the essence of the "Eastern Question" in the international politics of the XIX century. What position did Russia take towards Turkey?

7 What goals did the European states pursue in the Middle East?

8 Tell us about the Crimean War and its consequences for Russia.

Topic 9.3 Intellectual and artistic life of Russia in the first half XIX in

The student must:

Know:

The concepts of "official nationality", Westernism, Slavophilism;

To characterize the socio-political struggle in the philosophy and literature of the 19th century;

Give examples of the achievements of literature, musical culture, painting, architecture, theater

Basic provisions

Russian Phenomenon: Philosophy, Literature and Literary Criticism Instead of Political Struggle. political ideals. Socio-political struggle. Slavophiles. Westerners. Government ideology: the theory of "official nationality". The development of science and technology in Russia in the first half of the XIX century. Discoveries and technical inventions. Literature and book publishing. Musical culture. Painting. Architecture. Theatre.

Questions for self-control:

1 What moods existed in Russian society in the middle of the 19th century?

2 What were the features of Westernism, Slavophilism and revolutionary democratic trends in the social and political thought of Russia?

3 What is the essence of the theory of official nationality?

4 Why did literature in Russia influence public life to a much greater extent than in the West? Give examples of such influence.

5 What directions and currents of artistic culture were common to Russia and the West?

6 What do you know about the leading theaters of Russia in the 19th century, their repertoire, famous actors?

Topic 9.4 Russia in the era of Alexander's great reforms II

The student must:

Know:

Be able to:

Describe the reasons for the reforms;

To characterize the content of the peasant reform of 1861;

To characterize the content of the judicial, zemstvo and military reforms;

Give an assessment of the reforms, their historical significance;

Explain the goals of the populist movement and the organization "Narodnaya Volya";

Evaluate revolutionary terror

Basic provisions

Russia after the Crimean War. Alexander II. Preparation of the peasant reform. Abolition of serfdom. Judicial, zemstvo and military reforms. financial transformation. Reforms in education and the press. The results of the reforms, their historical significance. Liberals and conservatives in power. reaction to the Polish uprising. Features of state-political conservatism in the second half of the XIX century. Russian liberalism. Socialist ideas in Russia. Russian radicals: from nihilism to rebels, propagandists and conspirators. From populist circles to "Narodnaya Volya". Government repression and revolutionary terror. Regicide March 1, 1881 and its consequences.

Questions for self-control:

1 What were the stages of the formation of serfdom in Russia?

2 Why is the peasant reform considered the most important in the chain of transformations of Alexander II?

3 Why did liberal reforms not cause appeasement in society, and the expectation of further reforms activated the revolutionary forces?

4 How did Russia's backwardness manifest itself at the end of the 19th century?

5 What was the essence of revolutionary terror?

6 Why did populism transform into a terrorist organization?

Topic 9.5 Post-reform Russia

The student must:

Know:

Be able to:

Describe the industrial revolution in Russia;

Explain changes in the social structure of Russian society;

Characterize the ideology of autocracy and social movements;

To assess the class and national policy of the government;

Describe the geopolitical interests of the Russian Empire in the world.

Basic provisions

Society and the state. Completion of the industrial revolution. Society and the market. Urbanization. Changes in the social structure of society in the conditions of industrial development. Formation of new layers. bourgeoisie and proletariat. Conservative course of Alexander III. Restriction of reforms. Tightening censorship. Class and national policy of the government. Ideology of autocracy. K.P. Pobedonostsev. Social movement: the first Marxists. Russia in the system of international relations in the second half of the 19th century.

Questions for self-control:

1 Describe the domestic policy of Alexander III. Compare it to your father's policy.

2 What does the concept of counter-reform mean?

3 Describe the policy of the autocracy in the national question.

4 How was the spread of Marxism in Russia?

Topic 9.6 Intellectual and artistic life of post-reform Russia

The student must:

Know:

Achievements of science and technology, literature, musical culture, painting,

architecture, theatre;

Be able to:

Conduct examples of the intellectual and artistic life of post-reform Russia.

Basic provisions

Great reforms and Russian culture. Changes in the education system: colleges, schools, gymnasiums, universities. Women's education. Book publishing. The growth of national consciousness. Development of science and technology. The Golden Age of Russian Literature. Musical culture. Painting. Architecture. Theatre. Daily life of the population of Russia in the XIX century.

Questions for self-control:

1 What were the main achievements in the development of education in the 19th century?

2 How did book publishing develop?

3 How has national consciousness changed?

4 Why is the 19th century called the "golden age" of Russian culture? Name the writers of that time.

5 What significant phenomena of musical culture belong to the 19th century?

6 How has people's daily lives changed?

Section 10 From New History to the Newest.

Topic 10.1 International relations at the beginning XX century

The student must:

Know:

Changes in the system of international relations at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries;

Be able to:

Describe colonial empires;

Assess the rise of Germany and the United States;

Explain the position of Russia in the system of international relations;

Characterize the beginning of the struggle for the redivision of the world;

Describe the formation of two hostile alliances;

Basic provisions

Changes in the system of international relations at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. Colonial empires of Great Britain and France. The rise of Germany and the USA. Territorial expansion of Japan. Russia in the system of international relations. The beginning of the struggle for the redivision of the world. The formation of two opposing military blocs of powers: the Triple Alliance and the Entente.

Questions for self-control:

1 Which countries considered themselves to be great powers and which regions were their colonies?

2 How did the colonial division of the world take place?

3 What were the first local wars for the colonies at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries?

4 What military blocs began to form at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries? Which countries were part of the Triple Alliance and the Entente?

Topic 10.2 Russia at the beginning XX century

The student must:

Know:

Features of the political, economic and social development of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century;

Dates of the first Russian revolution;

Be able to:

Describe the political structure of the Russian Empire;

To characterize the need to modernize the economy and the state system;

To characterize the economic reforms of S.Yu. Witte;

Explain the causes of the first Russian revolution;

Evaluate the consequences of the revolution;

Characterize the reforms of P.A. Stolypin and their results;

Describe foreign policy.

Basic provisions

Social and demographic composition of Russian society. The crisis of class division. Russian legal system. Code of Laws of the Russian Empire. State. Features of the Russian monarchy. Ministry system. The formation of Russian parliamentarism. State Duma and State Council. Local government. Public life. Revolution of 1905-1907: social order for modernization or protest against it. Economic reforms S.Yu. Witte and P.A. Stolypin. Russia in the system of international relations. Problems of catch-up modernization. Foreign policy of Russia. Russo-Japanese War.

Questions for self-control:

1 Describe the main trends in the development of the Russian economy.

2 What place did Russia occupy in the world economy?

3 What economic reforms did Prime Minister S.Yu. Witte carry out at the beginning of the 20th century?

4 What political system existed in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century?

5 What impact did the Russo-Japanese War have on the development of Russia?

6 What were the reasons for the revolutionary events of 1905-1907? in Russia? What segments of the population took part in them?

7 What were the results of the revolution of 1905-1907? in various areas of society?

8 Describe the Stolypin reforms and their results.

Topic 10.3 World War I

The student must:

Know:

Origins, causes, nature of the First World War;

Chronology of the First World War;

Describe the beginning of the war and the main events on the Western and Eastern fronts;

Evaluate the events of the First World War;

Explain the impact of war on the political situation of the warring countries.

Basic provisions

Origins and causes. Features of military conflicts in the XX century. The total nature of the war. The course of hostilities. Western and Eastern front. The death of traditional military-administrative empires.

Questions for self-control:

1 What were the causes of World War I?

2 What were the goals of the warring countries at the beginning of the war? Have they been achieved?

3 What were the most important battles of the First World War?

4 What changes did the First World War lead to in the warring countries?

5 Why did Germany and its allies fail?

Topic 10.4 Russia in World War I

The student must:

Know:

Chronology of the February Revolution in Russia;

Be able to:

Explain the causes and consequences of the revolution;

Describe the policy of dual power

Basic provisions

The impact of war on society. Changes in the social structure. Disproportions in the state system, economy and politics. The army and society: a skewed relationship. State and public organizations: attempts at mutual integration; intentions and results. Changing the legal system. February Revolution in Russia. Causes and course of the revolution. The evolution of power and society from February to October 1917. Dual power. Crises of the Provisional Government. Reasons for radicalization

society. Constituent Assembly: expectation, activity, result.

Questions for self-control:

1 What are the causes of the February Revolution in Russia?

2 What changes in the political system of Russia took place between February 1917 and January 1918?

3 Describe the policy of the Provisional Government. What are the results of his activities?

4 What alternatives to the country's political development did Russia face in the autumn of 1917?

Topic 10.5 The rise of the Bolsheviks to power in Russia

The student must:

Know:

Chronology of the revolutionary events of October 1917;

Be able to:

Describe the causes of the revolution;

To characterize the first reforms of the Soviet government, the formation of a new political system;

Give an assessment and significance of the revolution of October 1917;

Describe the position of Soviet Russia in the international arena;

To assess the conclusion of the Brest-Litovsk peace.

Basic provisions

Disputes about October 1917: the logical development of the February events or a "conspiracy"? The first steps of the Soviet power. Transformation of pre-revolutionary ideas of the Bolsheviks. Formation of a one-party system. Formation of a new legal system: from the first decrees to the Constitution of 1918. State device. Replacement of constitutional authorities with emergency ones. Centralization of power. One party system. Economy. "War Communism". Soviet Russia in the international arena. Exit from the First World War. Brest peace. Military intervention of the Entente countries. Isolation of Soviet Russia. Comintern. "Export of the Revolution".

Questions for self-control:

1 How do you explain the ease with which the Bolsheviks came to power?

2 Describe the first steps of the Soviet government.

3 What prompted the Bolshevik government to conclude the Brest peace? What were its consequences?

5 What are the reasons for the intervention of the Entente countries on the territory of Soviet Russia?

6 How did the relations of Soviet Russia with foreign countries develop?

Topic 10.6 Russian Civil War

The student must:

Know:

Chronology of the Civil War in Russia;

Be able to:

Name the main participants in the war;

Evaluate the results of the war.

Basic provisions

Causes, actors, political programs of the parties. Red and white terror. Reasons for the defeat of the anti-Bolshevik forces. Russian emigration.

Questions for self-control:

1 What are the causes and operating forces in the civil war in Russia?

2 How can one explain the long and bloody nature of the civil war in Russia?

3 Describe the main stages of the civil war?

4 Who were called red and white? What is red and white terror?

5 What were the reasons for the defeat of the Entente and the White movement in Russia?

Section 11 The World Between the World Wars

Topic 11.1 European countries in the 20-30s XX in.

The student must:

Know:

The concepts of totalitarianism, fascism, the global economic crisis;

Be able to:

Describe the post-war crisis in the West;

Give an assessment of the political and economic development of Germany in the 30s. XX century.

Basic provisions

Post-war crisis in the West. Social theories. The decline of conservatism. Small countries face the need for accelerated modernization. The system of catch-up development. Marginalization of the masses. The rise of fascism. The triumphal march of authoritarian regimes. Stabilization 1925-1929 West in the 30s 20th century World economic crisis and the Great Depression: origins, development, consequences. Military conjuncture and spontaneous restructuring of the economy of the leading world powers. STP "locomotive of overproduction". Various ways to overcome the crisis. The collapse of the Weimar Republic and German National Socialism. Totalitarianism.

Questions for self-control:

1 What were the causes of the world economic crisis in the 1920s?

2 What are the activities of F.D. Roosevelt was allowed to overcome the crisis in the United States?

3 What are the reasons for the emergence of totalitarianism in European countries?

4 What is totalitarianism, totalitarian state?

5 What slogans did the fascist leaders put forward?

Topic 11.2 International relations in the 20-30s. XX century

The student must:

Know:

Be able to:

Describe the centers of aggression in Europe and Asia;

Describe the policy of "appeasement" of the aggressors;

Explain revanchist sentiments in Germany;

Basic provisions

The crisis of the Versailles-Washington system. The League of nations. USSR how-

the leading factor in world politics. Consequences of the global economic crisis in the international arena. The emergence of hotbeds of aggression in Europe and Asia. American neutrality and impotence of European guarantors of peace. The emergence and consolidation of the revanchist bloc. The policy of "appeasement" of the aggressors. Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact.

Questions for self-control:

1 How did Russia's role in international life change in the 1930s?

2 How did the growing military threat manifest itself in the 1930s?

3 Which states were hotbeds of aggression in Europe and Asia?

4 What was the policy of appeasing the aggressors? By whom and why was it carried out?

5 What prevented the creation of an effective security system in Europe in the 1930s?

6 Describe the role of the USSR in creating a system of collective security in Europe.

Topic 11.3 Building socialism in the USSR: modernization on the basis of traditionalism

11.3.1 Crisis of "war communism", transition to the New Economic Policy

The student must:

Know:

The concept of "war communism", repression, NEP;

Date of formation of the USSR;

Be able to:

Describe the essence of "war communism";

Explain the reasons for the transition to the NEP;

Characterize the essence of the NEP;

Describe domestic construction;

Give an assessment of the formation of the USSR and the adoption of the Constitution of 1924;

Explain the content of the inner-party struggle;

Give an assessment of the formation of Stalin's sole power;

Characterize Stalin's personality cult and mass repressions.

Basic provisions

The crisis of "war communism", the transition to the New Economic Policy. NEP: essence and directions. Gradual departure from the ideas of "world revolution". Priorities of internal state construction. Education of the USSR. Choice of merging paths. Constitution of the USSR 1924 The main directions of national-state building. Centralization of the state apparatus. The main directions of the social and state development of the USSR in the 20-30s. Intra-Party Struggle: Discussions on the Ways of Socialist Modernization of Society. The formation of the sole power of I.V. Stalin. Cult of personality. The fight against dissent. Mass repression.

Questions for self-control:

1 What is the essence of the new economic policy?

2 What are the reasons for the transition to the NEP?

3 How did the NEP make it possible to quickly restore the main economic indicators of the country?

4 On what grounds was the USSR created?

5 How was the centralization of the state apparatus carried out?

6 How did Stalin manage to concentrate enormous power in his hands?

7 What is repression? What are their reasons?

11.3.2 The development of the USSR economy in the late 20-30s

The student must:

Know:

The concepts of industrialization, collectivization;

Be able to:

Explain the reasons for the forced modernization in the USSR;

Describe industrialization and

collectivization;

Give an assessment of the economic course

Evaluate the foreign policy of the USSR

Basic provisions

The development of the economy of the USSR in the late 20-30s. Forced modernization. Reasons for the collapse of the NEP. Industrialization. Collectivization. The ratio of traditionalism in social life and modernism in the economy. Successes and shortcomings of the economic course. Foreign policy of the USSR in the 20-30s: from confrontation to the search for contacts. Attempts to return to the borders of the Russian Empire: the Soviet-Finnish war, the annexation of the Baltic states, Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina,

Western Ukraine and Western Belarus.

Questions for self-control:

1 What external and internal reasons caused forced modernization in the USSR?

2 What are the reasons for the curtailment of the NEP?

3 Why did Stalin call 1929 "the year of the great turning point"?

4 How does the economic policy of the Soviet state characterize its totalitarian nature?

5 Describe the policy of collectivization and its results?

6 What are the sources of industrialization of the country?

7 What are the results of the accelerated development of the USSR economy?

8 How did the Stalinist leadership return the pre-revolutionary borders of Russia? What is the significance of the Soviet-German pact and the secret protocols to it?

Section 12 World War II

Topic 12.1 World War II: causes, course, meaning

The student must:

Know:

Chronology of the Second World War;

Major battles of World War II;

Participants and military blocs;

Be able to:

Explain the causes of the war;

Describe the war in Europe;

To assess the decisive role of the USSR in the fight against fascism;

Describe the military actions of the allies.

Basic provisions

Reasons and move. "Strange War" Wehrmacht Blitzkrieg. Changes in the system of international relations with the entry into the war of the USSR and the USA. Anti-Hitler coalition. Lend-Lease. Military operations in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, in Africa and Asia. "Second Front" in Europe. Technology war. The world order of Yalta and Potsdam. The emergence of a bipolar world.

Questions for self-control:

1 List the main events of the beginning of World War II.

2 What is meant by "strange war"?

3 What were the successes of Germany at the initial stage of the war?

4 How was the anti-Hitler coalition formed?

5 How did international relations change after the USSR entered the war?

6 How was the issue of a "second front" resolved during the war?

7 Name the most important Allied conferences and their decisions.

Topic 12.2 USSR in the Great Patriotic War

The student must:

Know:

Chronological framework of the Great Patriotic War;

The main battles of the Second World War;

Be able to:

Characterize the battles and military operations of the USSR in the Second World War;

Explain the decisive role of the USSR in the defeat of fascism;

Explain the meaning and price of the Victory in the Second World War;

Describe the results of the Second World War;

Basic provisions

USSR in the first period of the Great Patriotic War (1941-early 1942). USSR in the turning point of the war (1942-1943) . USSR and anti-fascist coalition. USSR at the final stage. Second World War. The decisive role of the USSR in the defeat of Nazism. The meaning and price of the Victory in the Great Patriotic War. USSR and the results of the Second World War.

Questions for self-control:

1 What were the reasons for the victory of the USSR in the Great Patriotic War?

2 What caused the rapid and effective transition of the Soviet economy to a war footing?

3 What are the reasons for the victory of Soviet troops near Moscow?

4 Define the anti-fascist coalition. What united the states that entered it?

5 What should be understood as a radical change in the Great Patriotic and World War II?

6 What is the significance and role of the Battle of Stalingrad in the Great Patriotic War?

7 What is the significance of the Battle of Kursk for the course of the Great Patriotic War?

8 Describe the role of the Soviet Union in the liberation of the countries of Eastern Europe.

9 Why did the USSR enter the war with militaristic Japan? What role did he play in its defeat?

10 What losses did the USSR suffer during the struggle against Nazi Germany and its allies?

11 What were the results of World War II?

Topic 12.3 Society and war

The student must:

To characterize the attitude towards the war of various social groups;

Characterize Soviet culture and ideology during the war years;

Describe the partisan movement;

Evaluate the role of the Soviet rear.

Basic provisions

Attitudes towards the war of various national, cultural and social groups. Propaganda and counter-propaganda. Soviet culture and ideology during the war. Everyday life at the front and in the rear Partisan movement. National Policy. The role of the Soviet rear. Political system. The militarization of the apparatus. Economic management in wartime.

Questions for self-control:

1 What is the attitude towards the war of various social groups in the USSR?

2 How did culture and ideology develop during the war years?

3 What national policy did the Soviet leadership pursue during the war years?

4 What role did the labor front play in defeating the invaders?

Section 13 The World in the Second Half XX century

Topic 13.1 Cold War

The student must:

Know:

The concept of "cold war";

Be able to:

Characterize the bipolar world, the arms race;

Assess the Cold War

Basic provisions

Superpowers: USA and USSR. Creation of the image of the enemy. Contradictions: geopolitics or ideology? Arms race and local conflicts. military blocs. Two Europes - two worlds. The collapse of the colonial system. Military and political crises in the framework of the Cold War. The collapse of the bipolar world.

Questions for self-control:

1 What contradictions arose between the allies after World War II?

2 What is the essence of the Cold War?

3 What were the goals of the Marshall Plan? What was the attitude towards him in European countries?

4 How did the nuclear confrontation between the USSR and the USA develop?

5 What military-political blocs appeared in the world in the 1940s-1950s?

6 How was the division of Europe into two opposing camps?

7 What are the first crises of the bipolar system? Describe the military conflict in Korea?

Topic 13.2 Scientific and technological progress

The student must:

Know:

The concept of scientific and technological progress

Be able to:

To characterize scientific and technical progress in various areas of life;

Give examples of transformations

Basic provisions

Transport revolution. Qualitatively new level of energy availability of society, nuclear power. Breakthrough into space. Development of means of communication. Computer, information networks and electronic media. Modern biotechnologies. Automated production. Industry and nature. Formation of a new scientific picture of the world. Dehumanization of art. Technocracy and irrationalism in the public mind.

Questions for self-control:

1 What is the scientific and technological revolution? What are its reasons?

2 What impact did the scientific and technological revolution have on the economic, social and spiritual development of countries in the second half of the 19th century?

3 Why was the mass use of new high technologies an indicator of state power?

Section 14 of the USSR in 1945-1991

Topic 14.1 The USSR in the post-war period: the deepening of traditional principles in Soviet society

The student must:

Know:

The specifics of the post-war restoration of the economy.

Be able to:

Describe post-war modernization;

Identify pros and cons;

Explain the role of the Gulag in the Soviet economy;

Describe national policy;

To assess Stalin's personality cult;

To evaluate the foreign policy of the USSR;

Explain the international position of the USSR in the post-war world.

Basic provisions

Restoration of the economy. Influence of the international situation on the direction of economic development. Pros and cons of Soviet post-war modernization. GULAG in the system of the Soviet economy. Contradictions between the economic development of the state and the position of the individual. Strengthening of traditionalism in public life. Integration of communist ideology into the system of traditional values. National Policy. Strengthening ethno-cultural unification. The apogee of Stalin's personality cult.

political processes. The place of the USSR in the post-war world. The impact of the Cold War on the economy and foreign policy. Soviet

Union and "Stalinization" of the countries of "people's democracy".

Questions for self-control:

1 What are the specifics of the post-war restoration of the USSR?

2 Why did the repressions in the USSR continue after the war?

3 What was the apogee of Stalin's personality cult?

4 What place did the USSR occupy in the post-war world?

Topic 14.2 The Soviet Union in the period of partial liberalization of the regime

The student must:

Know:

Main events of the reign period

N.S. Khrushchev;

Be able to:

Describe the struggle for power after Stalin's death;

To assess the criticism of Stalin's personality cult at the 20th Congress of the CPSU;

Characterize economic transformations;

Describe the cultural life of the thaw period;

To evaluate the reforms of N.S. Khrushchev;

Describe the foreign policy of the USSR in the 1950s-1960s.

Basic provisions

Struggle for power after Stalin's death. The coming to power of N.S. Khrushchev. Attempts to overcome the cult of personality. XX Congress of the CPSU. Liberalization

above. The concept of building communism. Reform of the state apparatus. Increasing the role of law in the life of society. Cultural life of society. "Thaw". Economic reforms of the 1950s-1960s, the reasons for their failures. Industry: slowdown in modernization. Elements of voluntarism in agriculture. Foreign policy of the USSR. socialist camp. Conflicts due to "de-Stalinization". Liberalization of foreign policy. Attempts to dialogue with the West. international crises.

Questions for self-control:

1 What is the historical significance of the XX Congress of the CPSU?

2 What is the essence of the reforms of the state apparatus?

3 What was the essence of the economic reforms of the 1950s and 1960s?

4 What are the consequences of N.S. Khrushchev?

5 Explain the concept of "thaw".

6 What are the origins and lessons of the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962? What impact did he have on relations between the USSR and the USA?

Topic 14.3 USSR in the late 1960s - early 1980s

The student must:

Know:

The main events of the period of L.I. Brezhnev;

Be able to:

To characterize the political and economic development of the USSR;

To assess the economic reforms of A.N. Kosygin;

Explain the concepts of developed socialism, dissident movement;

Characterize the political apathy of society (“stagnation”);

Identify the problems of the country's economic development in the late 70s - early

To characterize attempts to solve problems during the reign of Yu.V. Andropov;

To characterize the foreign policy of the USSR in the 60-70s;

Explain the concept of "discharge";

Give an assessment of the war in Afghanistan.

Basic provisions

Socio-political development of the USSR. "Neo-Stalinism". Ideologization of the regime. The theory of developed socialism. Political apathy of society. dissident and human rights movement. Economy of the USSR. The role of raw materials. Dependence on Western high technologies. The dependence of agriculture on public investment. Modernization attempts: A.N. Kosygin. Decline in the pace of development in relation to Western countries. Yu.V. Andropov and an attempt at an administrative solution to crisis problems. International position. Attempts to preserve the existing world order in the early 70s. "Discharge". Improved relations with the West. Helsinki Accords. The aggravation of relations in the late 70s - early 80s. War in Afghanistan. The final stage of the Cold War.

Questions for self-control:

1 What were the manifestations of the crisis in the Soviet economy in the 1970s and the first half of the 1980s?

2 What is the theory of "developed socialism"?

3 Why is the reign of L.I. Brezhnev is called the era of "stagnation"?

4 What was the international position of the USSR in the 60s - 70s?

5 What were the causes of the Prague Spring? How did these events affect the development of the USSR and other socialist countries. camps?

6 What are the reasons for the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan?

Topic 14.4 USSR during perestroika

The student must:

Know:

Major events in the USSR during perestroika;

The concepts of perestroika, glasnost, democratization, cost accounting;

Be able to:

Explain the reasons for the reforms of M.S. Gorbachev;

Characterize the crisis of the Soviet model of socialism;

Give examples of crisis phenomena;

Describe economic and political reforms;

Evaluate transformations and their significance;

To characterize the position of the USSR in the system of international relations;

Assess the end of the Cold War;

Characterize the collapse of the perestroika policy;

Assess the collapse of the USSR.

Basic provisions

Reasons for the reforms of M.S. Gorbachev. The crisis of the classical Soviet model of socialism. Attempts at economic modernization. Acceleration, glasnost, democratization. Deepening economic reforms. device resistance. The incompatibility of the liberal economy and the command-administrative system. Changes in the legal and state system. Rejection of Soviet traditionalism in favor of Western liberalism. USSR in the system of international relations. End of the Cold War. Rapprochement with the USA and Western Europe. The collapse of the socialist camp. End of the war in Afghanistan. The end of the bipolar world. The collapse of the perestroika policy. The collapse of the USSR: causes, objective and subjective factors, consequences.

Questions for self-control:

1 What were the reasons for perestroika in the USSR?

2 What has changed in the USSR under the influence of "glasnost"?

3 What economic and political reforms were carried out during the perestroika period?

4 What were the reasons for the emergence of mass national movements?

5 Why was the main political demand in the early 1990s was the abolition of the 6th article of the Constitution of the USSR?

6 Why did the concept of “parade of sovereignties” appear?

8 What were the reasons for the collapse of the USSR? Was this collapse inevitable?

Section 15 Russia and the world at the turn XX - XXI

centuries.

Topic 15.1 The Russian Federation at the present stage

The student must:

Know:

The main events in the history of the Russian Federation at the present stage;

Be able to:

To characterize the formation of the state-legal system;

Give an assessment of the 1993 crisis. and the adoption of a new Constitution;

Describe economic reforms;

Explain the concepts of liberalization, "shock therapy", privatization;

Evaluate the transition to the market.

Basic provisions

Formation of a new Russian state-legal system. Parliamentary or presidential model. Political crisis in 1993 The Constitution of the Russian Federation. The system of separation of powers. The president. State

Thought. principles of federalism. Presidential elections of 2000 and 2004 a course towards strengthening statehood, economic recovery, social and political stability, strengthening national security.

Economy. Transition to market relations: reforms and their consequences. Pros and cons of forced liberal modernization. Recessions and rises of the Russian economy, their causes and consequences for society. The role of raw materials. Russian economy in the world economic system.

Questions for self-control:

1 What economic reforms were carried out in Russia in 1992?

2 What was the essence of the confrontation between the president and the Supreme Council in 1992-1993?

3 When was the new Constitution of the Russian Federation adopted?

4 What economic problems did Russian society face in the second half of the 1990s?

5 What caused the Chechen war?

5 Determine the cause and effect of the August 1998 financial crisis.

6 What changes did the “team” of V.V. Putin during his presidency?

7 Who won the 2008 presidential election? How has the power structure changed?

Topic 15.2 World in XXI century

The student must:

Know:

The concept of globalism and anti-globalism;

Be able to:

Characterize the world economy and politics in the 21st century;

Give examples of new technologies;

Explain the reasons for the conflict between the traditional way of life and modernization;

Describe the growth of fundamentalist sentiment;

To characterize the role of Russia in the world integration processes.

Basic provisions

Fundamentals of the functioning of the information economy. The crisis of traditional industries. Environmental issues. Globalism and anti-globalism. Resource conflicts. Technologies of the future. Third World countries. Successes and achievements. The conflict of the traditional way of life and modernization trends. Growth of fundamentalist sentiments. Russia in the world integration processes and the formation of a modern international legal system. Russia's integration into the Western space. Relapses of the Cold War. Russia's place in international relations.

Questions for self-control:

1 What are the main trends in the development of modern society?

2 What reasons contributed to the fact that at the beginning of the XXI century international terrorism has become one of the main global problems?

3 What is Russia's place in the world economy and international politics?

4 What is the significance of the activities of international organizations?

2 TASKS FOR CONTROL WORK

Option 1

Question 1. Ancient East and Antique World. The beginning of transformations by man of nature. early civilizations. States in the East. The emergence of ancient civilization. aristocracy and democracy. Roman world of the Mediterranean.

List the main features of civilization. How is Western civilization different from Eastern?

Question 2. The Russian state in the XIV-XV centuries. New political centers of Russia: from fragmentation to unification. Rise of Moscow. Dmitry Donskoy. Russia and the successor states of the Golden Horde.

What were the features of the process of state unification of Russian lands?

Question 3. The Russian State in the First Half of the 19th Century. Pavel I. The reign of Alexander I. The reign of Nicholas I. The state and the peasant question in the first half of the 19th century. Public sentiment at the beginning of the 19th century. Decembrists. In search of a state ideology. Westernizers and Slavophiles.

To what extent did the reforms of Alexander I continue the trend of modernizing Russia pursued by his predecessors?

Question 4. Civil war in Russia. Causes and features of the civil war in Russia. time frame of the civil war. The war of the Bolsheviks against the Mensheviks and Socialist-Revolutionaries. Reds against whites. "War Communism" and its consequences.

What are the reasons for the victory of the Bolsheviks in the civil war.

Question 5. Bipolar World and the Cold War. Origins of the Cold War. The split of Europe. Formation of NATO and the Warsaw Pact. The beginning of a nuclear confrontation. First conflict: the Korean War. Relations of the USSR with Western countries in the mid-1950s - early 1960s.

Who do you think is responsible for the emergence of the Cold War?

Option 2

Question 1. The birth of European medieval civilization. Late Roman Empire. The Great Migration of Nations and the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The influence of antiquity on political life and law in the Middle Ages. The influence of antiquity on the culture of the Middle Ages. barbarian peoples. Christianity and its influence on the formation of new European states.

What were the causes of the Great Migration? Why did the Romans fail to keep the barbarians on the borders of their empire?

Question 2. The Russian state in the XV - XVI centuries. From Russia to Russia. The reign of Ivan III. Centralization of state power. Russian Orthodox Church. The economic rise of Russia. The formation of estates.

How do you understand the political significance of the idea “Moscow is the third Rome”?

Question 3. Reforms of 1860-1870s in Russia. A new frontier in the history of Russia. peasant reform. Abolition of serfdom. Reforms of the 1860-1870s: Zemstvo, military, judicial. The fate and significance of reforms. Economic policy of the state in the era of reforms. Development of agriculture and industry.

Why is the peasant reform of 1861 considered the most important in the transformations of Alexander II?

Question 4. From the Russian Republic of Soviets to the USSR. Revolution of 1917 and the national question. Creation of the Russian Federation. Education of the USSR. Organization of authorities in the USSR.

What are the features of the national policy in the USSR?

Question 5. Socialism in Eastern Europe. Establishment of pro-Soviet regimes in Europe after the Second World War. Yugoslav model of socialism. Division of Germany. Events of 1956 in Poland and Hungary. "Prague Spring".

What goals did the Stalinist leadership pursue in supporting the communist regimes in Eastern Europe?

Option 3

Question 1. Western European countries in the early Middle Ages . Nature and economy of Western Europe. barbarian kingdoms. Empire of Charlemagne. Feudal property and vassal relations. Western Europe in the era of feudal fragmentation. Estates of feudal society. Catholic Church.

List the main features of feudalism. What are the causes of feudal fragmentation?

Question 2. Russia between East and West . Mongolian state and its conquests. Mongol invasion of Eastern and Central Europe. Invasion of Russia. Russia under the rule of the Golden Horde. Russia between the Mongols and the West. Alexander Nevskiy.

What was the significance of the struggle of the peoples of Russia against the Mongol invasion for the fate of medieval European civilization?

Question 3. Age of Enlightenment. Revolution in natural science. Social ideas of the Age of Enlightenment. enlightened absolutism.

How do you understand the term "Enlightenment"? Why can we speak of the 18th century as the Age of Enlightenment?

Question 4. Crisis of 1918-1920s in European countries. End of the First World War. Paris conference and its decisions. Political crisis in Europe. Revolution in Germany. Collapse of Austria-Hungary. The emergence of new states in Europe.

What new contradictions arose in Europe in the course of the post-war settlement?

Question 5. The Russian Federation in the late 1990s - early XXI century. stabilization course. Federal relations and ethnopolitical conflicts. Chechen War. Financial crisis of August 1998. Socio-economic and political situation in the country in the late 1990s. Presidency of V.V. Putin. Strengthening the vertical of power. The economic growth. Elections 2008 Election to the post of President D.A. Medvedev. World economic crisis of 2008.

Describe the main changes in the social makeup of the country's population in the 1990s-2000s.

Option 4

Question 1. Byzantine Empire and Eastern Christendom. Nature and population of the Byzantine Empire. Ancient and Christian traditions in the life of the Byzantines. State power and the church in the Byzantine Empire. Byzantium between West and East. Byzantium and the Slavs.

What was the difference between the eastern and western Slavic worlds?

Question 2. Russian Empire in the XVI-XVII centuries. The beginning of the formation of a multinational state. Muscovite Russia as a power. Conquest of the Middle and Lower Volga. Exploration of the Wild Field. Cossacks. Advance to the north and to Siberia. Annexation of Left-bank Ukraine.

Why did the Russian state become a multinational power from the middle of the 16th to the end of the 17th century?

Question 3. The Industrial Revolution and the Formation of the Industrial West at the End of the 18th-19th Centuries Changes in agriculture in England. The beginning of the industrial revolution. Scientific discoveries and the industrial revolution. Social consequences of the industrial revolution.

What are the main features of the industrial society that emerged in the 19th century?

Question 4. Russia in the system of the world market and international relations at the beginning of the 20th century. Economic recovery in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. Russia and the industrial countries of the West. The foreign policy position of Russia. Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905 Russia and European military-political alliances. Russia's entry into the Entente.

What impact did the Russo-Japanese War have on the development of Russia?

Question 5. Socio-political development of Western countries in the 1940s - 1960s. USA after World War II. Marshall plan. The emergence of the concept of "welfare state" J. Keynes. Successes and failures of economic reforms by J. Kennedy and L. Jones. Political life of Western Europe. "Economic miracle" in post-war Germany. The initial stage of European integration.

What were the reasons for the rapid economic development of Western countries after World War II?

Option 5

Question 1. Islamic world in the Middle Ages. The rise of Islam. The victory of Islam in Arabia and the beginning of the Arab conquests. Arab caliphate in the second half of the 7th-10th centuries. Muslim culture.

What are the reasons for the successful conquests of the Arabs?

Question 2. Russia in the 17th century. The formation of the autocracy of the Romanovs. Elimination of the consequences of the Troubles. Legislative registration of autocracy. Church split. Changes in the economy and social order. New phenomena in the spiritual life of society.

Formulate the main reasons for the establishment of an autocratic political system in Russia.

Question 3. Social movement in Russia in the first half of the 19th century. Decembrists. In search of a state ideology. Westernizers and Slavophiles. The origin of the ideas of Russian socialism.

Why did public sentiments in Russia not coincide with the official ideology? What transformations did society expect from the state?

Question 4. World War I. The beginning of a worldwide conflict. Assassination of the heir to the Austrian throne. Entry into the war of Russia, France, England.

The first months of hostilities. Western and Eastern fronts in 1914. Fight on land and at sea in 1915. Military operations in 1916-1917 Internal situation in warring countries. End of the First World War. Results of the war.

Why did Germany and its allies fail in the war?

Question 5. USSR in the system of international relations in 1920-1940s. Soviet foreign policy and the problem of world revolution. International Relations of the Soviet Union. Soviet policy in the Far East. The crisis of the Versailles-Washington system. Soviet policy in the face of growing military threat in Europe. Diplomatic maneuvers on the eve of World War II. Munich agreement 1938. and the Soviet-German pact of 1939.

What was the contradictory nature of Soviet foreign policy? What influence did Stalin's position have on her?

Option 6

Question 1. Eastern Slavs in antiquity. Occupations of the Eastern Slavs. Social system. worldview and religion. The emergence of the ancient Russian state. Russia and Byzantium. Baptism of Russia.

What was the significance of the adoption of Christianity for the development of ancient Russian statehood?

Question 2. Europe at the beginning of modern times. Economy of Europe. The era of the great geographical discoveries and the first colonial conquests. Geographical discoveries of the XVI-XVII centuries. and their consequences. Social relations. Reformation and Counter-Reformation in Europe. The birth of a new European civilization.

What were the changes in the European economy in modern times?

Question 3. Russia and the World at the Beginning of the 20th Century. Western countries in the XX century. The process of modernization in Russia. The social structure of Russian society at the beginning of the 20th century. Ideological currents and political parties.

What is modernization? What were the features of modernization in Russia?

Question 4. totalitarian regimes in Europe. The birth of totalitarianism. Establishment of a fascist regime in Italy. The coming to power in Germany of the National Socialists. Hitler regime.

Why did Hitler come to power in Germany?

Question 5. Ways of the Bolshevik modernization of the economy. Features of modernization in the USSR. collectivization and industrialization. Mass repressions of the 1930s Creation of the Stalinist administrative-command system. Changes in public consciousness.

Can the Stalinist regime be called totalitarian? Justify your answer.

Option 7

Question 1. The State and Society of the Old Russian State of Kievan Rus. Organization of state administration. The first princely strife. Community and patrimony in Ancient Russia. The social structure of ancient Russian society. "Russian Truth". Russian Orthodox Church. Culture of Ancient Russia.

What testified to the development of writing and the spread of literacy in Ancient Russia?

Question 2. State and society of Western Europe in the 17th century. Socio-economic development of Europe in the XVII century. Absolutism in Europe. French absolutism. English absolutism. English Revolution of the 17th century.

Why is the revolution in England of the 17th century considered the beginning of a new stage in the history of Western countries?

Question 3. The first Russian revolution. Causes and stages of the revolution. Forms of revolutionary struggle. New political system. Socialists in the Revolution. liberal parties. organizations of the right. The beginning of Russian parliamentarism.

What new political system took shape in Russia during the first revolution?

Question 4. USSR in the 1950s - early 1960s. USSR after the death of I.V. Stalin. N.S. Khrushchev: reformism and utopianism. The crisis of economic policy in the late 1950s. The end of the Khrushchev decade.

Why the period of N.S. Khrushchev called "thaw"?

Question 5. The formation of the new Russia in the 1990s. Reforming the economy: "shock therapy". The President and the Supreme Council: confrontation between the authorities. The political crisis of autumn 1993. Elections to the Federal Assembly. 1993 constitution.

How has the political regime in the Russian Federation changed since 1993?

Option 8

Question 1. The crisis of the state and society in Russia at the beginning of the 17th century. Oprichnina. Results and consequences of the reign of Ivan the Terrible. Causes of Troubles. Campaign of False Dmitry I and the Civil War. Foreign intervention and people's militias.

Why can we say that the period of the end of the Troubles became an important milestone in the formation of the national identity of the Russian people?

Question 2. West in the 19th century. The era of the Napoleonic wars. France: from the republic to the empire of Napoleon I. From the wars of the republic to the wars of the empire. Patriotic War of 1812 in Russia. The collapse of the Napoleonic empire.

Why did Napoleon fail to solve his problems in the war with Russia?

Question 3. Stolypin reforms in Russia. Stolypin government program. Third June political regime. The inconsistency of the reformist course. The results of the reforms.

Why did the agrarian reform of P.A. Stolypin in Russia did not receive mass support from the peasants?

Question 4. World War II: first period (1939 - early 1942). Causes and periodization of the war. Defeat of Poland. "Strange War" in the West. Defeat of France. "Battle for England". Preparing the USSR for war. German attack on the USSR. The beginning of the war. Mobilization of the forces of the USSR. Battle of Moscow and its historical significance. Formation of the anti-Hitler coalition.

Was the USSR ready for war with Nazi Germany and its allies?

Question 5. USSR in the 1960s - 1970s. The power of the nomenklatura. The coming to power of L.I. Brezhnev. Problems of the economy. Reforms A.N. Kosygin. Failure of the reform policy. Crisis of ideology. dissidence. Deepening the crisis of "developed socialism".

Why is the reign of L.I. Brezhnev is called the era of "stagnation"?

Option 9

Question 1. Fragmentation of Russia in the XII-XIII centuries. From princely strife to political fragmentation. Economic development of Russia in the period of fragmentation. The political development of Russia in the period of fragmentation. Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Novgorod land.

How did fragmentation affect the economic and political development of Russia?

Question 2. Social movement in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. Russian liberalism. Populism. Social Democrat Movement. Conservatism.

If you lived in 19th century Russia, what ideology would you follow? Explain your choice.

Question 3. Russian revolution of 1917. February Revolution of 1917. Fall of the monarchy. Dual power. Deepening crisis in Russia. October 1917 in the history of Russia. The coming to power of the Bolsheviks. New political regime. Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly. Viewpoints on the revolutionary events of 1917. Russia's exit from the First World War.

Was the coming to power of the Bolsheviks a natural phenomenon?

Question 4. World War II: a turning point (1942 - 1943). . Soviet-German front in the spring and summer of 1942. The battle for Stalingrad and its historical significance. Partisan movement in the USSR. The battle on the Oryol-Kursk Bulge and its significance. Strengthening the anti-fascist coalition.

What should be understood as a radical change in the Great Patriotic and World War II?

Question 5. USSR in the period of "perestroika". Reasons for change. Glasnost and change in the state system. New Thinking and the End of the Cold War. Power crisis. Two presidents. August 1991: a revolutionary turn in history. The collapse of the USSR and the creation of the CIS.

What is the essence of the expression "parade of sovereignties"?

Option 10

Question 1. Western Europe in the XI-XV centuries. Economic and political development. Separation of handicraft from agriculture. medieval cities. Trade and banking. Strengthening royal power. Creation of centralized states. Changing the role of the church in society.

What are estate-representative institutions? How did they come about?

Question 2. Socio-economic development of Russia in the XVIII century. Development of agriculture. Development of the manufacturing industry. Trade and finance. Estate system of Russia.

Why is the Russian state of the 18th century called a noble empire?

Question 3. USSR during the NEP (1921-1925). Transition to a new economic policy. Results and contradictions of the NEP. Changes in everyday life and social life. The struggle for power in the Bolshevik Party. The concentration of power in the hands of I.V. Stalin. The collapse of the NEP.

Why I.V. Stalin emerged victorious from the inner-party struggle of the 1920s?

Question 4. USSR at the final stage of the Second World War (1944 - 1945). Liberation of the territory of the USSR. Opening of a second front in Europe. Liberation of Eastern Europe. Military campaign 1945 and the defeat of Nazi Germany. Defeat of militaristic Japan. USSR and the results of the Second World War. The contribution of the USSR to the victory in World War II. Results and lessons of the Second World War.

What were the reasons for the victory of the Soviet Union in World War II?

Question 5. The collapse of socialism in Eastern Europe in the late 1980s. Prerequisites for transformations. Revolutions in Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Poland, Hungary, East Germany. The collapse of the socialist system. National conflicts and economic problems.

Why did Eastern European countries seek to join NATO and the European Union?

3 QUESTIONS TO PREPARE FOR THE EXAM

1 Goals and objectives of the study of history. Formational and civilizational approaches to the study of history.

2 Prerequisites for the formation of the first civilizations.

3 Civilizations of the Ancient East: features of formation, stages of development.

4 Civilizations of the Ancient World: features of formation, stages of development.

5 The origin of the civilization of Europe: the barbarian kingdoms in the early Middle Ages.

6 Feudal fragmentation of the countries of Western Europe in the X-XI centuries.

7 Byzantine Empire in the early Middle Ages: features of the management system, church structure, the influence of Byzantium on the Slavic peoples.

8 Arab caliphate in the early Middle Ages: the emergence of Islam, the Arab conquests.

9 Eastern Slavs in antiquity: the problem of the origin of the Russian ethnos.

10 The emergence of the ancient Russian state: the first Russian princes.

11 Strengthening the ancient Russian state: organization of management, the baptism of Russia.

12 Feudal fragmentation of Russia: the first princely strife, causes and consequences of fragmentation.

13 Mongol invasion of Russia: the ruin of Russian lands, economic and political dependence on the Golden Horde.

14 Russia between the Mongols and the West. Alexander Nevsky and his struggle with the German and Swedish knights.

15 Unification of Russian lands in the XIV-XV centuries: new centers, the struggle for the independence of the state.

16 Formation of a single centralized state of Russia.

17 Countries of Western Europe in the XII-XIV centuries: the strengthening of royal power and the unification of states.

18 Age of Discovery: Creation of colonial empires.

19 Reformation and religious wars in Europe in the XV-XVI centuries.

20 State and society of Western Europe in the XVI century: absolutism.

21 Absolutism in Russia: the reign of Ivan the Terrible.

22 Time of Troubles in Russia at the beginning of the 17th century.

23 The formation of the autocracy of the Romanovs: the strengthening of the state and the expansion of the territory.

24 English Revolution of the 17th century.

25 Age of Enlightenment in Europe: public ideas.

26 Russian Empire in the first half of the 18th century: transformations of Peter I.

27 Russian Empire in the second half of the 18th century: the reign of Catherine II.

28 The American Revolution in the 18th century.

29 The great French bourgeois revolution of the 18th century.

30 The era of the Napoleonic wars. Patriotic War of 1812 in Russia.

31 The industrial revolution and the rise of the industrial West at the beginning of the 19th century.

32 The Russian State in the First Half of the 19th Century. Reign of Alexander I.

33 Social movement in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century: the Decembrist uprising.

34 The Russian state in the middle of the 19th century: the reign of Nicholas I.

35 Revolutions of the mid-nineteenth century in Europe: revolutions of 1848. in France, Germany, Austria.

36 Fight against slavery in the USA: civil war between the North and the South.

37 Features of the development of Western countries in the second half of the XIX century.

38 Formation of colonial empires in Africa and Asia in the middle of the XIX century.

39 Reforms of 1860-1870s. in Russia: the content and significance of the reforms of Alexander II.

40 Socio-economic development of Russia at the end of the 19th century: the reign of Alexander III.

4 PREPARATION TESTS

1 The share of the rural population in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century was:

2 The monarchist party that arose during the revolution of 1905-1907:

1) "Union of the Russian people"

1) liquidation of landownership

2) liquidation of estates

3) the introduction of political freedoms

4) the elimination of national inequality of the peoples of Russia

4 At the beginning of the 20th century, the socialist movement in Russia was represented by:

4) Black Hundreds

5 Agrarian reform P.A. Stolypin provided:

1) free exit of peasants from the community

2) financial support for peasant communities

3) the transfer of all communal land to peasants in ownership

4) confiscation of landed estates by the state

6 The process of development of capitalism in Russia in the late XIX - early XX centuries. was characterized by:

1) the development of capitalist production in the countryside

2) high rates of industrial development

3) the presence of labor legislation

4) the participation of foreign capital in Russian industry

5) high concentration of production in the industry

7 Russia's participation in the First World War led to:

1) the rise of the revolutionary movement

3) strengthening the positions of the government

4) the decline of revolutionary sentiment

8 Executive authority in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century:

1) State Council

3) State Duma

4) Cabinet of Ministers

9 On the eve of the First World War, Russia was part of the military-political bloc:

1) Quarter Union

2) Union of three emperors

3) Balkan Union

4) Entente

10 The modernization process includes:

1) the transition from feudal society to capitalist

2) development of a market economy

3) strengthening state control over society

4) widespread literacy

11 World War I began with the event:

1) Germany's declaration of war on Russia

2) the assassination of the heir to the Austrian throne

3) German invasion of Belgium

4) Germany's declaration of war on France

12 Aftermath of the Battle of the Marne 1914 were:

1) disruption of the blitzkrieg plan

2) the defeat of Russian troops in Galicia

3) US entry into the war

4) transition to positional warfare on the Western Front

13 The consequences of the Brusilov breakthrough in 1916. It was:

1) Russia's exit from the war

2) the defeat of Germany

3) the threat of the defeat of Austria-Hungary

4) the transition of the Russians to the offensive along the entire Eastern Front

14 World War I winners were:

1) France, Russia, England

2) USA, France, England

3) Germany, Austria-Hungary, Japan

4) Germany, Austria-Hungary, England

15 As a result of the February Revolution of 1917. happened in Russia:

1) solution of the peasant question

2) the beginning of the work of the State Duma

3) the fall of the monarchy

4) formation of political parties

16 The authorities in Russia during the Dual Power period were:

1) State Council and Provisional Government

2) The State Duma and the Emperor

3) Petrograd Soviet and the State Duma

4) Petrograd Soviet and the Provisional Government

17 The first Constitution of the RSFSR was adopted in:

18 The decision to move to the NEP was made by the leadership of Soviet Russia:

19 During the NEP period, farms grew in the countryside:

1) the poor

2) middle peasants

3) farmers

20 NEP measures include:

1) lease of enterprises by private owners

2) card system for the distribution of products and goods

3) surplus appropriation in the village

4) wages in the form of coupons

21 The Constituent Assembly in Russia was convened in:

22 According to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918. Soviet Russia lost territories:

1) Finland, Poland, Georgia

2) Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia

3) Poland, Lithuania, part of Latvia and Belarus

4) Estonia, Part of Poland and Armenia

23 The USSR was formed in:

24 In the intervention against Russia in 1918-1922. not Troops participated:

2) Germany

3) Czechoslovakia

25 The White Army under the command of Admiral Kolchak operated in the area:

2) Don and Kuban

3) Far East

4) Siberia and the Urals

26 The economic policy of the Bolsheviks in 1918-1920. was called:

1) industrialization

2) collectivization

3) "war communism"

27 After coming to power, the Bolsheviks established in the country:

1) a parliamentary republic

2) people's democracy

3) the dictatorship of the proletariat

4) public state

28 The policy of “war communism” is characterized by:

1) the abolition of universal labor service

2) cancellation of payments for utility bills

3) permission to sell surplus grain

4) the introduction of a tax in kind

29 The implementation of industrialization in the USSR characterizes the predominant development of:

1) light and food industry

2) heavy industry

3) agriculture

4) foreign trade

30 Specify one of the shock structures of the first five-year plan:

1) Bratsk HPP

2) Baikal-Amur Mainline

3) Stalingrad Tractor Plant

4) cascade of hydroelectric power plants "Big Volga"

31 The political regime in the USSR in the 1930s. was characterized by:

1) the merging of the functions of the CPSU (b) and the Soviets

2) independence of public organizations

3) a clear separation of the branches of government

4) multi-party system

32 The policy of creating socialized agriculture in the USSR was called:

1) socialization

2) collectivization

3) cooperation

4) nationalization

33 The main socio-economic consequences of the policy of complete collectivization were:

1) alienation of peasants from property and the results of their labor

2) the weakening of economic incentives for the development of agriculture

3) Solve the problem of lack of land

4) the transition to a monetary system wage payment to collective farmers

34 Characteristic features of the political regime in the USSR in the 1930s. are:

1) separation of powers

2) the establishment of a multi-party system

3) unification of public life

4) the cult of personality of the leader

5) mass repression

35 A radical turning point during the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945. was achieved as a result of the defeat of the fascist troops:

1) near Moscow

2) in East Prussia

3) near Stalingrad and on the Kursk Bulge

4) on the Vistula and Oder

36 During the Great Patriotic War, the city withstood the blockade of the Nazi troops:

1) Sevastopol

3) Murmansk

4) Leningrad

37 The secret protocol to the non-aggression pact between Germany and the USSR stated:

1) mutual obligation not to attack within a year

2) refusal of the USSR and Germany from territorial claims

3) delimitation of spheres of interest in Eastern Europe

4) agreement on joint military operations

38 The main result of the Moscow battle:

1) blitzkrieg plan thwarted

2) opened a second front in Europe

3) the transfer of the strategic initiative to the USSR

4) the beginning of the formation of the anti-Hitler coalition was laid

39 The largest oncoming tank battle in history took place during:

1) battles for Moscow

2) Battle of Stalingrad

3) Battle of Kursk

4) Berlin operation

40 During the Battle of Stalingrad, the following occurred:

1) the encirclement of the Paulus army

2) liberation of Kharkov

3) access to the western border of the USSR

4) the transition of the Red Army to the offensive along the entire front

41 The priority task of the USSR in the second half of the 1940s was:

1) achieving economic superiority over the United States and its allies

2) rebuilding the war-ravaged economy

3) overcoming the personality cult of Stalin

4) raising the educational level of the population

42 Mark the events of the internal political and economic development of the USSR in 1945-1953:

1) restoration of private property

2) help under the Marshall plan

3) large investments in heavy industry

4) "Leningrad case"

5) repressions against prisoners of war

43 After the death of I.V. Stalin, the central figures of the political leadership of the USSR were:

1) M.A. Suslov, L.I. Brezhnev

2) V.M. Molotov, A.A. Zhdanov

3) G.M. Malenkov, L.P. Beria

4) A.N. Kosygin, A.N. Shelepin

44 The Cold War is:

1) the state of war between the USSR and the USA

2) ideological and economic confrontation between the USSR and the USA

3) cooperation relations in all fields

4) course towards disarmament

45 The Warsaw Pact Organization was established in:

46 Stalin's personality cult was exposed:

1) L.P. Beria immediately after Stalin's death

2) N.S. Khrushchev at the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU in 1953.

3) G.M. Malenkov at the solemn meeting of the Central Committee of the CPSU in 1955.

4) N.S. Khrushchev at the XX Congress of the CPSU in 1956.

47 Politics N.S. Khrushchev in the field of agriculture was aimed at:

1) elimination of disproportions in the economy between industry and agriculture

2) development of individual labor activity

3) intensification of industrial production

4) development of virgin lands

48 The concept that theoretically substantiated the slowdown in the development of the USSR was given the name in 1967:

1) "developed socialism"

2) "socialism with a human face"

3) neo-Stalinism

4) eurocommunism

49 The event of the foreign policy of the USSR in the 1970s:

1) refusal to create military blocs

2) the entry of Soviet troops into Hungary

3) military conflict with China

4) the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan

50 Economy of the USSR in the 1970s-1980s. was characterized by:

1) the predominant development of the military-industrial complex

2) the creation of a banking system

3) the priority development of light industry

4) development of market relations

51 On the consequences of the policy of glasnost in the USSR in 1985-1991. applies to:

1) the beginning of the rehabilitation of victims of Stalinist repressions

2) a drop in interest in the history of socialist society

3) the abolition of secrecy of state secrets

4) awareness of the essence of the totalitarian system

52 The main reason for “perestroika” in the country:

1) high activity of the people

2) personal ambitions of M.S. Gorbachev

3) crisis in the political and economic life of the country

4) the collapse of socialism in the countries of Eastern Europe

53 The concepts: “glasnost, acceleration, new political thinking” refer to the period of the history of the USSR:

1) Stalin's personality cult

2) "perestroika"

3) "thaw"

4) "stagnation"

54 The economic reform of E. Gaidar in 1992 went down in history under the name:

2) shock therapy

3) new economic thinking

4) economic crisis

55 The state sovereignty of Russia was proclaimed:

56 The crisis of power in Russia in the autumn of 1993 resulted in:

1) self-dissolution of the parliament - the Supreme Council of the Russian Federation

2) confrontation between the legislative and executive branches of government

3) the formation of the State Emergency Committee

4) the speech of the party nomenclature against the government

57 Match the dates and events of the First World War:

58 Match the dates and events of World War II:

59 Match the historical phenomena and events in the history of Russia:

60 Establish a correspondence between the names of the leaders of the USSR and the periods of their stay in power:

1) N.S. Khrushchev 2) L.I. Brezhnev 3) Yu.V. Andropov 4) M.S. Gorbachev

01 1964-1982 02 1982-1984 03 1985-1991 04 1953-1964

REFERENCES

1 Volobuev, O.V. Russia from ancient times to the end of the 19th century: a textbook for grade 10 / O.V. Volobuev, V.A. Klokov, M.V. Ponomarev, V.A. Rogozhin. – M.: Bustard, 2001. – 416 p.

2 Volobuev, O.V. Russia and the world. XX century: textbook for grade 11 / O.V. Volobuev, V.A. Klokov, M.V. Ponomarev, V.A. Rogozhin. - M.: Bustard, 2002. - 352 p.

3 World history. Encyclopedia. In 14 volumes / ed. A.O. Chubaryan. - M.: OLMA-PRESS Education, 2006. - 240p.

4 Gumilyov, L.N. From Russia to Russia: essays on ethnic history /L.N. Gumilev. - St. Petersburg: Lenizdat, 2008. - 320 p.

5 Danilov, A.A. Workbook on the history of Russia: XX century / A.A. Danilov, L.G. Kosulin. - M.: Enlightenment, 2002. - 111p.

6 Zagladin, N.V. The World History. History of Russia and the world from ancient times to the end of the 19th century / N.V. Zagladin. - M .: Russian word, 2003. - 400 p.

7 Zagladin, N.V. History of Russia and the world in the XX century / N.V. Zagladin. - M .: Russian Word, 2003. - 480s.

9 History of Russia: A guide for preparing for exams / O.V. Davydov. - M.: AST, 2004. - 222 p.

can only be determined approximately. Among many tribes of the equatorial zone in Africa, South America, on the islands of Southeast Asia and the Pacific basin, among the natives of Australia, and some peoples of the North, the type of economic activity and culture has not practically changed since the Mesolithic. At the same time, in the IX-VIII millennia BC. in some parts of the world, the transition to agriculture and cattle breeding. This time of the Neolithic revolution (from the Greek "neos" - "new" and "lithos" - "stone") marks the transition from appropriating to producing type of economic activity.

Man and nature: the first conflict

Man around the tenth millennium BC. has established itself on all continents as the dominant species and, as such, has ideally adapted to the conditions of its habitat. However, further improvement of hunting tools led to the extermination of many species of animals, a reduction in their livestock, which undermined the foundations of the existence of primitive people, hunger and related diseases, an intensification of the struggle between tribes for the increasingly poor hunting territories, and a reduction in the number of human beings. populations- such was the payment for progress.

This first crisis in the development of civilization in history was resolved in two ways. The tribes living in the harsh climate of the North, desert areas, jungles seemed to freeze in their development and in the knowledge of the world around them.

Gradually, a system of prohibitions (taboos) developed, limiting hunting and food consumption. This prevented population growth, prevented lifestyle changes and development. knowledge .

In other cases, there was a breakthrough to a qualitatively new level of development. People moved to a conscious impact on the natural environment, to its transformation. The development of agriculture and cattle breeding took place only in favorable natural conditions.

After a successful hunt, live wolf cubs, lambs, kids, calves, wild boars, foals, and deer often fell into the camps. Initially, they were considered as a food supply, then it became clear that they could live in captivity and give birth. Breeding animals turned out to be much more productive than hunting their wild relatives. It took millennia for individual attempts at domestication to lead to the establishment of a new type of economy. During this time, new breeds of domesticated animals arose, most of which, unlike their wild ancestors, could no longer survive in the natural environment. environment needed a human to protect them from predators.

According to archaeologists, the first animal that began to live with a person as early as the 15th millennium BC, guarding his dwelling and helping to hunt, was a dog. In the tenth millennium BC, the tribes of Northern Eurasia began to breed deer. In the 7th millennium BC. In the steppes of the Caspian Sea, Iran, Turkey goats and sheep became domesticated. A millennium later, cattle breeding began in the same place, as well as in the Indus Valley.

The transition to agriculture took place in a similar way. The gathering of edible plants has always played an important role in the life of primitive man. Over time, from observations and experience, the understanding came that seeds of plants can be sown near the settlement and, with appropriate care, watering, about the shelf, get good yields.

Agrarian and pastoral crops

The first agricultural cultures of the 7th-4th millennia BC arose near large rivers, where the mild climate and exceptional soil fertility made it possible to obtain good harvests - on the territory of modern Egypt, Iran, Iraq, India, Central Asia, China, Mexico, Peru.

The first plants to be grown in Europe were wheat and barley. In Southeast Asia in the 7th millennium BC. grew beans and peas. In China, from the agricultural cultures of the 4th millennium BC. millet dominated. In South America in the 7th-5th millennia BC, corn, pumpkin, and beans were planted.

During this period, people's lives underwent very significant changes.

For most of the primitive communal era, the existence of people was subordinated to the interests of the struggle for survival. All the time was spent looking for food. At the same time, a person who accidentally strayed from his tribe or expelled from it had no chance of surviving. The memory of that time was preserved in subsequent eras, for example, in the city-states of Ancient Greece, the death penalty was often replaced by exile, although in ancient times, moving from one cities in another was quite common.

The only form of division of labor existed between men, who were mainly engaged in hunting, and women who remained in the camp and looked after the children, leading the household, sewing, and cooking. Over time, the structure of social relations began to become more complex. Thanks to the increased productivity of labor, it became possible to produce more products than was necessary for the survival of the tribe.

The division of labor deepened. On the one hand, agriculture separated from animal husbandry, on the other hand, handicraft labor acquired independent significance. In the V - IV millennia BC. weaving and pottery developed (pottery was made with the help of a potter's wheel. Boats and the first wheeled carts appeared, driven by draft animals (horses, oxen and donkeys).

In order for an artisan to specialize in the manufacture of products necessary for the entire tribe, to improve his skills, he had to be free from obtaining food. He had to exchange the products of his labor with his fellow tribesmen for meat and grain.

The sphere of exchange gradually expanded. Tribes that produced more food than they needed to survive. They began to exchange surpluses. This made it possible to expand the diet, make consumption more diverse. Stable economic ties gradually developed between neighboring settlements, and a division of labor was established. For example, in some settlements artisans specialized in weapons, in others - in weaving, in others - in the manufacture of dishes, etc.

In the settlements of the VII-V millennia BC. lived from a few hundred to 2-3 thousand people. In warm regions, the wooden frame of houses was covered with leather, straw, and covered with clay. In Northern and Central Europe, houses were built of wood, each house accommodating several related families. Settlements were usually surrounded by walls made of stones, clay, ditches were built to protect against raids by hostile tribes. In the center of the settlement, most often they erected a monumental building, an altar to the spirits - the patrons of the tribe.

Initially, the exchange was of a natural nature. But with its expansion, there was a need for the existence of a single equivalent of the value of goods, in other words, in money .

The function of money in different parts of the world was played by various objects, as a rule, quite rare and at the same time suitable for use. Among the Slavic, Scandinavian tribes, Indians of North America, most often it was furs, skins, among the Arabs, parts of the Slavic tribes - cattle, among many tribes of the Pacific basin - rare shells among the tribes of central Africa - ivory, in China, Abyssinia - salt.

The emergence of excess production became the basis not only for the development of trade, but also for the emergence of property inequality.

Neolithic tribes did not know private property, so the American Indians, even in the XVH - XIX centuries. farmed together, grown and mined products were the common property of the tribe.

Gradually, the leaders, sorcerers (priests), the most skilled artisans began to accumulate property and valuables. Experienced craftsmen and healers, whose work was especially highly valued by their fellow tribesmen, began to hide the secrets of their craftsmanship.

Transition from matriarchy to patriarchy

The appearance of property, property, knowledge, labor, professional skills, which were inherited, was closely connected with changes in the way of life of people of the Neolithic era, the emergence of such a cell of the organization of society as a family.

The question of the origin of the family has long been controversial among ethnographers and archaeologists. The greatest contribution to his decision was made by the American scientist L. Morgan (1818-1881), who studied the life of the Indians of North America in comparison with the life of other peoples who remained at the Neolithic level. According to Morgan's views, the family relations of primitive people underwent a long evolution, passing through a series of successive stages.

The most important role in the formation of the family was played by the transition from matriarchy to patriarchy.

In a period when the main source of food was hunting, the age of men turned out to be, as a rule, short-lived. Only the most successful and skilled of them lived to be 25-30 years old.

The echo of time, when the survival of the tribe depended on the number of male food earners, remains the special importance that many peoples attach to the birth of a boy.

Under these conditions, women played an important role in the preservation of the family. It was they who gave birth to new generations of hunters (the degree of kinship was determined by the mother), raised children, kept the hearth, organized the life of the tribe, whose members were connected by blood ties. This system was called matriarchy.

The work of a farmer, cattle breeder, craftsman did not involve such a risk to life as hunting. Mortality among men decreased, the number of men and women equalized. This played a big role in changing the nature of family relationships. Fields and cattle pens were usually located near the settlement, and men now worked together with women, doing the most difficult, hard work. With acquired skills, knowledge they passed on to children. This determined the increase in the role of men in the tribe. In many peoples, it gradually became dominant.

The emerging traditions, customs, rituals also fixed the norms of patriarchy, i.e., the special role of men in society.

Neolithic people usually lived in large families (several dozen people), which included blood relatives. Men and women belonging to the same clan could not marry each other. The timing of this prohibition, which avoids the genetic degeneration observed by most tribes, is not known, but it arose quite a long time ago.

Grown up girls were given in marriage to other clans, and men took wives from them. In other words, women passed from generation to generation, men remained in their family, and it was they who became its permanent core. The degree of relationship was now taken into account in the male line. In some tribes, women were seen as a kind of commodity that one family sold to another.

With such a system of kinship ties, the property created or acquired by the family remained in it. The concept of ownership has emerged. Craftsmen, healers also sought to pass on their knowledge to their family members.

Several clans living in the neighborhood, whose members married each other, made up a tribe. The head of the tribe was the leader.

Transition to the Eneolithic

With the growth of the population, certain clans settled in undeveloped or conquered territories, and over time, new tribes formed. Related tribes speaking the same language, having similar beliefs, usually maintained close ties with each other. Together they formed unions of tribes, supporting each other in case of conflicts, lean years.

Tribes that moved far away from the territory they originally occupied (those who specialized in cattle breeding were especially inclined to resettle) often lost contact with the center of their origin. Their language developed, words borrowed from new neighbors appeared in it, associated with changing forms of economic activity.

The classification of languages ​​provides material for determining the initial areas of residence of peoples, understanding the foundations of their traditions and culture, for example, the kinship of the languages ​​​​of peoples separated by a vast territory indicates either that they had common roots, or that they lived in the past within the same geographical area. area and the existence of close ties between them, which is often confirmed by the similarity of customs and rituals.

Approximately in the V-IV millennia BC. the main distribution centers of the existing and still language groups are formed.

In total, there are about 4 thousand languages ​​​​on the globe (it is impossible to give an exact figure, since the boundaries between languages ​​and dialects of one language are mobile). Linguists combine them into large language families (Indo-European, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, Mongolian, Semitic-Hamitic, Berber-Libyan, Cushitic, Sino-Tibetan, etc.). The languages ​​of the largest, Indo-European, family are spoken by about 45% of the world's population. It includes the languages ​​of the Slavic, Baltic, Germanic, Celtic, Romance, Albanian, Greek, Armenian, Iranian, Nuristani, Indo-Aryan language groups.

In the modern world, people who speak Indo-European languages ​​perceive them as different (like, for example, Pyc and English). However, according to archeology, the tribes who spoke close dialects, which later developed into Indo-European languages, in the 4th-3rd millennia BC. lived in a limited area - in Southwest Asia, to the south of the Black Sea and Caspian regions. Later they settled in the vast territories of Eurasia.

At the same time, a new stage began in the development of agricultural and pastoral tribes: they moved on to the development of metals. In search of new materials for the manufacture of tools, artisans found nuggets of low-melting metals (copper, tin, lead, etc.) and eventually learned to make weapons, tools and jewelry from them. Metals were better and faster to process than stone, they could be used to make more productive tools, better weapons, and armor.

There were still few available reserves of metal, their processing took only the first steps, so stone tools were used for a long time. Nevertheless, the time that began with the development of metal (the first metal tools date back to the 7th millennium BC, but they are widely distributed only in the 4th - 3rd millennia BC) is called the Eneolithic (Copper Stone Age). It was marked by the onset of a new stage in the history of mankind, associated with the emergence of the first states.

Questions and tasks

1. What changes in human economic activity gave grounds to talk about the Neolithic revolution?
2. What problems in the relationship between man and nature have been caused by the improvement of tools? What were the consequences of the first crisis in the development of civilization?
3. Tell us about the process of transition from appropriating to producing type of economy.
4. Explain how the division of labor and the specialization of activities influenced the complication of social relations and the change in the nature of exchange. What items were used as an equivalent of the cost of goods?
5. Specify the factors that contributed to the emergence of wealth inequality and the emergence of private property.
6. Explain the concepts: matriarchy, patriarchy. Think about how the processes are interconnected: the folding of private property and the transition to patriarchy.
7. At what stage of development did the allocation of language groups occur?
8. What changes in human society have occurred with the beginning of the development of metals?

In the 20th century, a look at world history as a process of change local civilizations received further development. A significant contribution to the development of this theory was made by O. Spengler (1880-1936), A. Toynbee (1889-1975) and the Russian thinker L. N. Gumilyov (1912-1992).

In the theories of civilizational development, progress was associated with the fact that each new civilization, inheriting the achievements of its predecessors to a certain extent, reaches ever higher levels of material and spiritual culture. Gumilyov considered the interaction of peoples with their environment to be the main source of development.

In the second half of the 20th century, ideas about the existence of phases, or stages world civilizational development. American economists, political scientists and sociologists (J. Galbraith, W. Rostow, D. Bell, E. Toffler) saw the driving force of history in expanding the horizons of knowledge, which made it possible to improve tools of labor, which ensured the mastery of new forms of production activity. They associated progress with the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture and pastoralism, and then to industrial production and a modern high-tech society.

The transition to each new stage of development was not seen as rigidly determined (predetermined) by the laws of progressive development of history. It was characterized as a possibility, the realization of which depended on the existence of appropriate prerequisites. Among them, the historical, cultural, political features, international conditions and traditions of individual civilizations, which determined the position of the individual in society, were highlighted.

Particular attention within the framework of the theory of the stages of civilizational development was paid to the problems of modernization that became more acute in the 20th century - an accelerated transition from traditional (agrarian-pastoral) societies to industrial ones.

Other realities of the 20th century, connected with world wars, the emergence of nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction capable of destroying civilization, the aggravation of environmental problems, are also reflected in the understanding of the problems of history. The idea of ​​the steady progressive development of mankind in modern conditions is increasingly skeptical. Increasingly, questions began to be raised about whether it is legitimate to associate progress with the growth of production and consumption, whether the time is coming for a rethinking of values, when the possibility of a person’s spiritual development will become its main criterion.

Questions and tasks

· Explain what were the features of the knowledge of the past in the pre-literate era. What myths explaining the origin of the world and man do you know?

Name the names of prominent historians of antiquity. Indicate the features of historical science in the early stages of its development. What was the limitation of historical knowledge in ancient times?

· How did the dominant position of religion and the church in the spiritual sphere of the Middle Ages affect the content of scientific knowledge?

Why did interest in the past increase during the New Age?

· What scientific approaches and principles of historical research were developed in the 18th-19th centuries?

· What are the features of the development of historical science in the XX century?

· What were the features of religious and mystical views on the historical process? In what historical epochs did such views prevail? What was the role of man in history?

· Specify the features of the historical views of the Enlightenment. What was, according to scientists of the XVIII century, the driving force of social development?

· What is fundamentally new in understanding the question of the place of personality in history introduced by the German philosopher I. Kant?

· How did G. Hegel imagine the historical process? What did he mean by the term "world spirit"?

· Explain the essence of Marxist views on historical development. What factors, according to Marxists, are decisive in the progress of mankind? Think about the limitations of the Marxist interpretation of history.

In what meanings did historians of the 20th century use the concept of "civilization"? What principles underlie the civilizational approach to history? Name the scientists who developed the concept of local civilizations.

· How do supporters of the theory of stages of world civilizational development define the driving forces of the historical process?

· What realities of the 20th century cause scientists' fears about the progressive development of mankind?

Fill the table

Theme 2 Principles of periodization in history

The approach, in which the main stages of human history are singled out according to the principle of changing forms of economic activity, the development of material culture, has received wide recognition. Such ideas were expressed by the French philosopher J. Condorcet(1743-1794) and American ethnographer L. Morgan(1818-1881). They divided history into eras of savagery (the period of gathering, hunting), barbarism (the predominance of agriculture, cattle breeding) and civilization. (Agriculture, cattle breeding, writing, metal processing)

Scheme Periodization of history according to L. Morgan and J. Condorcet

Civilization

Barbarism

This periodization was based on changes in the nature of tools. It also gained recognition in archeology when studying the early stages of human existence, which are divided into the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages.

Proponents of the theory of world civilizational development see it as three main stages separated by intermediate, transitional stages.

The first stage began around the 8th millennium BC. It was associated with the transition from gathering and hunting to agriculture, cattle breeding and handicraft production.

The second stage, which began in the middle of the 17th century, was marked by the formation of manufactory production, when a system of division of labor was formed that made it more productive, conditions arose for the introduction of machines and the transition to the industrial stage of development.

The third stage began in the second half of the 20th century and was associated with the emergence of a new type of society (it is most often called information society), when the nature of intellectual labor changes qualitatively with the introduction of computers, and the knowledge production industry is formed.

Supporters of the perception of history from the point of view of the change of local civilizations (antique, Greco-Byzantine, Islamic, Christian medieval Europe, etc.) measure historical epochs by the duration of their existence, which ranges from several centuries to millennia. A. Toynbee believed that 13 independent civilizations with unique features changed in world history (he considered the rest as their offshoots).

Marxist, formational, theory singled out five main eras in the history of mankind.

The era of the primitive communal system was characterized by an extremely low level of development of productive forces, when there was still no private property, people were completely dependent on nature and could survive only on the condition of joint, collective labor and consumption.

The transition to the slave-owning formation was associated with the improvement of labor tools, the emergence of the possibility of producing a surplus product and its sole appropriation, and the emergence of private property. At the same time, the owner - the slave owner owned not only the land and means of labor, but also the workers themselves, slaves, who were considered as "talking tools".

Feudal society was characterized by a partial personal dependence of workers on the owners of land - the feudal lords. The peasants, who make up the bulk of the working population, had personal ownership of the tools of labor and could dispose of part of the product produced. This determined their interest in increasing labor productivity, which the slaves did not have.

Within the framework of the formation, which Marxism defined as capitalist, the worker is personally free. However, having no sources of livelihood, he is forced to sell his ability to work to the entrepreneur, the owner of the means of production, who appropriates the unpaid part of the surplus product produced.

The next, communist, formation was seen as a society where, with the withering away of private property, a person would acquire true freedom, would work exclusively for himself and the needs of society as a whole, and become the master of his own life.

Within the framework of each historically extended era in Marxist theory, periods of formation, flourishing and decline of the corresponding formations were distinguished. The civilizational approach singled out the same phases in the development of civilizations.

The boundaries between eras and their constituent periods, as a rule, were determined by major, large-scale historical events that had a great impact on the life of peoples.

At first glance, it may seem that the supporters of different approaches to history should also fundamentally diverge in its periodization, but in reality this does not happen. Disputes arise only on certain issues. The fact is that the time of change can be called differently - a change in formation, the collapse of a local civilization, the onset of a new phase of development. The essence of the described events does not change from this.

Each new period of historical development, as a rule, is associated with a change in the forms of economic activity, property relations, political upheavals, and profound changes in the nature of spiritual culture.

It should be remembered that any periodization, if we are talking about the history of mankind as a whole, is to a certain extent conditional. The transition to a new era is not a one-time act, but a process extended in time and space. The crisis and decline of society can be combined with the formation in its depths of the sprouts of a new civilization. These processes do not develop simultaneously in all regions of the world. This is how the formation of the industrial civilization of modern times went. While some countries have already experienced an industrial revolution, others have not yet gone beyond the limits of the estate system and manufacturing production, in the third, elements of the old and new systems were combined in a bizarre way.

When studying world history, it is necessary to proceed from the understanding of world development as a process of constantly occurring interrelated changes in all spheres of life of societies, states, in their relations, in the interaction of peoples with their natural habitat. When these changes affect the appearance, if not the whole world, then the life of the majority of the population of the Earth, it is legitimate to speak of the onset of a new stage in world history. Sometimes it is associated with completely obvious events that directly affect many peoples. In other cases, the transition to a new stage is stretched in time. Then a certain conditional date can be taken as a turning point.

Stages of human development

It has become generally accepted to divide the historical path traversed by mankind into the primitive era, the history of the Ancient World, the Middle Ages, Modern and Modern times.

The length of the primitive era is determined to be more than 1.5 million years. In its study, archeology comes to the aid of history. From the remains of ancient tools, rock paintings and burials, she studies the cultures of the past. The science of anthropology deals with the reconstruction of the appearance of primitive people.

During this era, the formation of a modern type of man takes place (about 30-40 thousand years ago), tools of labor are gradually improved, the transition from hunting, fishing and gathering to agriculture and cattle breeding begins.

The history of the Ancient World is counted from the emergence of the first states (IV-III millennium BC). This was the time of the split of society into rulers and ruled, haves and have-nots, slavery was widespread (although not in all states of antiquity it was of great economic importance). The slaveholding system reached its heyday in the period of antiquity (I millennium BC - the beginning of AD), the rise of the civilizations of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.

In recent years, attempts by a group of scientists, in particular mathematician A.T. Fomenko, to propose his own chronology of the history of the Ancient World and the Middle Ages. They argue that the reconstruction by historians of many events that occurred earlier than the 16th-17th centuries, before the widespread use of printing, is not indisputable, and other variants of it are possible. In particular, they suggest that the written history of mankind has been artificially lengthened by more than a millennium. This, however, is only an assumption that has not received recognition from most historians.

The era of the Middle Ages is usually defined as the time frame of the 5th - 17th centuries.

The first period of this era (V-XI centuries) was marked by the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the emergence of a new type of social relations associated with the establishment of the estate system in Europe. Within its framework, each class has its own rights and obligations. This time is characterized by the predominance of subsistence farming and the special role of religion.

The second period (the middle of the 11th - the end of the 15th century) is the time of the formation of large feudal states, the growth of the importance of cities. They become centers of crafts, trade, and spiritual life, which is becoming more and more secular.

The third period (XVI - the middle of the XVII century) is associated with the beginning of the decomposition of the feudal system, it is sometimes characterized as the early New Age. Europeans discover the world, the creation of colonial empires begins. Commodity-money relations are rapidly developing, manufacturing production is becoming widespread. The social structure of society is becoming more complex, it is increasingly in conflict with its class division. The Reformation and the Counter-Reformation mark the beginning of a new phase of spiritual life. In the context of the growth of social and religious contradictions, the central power is strengthened, absolutist monarchies arise.

The civilizations of the Ancient World and the Middle Ages are not distinguished within the framework of the theory of "stages of growth", they are considered as a "traditional society", the basis of which is natural and semi-natural agrarian-handicraft economy.

The era of modern times - the era of the formation and establishment of industrial, capitalist civilization - is also divided into several periods.

The first begins in the middle of the 17th century, when the time came for revolutions that destroyed the foundations of the estate system (the first of them was the revolution in England in the 1640s-1660s). Of no less importance was the Age of Enlightenment, associated with the spiritual emancipation of man, his gaining faith in the power of reason.

The second period of modern times begins after the French Revolution (1789-1794). The industrial revolution, which began in England, covers the countries of continental Europe, where the formation of capitalist relations is proceeding at a rapid pace. This is a time of rapid growth of colonial empires, the development of the world market, the system of international division of labor. With the completion of the formation of large bourgeois states, the ideology of nationalism and national interest is being established in most of them.

The third period of the New Time begins at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. It is characterized by the fact that the rapid development of industrial civilization "in breadth", due to the development of new territories by it, slows down. The capacity of world markets is insufficient to absorb the growing volumes of manufactured products. There comes a time of deepening global crises of overproduction,

growth of social contradictions in industrial countries. The struggle between them for the redivision of the world begins and intensifies.

Contemporaries perceived this time as a period of crisis of industrial, capitalist civilization. The First World War of 1914-1918 seemed to be its indicator. and the upheavals associated with it, above all the revolution of 1917 in Russia.

Periodization of Recent History

The question of what should be understood by the term Recent history is one of the most controversial in modern science.

For some Soviet historians and philosophers, the revolution of 1917 in Russia marked the transition to the era of the formation of the communist formation, it was with it that the onset of modern times was associated. Proponents of other approaches to the periodization of history used the term "Modern Time" in a different sense, meaning by it a period directly related to the current time. They preferred to talk about the history of the 20th century, or the history of the present.

Nevertheless, within the framework of the history of modern times, two main periods stand out.

The process of deepening, growing crisis of the industrial civilization of modern times, which began at the end of the 19th century, covers the entire first half of the 20th century. This is early modern times. The sharpness of the contradictions that have declared themselves in the world continued to grow. The Great Crisis of 1929-1932 brought the economies of the most developed countries to the brink of collapse. Power rivalry, the struggle for colonies and markets for products led to the second world war of 1939-1945, even more destructive than the first. The colonial system of the European powers is collapsing. The conditions of the "cold war" break the unity of the world market. With the invention of nuclear weapons, the crisis of industrial civilization began to threaten the death of the entire human race.

Qualitative changes associated with a change in the nature of the social, socio-political development of the leading states of the world begin to appear only in the second half - the end of the 20th century.

During this period, with the spread of computers and industrial robots, the nature of labor activity changes, the intellectual worker becomes the central figure in production. In developed countries, a socially oriented market economy is emerging, the nature of human life and leisure is changing. Significant changes are taking place in the international arena, cooperation is replacing power rivalry. Integration processes are developing, common economic spaces are being formed (Western European, North American, etc.). With the collapse of the USSR and its system of unions, the integrity of the world market is restored, the processes of globalization of economic life begin to develop, and a global system of information communications is being formed.

At the same time, the symptoms of the crisis of an industrial society make themselves felt in many parts of the world and at the beginning of the 21st century, including in the territory of the former USSR.

Questions and tasks

What approaches to the periodization of world history existed in historical science? Give examples.

· Explain why any periodization of the historical process is conditional. Under what changes in social development is it legitimate to speak of the onset of a new stage in world history?

· Explain why the periodization of the newest period of history is one of the controversial issues. What changes in world social development can be associated with the onset of a new stage?

Fill the table.

Topic 3. Primitive era. Human society and natural communities

The oldest stone tools are 2.5-3 million years old. Consequently, at that time in East Africa there were already living creatures with the rudiments of reason.

The most developed primates (chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans) are able in certain situations to use ready-made objects (stick, stone). However, they cannot make a tool, even the most primitive one (to chip and sharpen flint). This requires a certain knowledge about the properties of objects (for example, that flint is better processed than granite), the ability to plan one's actions, to speculatively imagine their result, which implies the skill of abstract thinking, the presence of reason.

The origin of the mind is explained by the action of natural laws of evolutionary development, interspecies struggle for survival. The best chances in this struggle were those species that, to a greater extent than others, could ensure their existence in the changing conditions of the natural environment.

Living nature has demonstrated an infinite variety of both dead-end and viable evolution options. One of them was associated with the formation of the rudiments of social behavior, which many species of animals demonstrate. Uniting in herds (flocks), they could defend themselves and protect their cubs from stronger opponents, get more food. At the same time, the size of each of them was limited by the ability to feed themselves in a certain territory (primitive people had a herd size of 20-40 people).

In the interspecific and sometimes intraspecific struggle between herds that needed similar food, those who had better developed communication, the ability to warn each other about the approach of the enemy, and better coordinate their actions on the hunt, won. Gradually, over hundreds of thousands of years, the primitive sound signals expressing emotions among the predecessors of man began to acquire an increasingly meaningful character. Speech was formed, inseparable from the ability to abstract, abstract thinking, which meant a complication of the structure of the brain. Those individuals who showed great ability to communicate had the best chances to survive in the primitive herd, to leave offspring.

Thus, the emergence and improvement of speech, abstract thinking have become the most important factor in the development of the human race itself. It is no coincidence that each new step along the stage of human evolution was associated, on the one hand, with the development of the brain, and on the other hand, with the improvement of hunting and fishing tools.

Many animals demonstrate the ability to learn. However, the reflexes and skills acquired by one individual do not become the property of the species. In the herds of primitive people, knowledge was gradually accumulated, which, thanks to the development of speech, was transmitted from generation to generation. They reflected the experience of tens of thousands of years of interaction with the outside world, concerned the properties of surrounding objects, understanding the connections between actions and their results.

The accumulation of knowledge and practical skills in their application has provided man with decisive advantages in the struggle for survival in comparison with other species. Armed with clubs, spears, acting together, primitive hunters could cope with any predator. The opportunities for obtaining food have expanded significantly. Thanks to warm clothes, mastering fire, acquiring the skill of preserving food (drying, smoking), people were able to settle over a vast territory, felt relative independence from the climate and the vagaries of the weather.

The accumulation of knowledge was not a constantly evolving, progressive process. Many human communities perished due to starvation, disease, attacks by hostile tribes, the knowledge they gained was completely or partially lost.

Stages of human development

The most ancient stone tools are found in East Africa, North and South Asia. It was in these areas that Australopithecus lived. They were more ape-like than human, although they could walk on two legs. It is generally accepted that Australopithecus used sticks and sharp stones as weapons, but, most likely, did not yet know how to handle them.

Approximately 1.0 million - 700 thousand years ago, a period begins, which is called the early Paleolithic (from the Greek "paleo" - "ancient * and "cast" - "stone"). Excavations in France, near the villages of Shell and Saint-Achel, made it possible to find the remains of caves and ancient settlements, where successive generations of predecessors of modern man lived for tens of thousands of years. Subsequently, such finds were discovered in other places.

Archaeological research has made it possible to trace how the tools of labor and hunting changed. Tools made of bone and sharpened stone (points, scrapers, axes) became more and more perfect and durable. The physical type of a person changed: he more and more adapted to moving on the ground without the help of hands, the volume of the brain increased.

So, the volume of the brain of a great ape was about 300-600 cubic meters. cm, Australopithecus - 600-700 cu. cm, Pithecanthropus - 800-870 cu. see, Sinanthropus and Heidelberg man - more than 1000 cubic meters. see, Neanderthal - 1300-1700 cu. see, modern man - 1400-1800 cubic meters. cm.

The most important achievement of the early Paleolithic was the mastery of the ability to use fire (about 200-300 thousand years ago) to heat the home, cook food, and protect against predators.

Initially, people did not know how to kindle a fire. Its source was accidental forest and steppe fires, the extracted fire was constantly maintained in the hearths. The ancient Greek legend about Prometheus, who stole the knowledge of fire from the gods, is probably an echo of the memory of very old times.

The period of the early Paleolithic period ends with a sharp change in the natural conditions of the existence of primitive people. The onset of glaciers began, approximately 100 thousand years ago, covering almost the entire territory of Russia, Central and Western Europe. Many herds of primitive Neanderthal hunters could not adapt to the new conditions of existence. Between them, the struggle for diminished sources of food intensified.

By the end of the early Paleolithic (about 30-20 thousand years BC), Neanderthals completely disappeared in Eurasia and Africa. Man of the modern, Cro-Magnon type has established himself everywhere.

Man masters his planet

The Mesolithic era (from the Greek "mesos" - "middle" and "cast" - "stone") covers the period from the 20th to the 9th-8th millennium BC. It is characterized by a new change in natural conditions, which are becoming more favorable: glaciers are retreating, new territories are becoming available for settlement.

During this period, the population of the Earth did not exceed 10 million people. This is not much, but with the predominance of the economy of the appropriating type (hunting, fishing, gathering), it was necessary to constantly expand the territory of hunting grounds. The weakest tribes were forced out to the periphery of the inhabited world. Approximately 25 thousand years ago, man first entered the American continent, about 20 thousand years ago - to Australia.

The history of the settlement of America and Australia causes a lot of controversy. It is generally accepted that a person could have been on these continents even before the end of the ice age, when the ocean level was about 100 m lower than the modern one and there were land bridges connecting these continents with Eurasia. At the same time, scientists, noting that there were several waves of migration to overseas continents, prove that already at the dawn of their history, people could cross wide water spaces. Norwegian explorer T. Heyerdahl, in order to prove the correctness of this point of view, crossed the Pacific Ocean on a raft made using technologies that could have been available to man during the Mesolithic.

In the Mesolithic era, rock art was born and became widespread. In the remains of dwellings of that time, archaeologists find figurines depicting people, animals, beads and other decorations. All this indicates the onset of a new stage in the knowledge of the world. Abstract symbols and generalized concepts that arose with the development of speech acquire, as it were, an independent life in drawings and figurines. Many of them were associated with rituals, rituals of primitive magic.

The greatest mystery for man was himself, the process of cognition, understanding the nature of intellectual activity and the abilities associated with it. Primitive magic was built on the belief in the possibility of words, symbolic actions and drawings to influence distant objects and other people, in the special significance of dreams. Early beliefs sometimes did indeed have a certain rational basis. However, they often became fetters for further knowledge of the world.

The large role of chance in people's lives gave rise to attempts to improve the situation in hunting, in life. So there was a belief in signs, favorable or unfavorable. Fetishism appeared - the belief that certain objects (talismans) have a special magical power. Among them were figurines of animals, stones, amulets supposedly bringing good luck to their owner. Beliefs arose, for example, that a warrior who drank the blood of an enemy or ate his heart acquires special strength. Hunting, treating the sick, choosing a couple (boys or girls) were preceded by ritual actions, among which dance and singing were of particular importance. Mesolithic people knew how to make percussion, wind, stringed and plucked musical instruments.

Particular importance was attached to funeral rituals, which became more and more complex over time. In ancient burials, archaeologists find jewelry and tools that people used during their lifetime, food supplies. This proves that already at the dawn of history there were widespread beliefs in the existence of the other world, where a person lives after death.

Gradually, faith in higher powers was strengthened, which could both help and harm. It was assumed that they could be cajoled by sacrifice, most often - part of the booty, it had to be left in a certain place. Some tribes practiced human sacrifice.

It was believed that some people have great abilities to communicate with higher powers, spirits. Gradually, along with the leaders (they usually became the strongest, most successful, experienced hunters), priests (shamans, sorcerers) began to play a prominent role in the life of primitive tribes. They usually knew the healing properties of herbs, perhaps had some hypnotic abilities and had a great influence on their fellow tribesmen.

The time of the completion of the Mesolithic and the transition to a new stage in the development of mankind can only be determined approximately. Among many tribes of the equatorial zone in Africa, South America, on the islands of Southeast Asia and the Pacific Ocean, among the natives of Australia, and some peoples of the North, the type of economic activity and culture has practically not changed since the Mesolithic. At the same time, in the IX-VIII millennia BC. in some parts of the world, the transition to agriculture and pastoralism begins. This time of the Neolithic revolution (from the Greek "neos" - "new" and "cast" - "stone") marks the transition from appropriating to producing type of economic activity.

Man and nature: the first conflict

Man around the X millennium BC. has established itself on all continents as the dominant species and, as such, has ideally adapted to the conditions of its habitat. However, further improvement of hunting tools led to the extermination of many species of animals, the reduction of their population, which undermined the foundations of the existence of primitive people. Hunger and related diseases, the intensification of the struggle between the tribes for the increasingly poor hunting territories, the reduction in the human population - such was the price for progress.

This first crisis in the development of civilization in history was resolved in two ways.

The tribes living in the harsh climate of the North, desert areas, jungles seemed to freeze in their development and in the knowledge of the world around them. Gradually, a system of prohibitions (taboos) developed, limiting hunting and food consumption. This prevented population growth, hindered the change in lifestyle and the development of knowledge.

In other cases, there was a breakthrough to a qualitatively new level of development. People moved to a conscious impact on the natural environment, to its transformation. The development of agriculture and cattle breeding took place only in favorable natural conditions.

After a successful hunt, live wolf cubs, lambs, kids, calves, wild boars, foals, and deer often fell into the camps. Initially, they were considered as a food supply, then it became clear that they could live in captivity and give birth. Breeding animals turned out to be much more productive than hunting their wild relatives. It took thousands of years for individual attempts at domestication to lead to the establishment of a new type of economy. During this time, new breeds of domesticated animals arose, most of which, unlike their wild ancestors, could no longer survive in the natural environment, they needed a person to protect them from predators.

According to archaeologists, the first animal that began to live with a person as early as the 15th millennium BC, guarding his dwelling and helping to hunt, was a dog. In the X millennium BC. the tribes of Northern Eurasia began to breed deer. In the 7th millennium BC. in the steppes of the Caspian Sea, Iran, Turkey, goats and sheep became domesticated. A millennium later, cattle breeding began in the same place, as well as in the Indus Valley.

The transition to agriculture took place in a similar way. The gathering of edible plants has always played an important role in the life of primitive man. Over time, from observations and experience, the understanding came that plant seeds can be sown near the settlement and, with appropriate care, watering, weeding, get good yields.

Agricultural and pastoral crops

The first agricultural cultures of the 7th-4th millennia BC arose near large rivers, where the mild climate and exceptional soil fertility made it possible to obtain good harvests - on the territory of modern Egypt, Iran, Iraq, India, Central Asia, China, Mexico, Peru.

The first plants to be grown in Europe were wheat and barley. In Southeast Asia in the 7th millennium BC. grown beans and peas. In China, from the agricultural cultures of the 4th millennium BC. millet dominated. In South America in the VII-V millennia BC. e. planted corn, pumpkin, beans.

During this period, people's lives underwent very significant changes.

For most of the primitive communal era, the existence of people was subordinated to the interests of the struggle for survival. All the time was spent looking for food. At the same time, a person who accidentally strayed from his tribe or expelled from it had no chance of surviving.

The memory of that time was preserved in subsequent eras. So, in the city-states of ancient Greece, the death penalty was often replaced by exile, although in ancient times moving from one city to another was quite common.

The only form of division of labor existed between men, who were mainly engaged in hunting, and women, who remained in the camp and looked after children, kept house, sewing, and cooking.

Over time, the structure of social relations began to become more complex. Thanks to the increased productivity of labor, it became possible to produce more products than was necessary for the survival of the tribe.

The division of labor deepened. On the one hand, agriculture separated from cattle breeding, on the other hand, handicrafts acquired independent significance. In the V-IV millennium BC. weaving and pottery developed (pottery was made with the help of a potter's wheel). Boats and the first wheeled carts appeared, driven by draft animals (horses, oxen and donkeys).

In order for an artisan to specialize in the manufacture of products necessary for the entire tribe, to improve his skills, he had to be free from obtaining food. He had to exchange the products of his labor with his fellow tribesmen for meat and grain.

The sphere of exchange gradually expanded. Tribes that produced more food than they needed to survive began to exchange surpluses. This made it possible to expand the diet, make consumption more diverse. Stable economic ties gradually developed between neighboring settlements, and a division of labor was established. For example, in some settlements, artisans specialized in weapons, in others - in weaving, in others - in the manufacture of dishes, etc.

In the settlements of the VII-V millennia BC. lived from a few hundred to 2-3 thousand people. In warm regions, the wooden frame of houses was covered with leather, straw, and covered with clay. In northern and central Europe, houses were built of wood, each house accommodating several related families. Settlements were usually surrounded by walls made of stones, clay, ditches were built to protect against raids by hostile tribes. In the center of the settlement, most often they erected a monumental building, an altar to the spirits - the patrons of the tribe.

Initially, the exchange was of a natural nature. But with its expansion, there was a need for the existence of a single equivalent of the value of goods, in other words, in money.

The function of money in different parts of the world was played by various objects, as a rule, quite rare and at the same time suitable for use. Among the Slavic, Scandinavian tribes, the Indians of North America, most often these were furs, skins. Among the Arab, part of the Slavic tribes - cattle, among many tribes of the Pacific basin - rare shells. The tribes of Central Africa - ivory, in China - salt.

The emergence of excess production became the basis not only for the development of trade, but also for the emergence of property inequality.

Neolithic tribes did not know private property. So, the American Indians even in the XVII - XIX centuries. farmed together, grown and mined products were the common property of the tribe.

Gradually, the leaders, sorcerers (priests), the most skilled artisans began to accumulate property and valuables. Experienced artisans and healers, whose work was especially highly valued by their fellow tribesmen, began to hide the secrets of their craftsmanship.

Transition from matriarchy to patriarchy

The appearance of property, property, knowledge, labor, professional skills, which were inherited, was closely connected with changes in the way of life of people of the Neolithic era, the emergence of such a cell of the organization of society as a family.

The question of the origin of the family has long been controversial among ethnographers and archaeologists. The greatest contribution to its solution was made by the American scientist L. Morgan (1818-1881), who studied the life of the Indians of North America in comparison with the life of other peoples who remained at the Neolithic level. According to Morgan's views, the family relations of primitive people underwent a long evolution, passing through a series of successive stages.

The most important role in the formation of the family was played by the transition from matriarchy to patriarchy.

In a period when the main source of food was hunting, the age of men turned out to be, as a rule, short-lived. Only the most successful and skillful of them lived to be 25-30 years old.

An echo of the time when the survival of the tribe depended on the number of male food earners, there remains the special importance that many peoples attach to the birth of a boy.

Under these conditions, women played an important role in the preservation of the family. It was they who gave birth to new generations of hunters (the degree of kinship was determined by the mother), raised children, kept the hearth, organized the life of the tribe, whose members were related by blood ties. This system was called matriarchy.

The work of a farmer, cattle breeder, craftsman did not involve such a risk to life as hunting. Mortality among men decreased, the number of men and women equalized. This played a big role in changing the nature of family relationships.

Fields and cattle pens were usually located near the settlement, and men now worked together with women, doing the most difficult, hard work. The acquired skills and knowledge they passed on to children. This determined the increasing role of men in the tribe. In many nations, it gradually became dominant.

The emerging traditions, customs, rituals also consolidated the norms of patriarchy, i.e. special role of men in society.

Neolithic people usually lived in large families (several dozen people), which included blood relatives. Men and women belonging to the same clan could not marry each other. The timing of this prohibition, which avoids the genetic degeneration observed by most tribes, is not known, but it arose quite a long time ago.

Grown up girls were given in marriage to other clans, and men took wives from them. In other words, women passed from generation to generation, men remained in their family, and it was they who became its permanent core. The degree of relationship was now taken into account in the male line. In some tribes, women were seen as a kind of commodity that one family sold to another.

With such a system of kinship ties, the property created or acquired by the family remained in it. The concept of ownership has emerged. Craftsmen, healers also sought to pass on their knowledge to their family members.

Several clans living in the neighborhood, whose members married each other, made up a tribe. The head of the tribe was the leader.

Transition to the Eneolithic

With the growth of the population, certain clans settled in undeveloped or conquered territories, and over time, new tribes formed. Related tribes speaking the same language, having similar beliefs, usually maintained close ties with each other. Together they formed alliances of tribes, supporting each other in case of conflicts, in lean years.

Tribes that moved a long distance from their original territory (those who specialized in cattle breeding were especially inclined to resettle) often lost contact with the center of their origin. Their language developed, words borrowed from new neighbors appeared in it, associated with changing forms of economic activity.

The classification of languages ​​provides material for determining the initial areas of residence of peoples, understanding the foundations of their traditions and culture. Thus, the kinship of the languages ​​of peoples separated by a vast territory indicates either that they had common roots, or that they lived in the past within the same geographical area and the existence of close ties between them, which is often confirmed by the similarity of customs and rituals.

Approximately in the V-IV millennia BC. the main distribution centers of the existing and still language groups are formed.

In total, there are about 4 thousand languages ​​\u200b\u200bon the globe (it is impossible to give an exact figure, since the boundaries between languages ​​and dialects of one language are mobile). Linguists combine them into large language families (Indo-European, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, Mongolian, Semitic-Hamitic, Berber-Libyan, Cushitic, Sino-Tibetan, etc.). The languages ​​of the largest, Indo-European, family are spoken by about 45% of the world's population. It includes the languages ​​of the Slavic, Baltic, Germanic, Celtic, Romance, Albanian, Greek, Armenian, Iranian, Nuristani, Indo-Aryan language groups.

In the modern world, people who speak Indo-European languages ​​perceive them as different (like Russian and English, for example). However, according to archeology, the tribes who spoke close dialects, which later developed into Indo-European languages, in the 4th-3rd millennia BC. lived in a limited area - in Southwest Asia, south of the Black Sea and Caspian regions. Later they settled in the vast territories of Eurasia.

At the same time, a new stage began in the development of agricultural and pastoral tribes: they moved on to the development of metals. In search of new materials for the manufacture of tools, artisans found nuggets of low-melting metals (copper, tin, lead, etc.) and eventually learned to make weapons, tools and jewelry from them. Metals were better and faster to process than stone, they could be used to make more productive tools, better weapons, and armor.

There were still few available reserves of metal, their processing was only the first steps, so stone tools were used for a long time. Nevertheless, the time that began with the development of metal (the first metal tools date back to the 7th millennium BC, but they are widely distributed only in the 4th-3rd millennium BC) is called the Eneolithic (copper-stone age). It was marked by the onset of a new stage in the history of mankind, associated with the emergence of the first states.

Questions and tasks.

· Using the knowledge acquired in the lessons of biology, history and social studies, tell us about the most common hypotheses of the origin of man. When did the theory of evolution appear and who was its author?

What factors contributed to the separation of man from the natural world? What role did interspecific and intraspecific struggle play in the process of human evolution?

Name the directions of evolution of the human race. What was the significance of the accumulation of knowledge for ancient man in the struggle for survival?

What regions are the ancestral home of mankind? Name the humanoid ancestors of humans.

· Track the changes in the anthropological type of man in the process of evolution.

· What human achievements in the early Paleolithic era allowed him to survive in the conditions of the Ice Age?

· At what stage of primitive history did human settlement occur on the continents of the planet?

· When did rock art and religious beliefs emerge in human groups? What function did they perform?

What changes in human economic activity gave grounds to talk about the Neolithic revolution?

What problems in the relationship between man and nature have been caused by the improvement of tools? What were the consequences of the first crisis in the development of civilization?

· Tell us about the process of transition from appropriating to producing type of economy.

· Explain how the division of labor and the specialization of activities influenced the complication of social relations and the change in the nature of exchange. What items were used as equivalent value of goods?

· Indicate the factors that contributed to the emergence of wealth inequality and the emergence of private property.

· Explain the concepts: matriarchy, patriarchy. Think about how the processes are interconnected: the folding of private property and the transition to patriarchy.

At what stage of development did the allocation of language groups occur?

What changes in human society have occurred with the beginning of the development of metals?