MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS

S W №43

Abstract on the topic:

"ANCIENT INDIA"

Pupils 10 "B" class

Kutuzova Elena

Mogilev, 2002

Bibliography :

1.G.I. Dovgyalo "What is History?"

2. O.V. Perzashkevich and A.A. Prokhorov "Countries of the Ancient East"

Minsk

"People's Asveta"

1996
Content:

1. List of references……………………………………………2p

3. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………...4page

4. ANCIENT STATE OF INDIA…………………………….5str

4.1. Location and nature of Ancient India…………..5str

4.2. The formation of states in ancient India.………………6str

4.3. Economic life. ……………………………………...7page

5. CULTURE OF ANCIENT INDIA ………………………………………………………………9str

5.1. Languages ​​and writing of ancient India. …………………..9str

5.2. Literature. …………………………………………….……9str

5.3. Religion of Ancient India.…………………………………...10str

6. INTERESTING ABOUT INDIA……………………………………… 11str

6.1. Excavations in Mahenjo-Daro……………………..…………11str

6.2. The social structure of the Indian according to ancient laws ... 12str

7. CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………….

Introduction

India is an ancient country about 8 thousand years old. The amazing Indian people lived on its territory. which were divided into several public classes. Where priests played an important role. Although historians do not know who ruled such an amazing state. The Indians had their own language and script. Their letters cannot be deciphered by scientists to this day.

The ancient Indians gave humanity such agricultural crops as cotton and sugar cane. They made a thin fabric of chintz. They have tamed the world's largest animal, the elephant.

They worshiped and believed in different gods. Animals were deified. Along with the gods, the Vedas, the Sanskrit language and the Brahmins were revered as the guardians of culture and sacred knowledge. Brahmins were considered living gods.

This is a very interesting state and people.

ancient state of india

Location and nature of ancient India .

In the south of Asia, behind the Himalayan range, there is an amazing country - India. Its history goes back almost 8 thousand years. However, modern India differs in size from the ancient country of the same name. In terms of area, Ancient India was approximately equal to Egypt, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Iran, Syria, Phenicia and Palestine combined.

This vast territory had a variety of natural conditions. In the west, the Indus River flowed, it rained relatively infrequently, but in summer there were large floods. Vast steppes spread out here.

In the east, the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers carried their waters to the Indian Ocean. It always rained heavily here, and the whole land was covered with marshy swamps and impenetrable jungle. These are dense thickets of trees and shrubs, where twilight reigns even during the day. The jungle was inhabited by tigers, panthers, elephants, poisonous snakes and a huge variety of insects.

The central and southern parts of India in ancient times were mountainous spaces, where it was always hot and there was a lot of rain. But the abundance of moisture was not always a blessing. Dense vegetation and swamps were a big obstacle for ancient farmers armed with stone and copper axes. Therefore, the first settlements appear in India in the less wooded north-west of the country. The Indus Valley had another advantage. It was closer to the ancient states of Western Asia, which facilitated communication and trade with them.

State formation in ancient India .

So far, scientists have little information about the social system and culture of Indian cities. The fact is that the writing of the ancient Indians has not yet been deciphered. But today it is known that in the III and the first half of the II millennium BC. e. in the Indus Valley there was a single state with two capitals. This is Harappa in the north and mohenjo-daro on South. The inhabitants were divided into several public classes. It is not known exactly who ruled the state. But they played a big role priests.

With the decline of the Indian state, the public organization also collapsed. Writing has been forgotten.

Appearing in the middle II millennium BC. e., the arias brought with them their social organization. It was based on the division of society into "their own" (Aryans) and "strangers" (dasov). Using the right of the conquerors, the Aryans gave the Dasas a dependent position in society.

There was also a division among the Aryans themselves. They were divided into three classes - varnas. The first and highest brew were Brahmins - priests, teachers, guardians of culture. Second varna - kshatriyas. It was military nobility. In the third varna - vaishyas- included farmers, artisans and merchants. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. the fourth varna appeared - sudras. It means "servant". This varna included all non-arii. They were obliged to serve the first three varnas. The lowest position was "untouchables". They did not belong to any of the varnas and were obliged to do the dirtiest work.

With the development of crafts, the growth of population and the complication of public life, in addition to varnas, an additional division by profession. This division is called division into castes.

And in a certain varna, like a caste, a person fell by birthright. If you are born in a brahmin family, you are a brahmin; if in a sudra family, you are a sudra. Belonging to one or another varna and caste determined the rules of behavior for every Indian.

The further development of Indian society led in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. to the emergence of kingdoms headed by rajas. (In ancient Indian "raja" means "king".)

At the end of the IV century. BC e. a mighty empire is formed in India. Its founder was Chandragupta, who stopped the advance of the army of Alexander the Great. This power reached its highest power under the grandson of Chandragupta Ashok (263-233 BC).

Thus, already in the III-beginning of the II millennium BC. e. India had a state. It not only was not inferior in its development, but at times surpassed Egypt and Mesopotamia. After the decline of Indian culture and the arrival of the Aryans, the social structure of ancient Indian society became more complicated. Its culture was created by the Aryans with the participation of the local population. At this time, a caste system is formed. A mighty empire arose. changing, ancient Indian culture has survived to the present day.

Economic life.

Already in the III millennium BC. e. The main occupation of the inhabitants of the Indus Valley was agriculture. They grew wheat, barley, peas, millet, jute and, for the first time in the world, cotton and sugar cane.

Animal husbandry was well developed. The Indians raised cows, sheep, goats, pigs, donkeys, elephants. The horse came later.

The Indians were well acquainted with metallurgy. The main tools of labor were made of copper. Knives, spear and arrowheads, hoes, axes and much more were smelted from it. Artistic casting, masterful stone processing, alloys, among which bronze occupied a special place, were no secret to them. The Indians knew gold and lead. But iron at that time they did not know.

The craft was also developed. Spinning and weaving played an important role. The craftsmanship of the jewelers is impressive. They worked precious metals and stones, ivory and shells.

Maritime and land trade reached a high level. In 1950, archaeologists found the first port in history for anchoring ships at low tide.

The most active trade was with the Southern Mesopotamia. Cotton and jewelry were brought here from India. Barley, vegetables, fruits were brought to India. There were trade links with Egypt and the island of Crete. Probably, the Indians also exchanged with neighboring nomadic peoples and even built a city on the Amu Darya River.

With the decline of Indian culture, economic life came to a standstill. Appeared in the middle of the II millennium BC. e. The Aryans were nomads and lagged far behind the Indians in economic development. The only thing in which the Aryans were ahead of the Indians was in the use of the horse.

Only at the turn of II - I millennia BC. e. the new population of India - the Indians - again switched to agriculture. Crops of wheat, barley, millet, cotton and jute appeared. The farmers of the Ganges River valley gathered especially large crops.

Along with the horse and cattle, the elephant occupied an important place in the economy. With its help, people successfully fought the impenetrable jungle.

Metallurgy is developing. Having quickly mastered bronze, already at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. Indians learned how to mine iron. This greatly facilitated the development of new lands previously occupied by swamps and jungles.

The craft is also being revived. Again, a prominent place in the economy is occupied by pottery and weaving. Indian cotton fabrics were especially famous, products from which could be threaded through a small ring. These fabrics were very expensive. In honor of the goddess of arable land Sita they were named chintz. There were also simpler cheap fabrics.

Only trade remained at a low level. It was limited to the exchange of goods between neighboring communities.

Thus, the ancient Indians gave humanity such agricultural crops as cotton and sugar cane. They have tamed the world's largest animal, the elephant.

CULTURE OF ANCIENT INDIA

Languages ​​and writing of ancient India.

At the end of the III millennium BC. e. India was a major power with a highly developed culture. But it is not yet known what language the inhabitants of the Indus Valley spoke. Their writing is still a mystery to scientists.

You can talk about this topic for a very long time, because the civilization that originated in the Indus Valley has a rich history. But in this article we will consider the history of Ancient India briefly.
The origin of an organized society in the Indus Valley should be dated to the emergence of the Harappan civilization, which dates back to the 3rd millennium BC. e., and for this period her dawn comes.

Harappan civilization

Dated approximately 3000 - 1300 years. BC e. It is characterized by monumental stone construction, and irrigation agriculture already existed. There is evidence that it was in this period that the first toilets, as well as sewers, appeared.
At this stage of development, the Hindus mainly smelted bronze, but also used copper. Trade was highly developed, civilization traded with the states of Central Asia, Mesopotamia.
The writing of this civilization has not yet been deciphered. But they wrote from right to left, which is very interesting.
When weather conditions began to worsen, the main occupation that brought dawn to civilization - agriculture, began to decline. Approximately in the middle of the 2nd millennium, the population began to migrate to the west and lost its level of development.

Vedic civilization

The most interesting period in the ancient history of India is undoubtedly the Vedic, since after it a mass of archaeological and documentary sources remained, which made it possible to study this period in as much detail as possible.
The Vedic civilization is dated from the 2nd millennium BC. e. until about the 7th-5th centuries. BC e.
The most famous monument of this period is a sacred book called the Vedas. It recorded everything about the social structure of society, about laws, customs, etc.
Analyzing it, we come to the conclusion that the whole society was divided into varnas - large castes. There were four in total:
- Shudras - the lowest caste, which included hired workers;
- vaishya - this includes merchants, artisans and farmers;
- Kshatriyas are an honorary class of warriors;
- Brahmins - this should include the ruling elite: priests, scientists, etc .;
However, there were several hundred castes in total. The caste could not be left, but it could also be expelled for misconduct, for example, for ties with members of another caste.
In this era, writing was developed - Sanskrit, which was completely deciphered, and therefore there is plenty of data on this period. The foundation of a world-class religion and influence - Hinduism was also laid, a pantheon of gods was established.
The people who created the Vedic civilization are called the Aryans, who conquered the territories of Asia and Europe.

The Time of the Petty Principalities

Around the 6th century BC. e. several hundred small city-states were created on the territory of India, which lasted three centuries. In the fourth century, King Alexander the Great came to India, subjugating a significant territory of India, but after his death, the Hindus soon freed themselves.
After that, the Mauryan Empire was created in their place, but this is a completely different topic.

It is no secret that the people and nature of ancient India have always been connected with each other. This influence is reflected in culture, art and religion. India is a country of untold riches and amazing secrets that scientists have yet to discover.

Nature

Hindustan is a huge peninsula located in the south of Asia, which is, as it were, separated from the surrounding world by the Himalayas - a majestic mountain range on one side and the Indian Ocean on the other. Only a few passages in the gorges and valleys connect this country with other peoples and neighboring states. The Deccan Plateau occupies almost its entire central part. Scientists are sure that it was here that the civilization of Ancient India was born.

The great rivers Indus and Ganges originate somewhere in the mountain ranges of the Himalayas. The waters of the latter are considered sacred by the inhabitants of the country. As for the climate, it is very humid and hot, so most of India is covered with jungle. Tigers, panthers, monkeys, elephants, many kinds of poisonous snakes and other animals live in these impenetrable forests.

Activities of the local population

It is no secret that scientists have always been interested in the nature of ancient India and the people who inhabited this territory from time immemorial. The main occupation of the local people was considered settled agriculture. Most often, settlements arose along the banks of rivers, since here were the most fertile soils suitable for the cultivation of wheat, rice, barley and vegetables. In addition, sugarcane, which grew in abundance in this swampy area, was used by the inhabitants to make a sweet powder. This product was the oldest sugar in the world.

Indians also grew cotton in their fields. The finest yarn was made from it, which then turned into comfortable and lightweight fabrics. They were perfect for this hot climate. In the north of the country, where rainfall was not so frequent, ancient people built complex irrigation systems akin to the Egyptian ones.

The Indians were also engaged in gathering. They knew both useful and harmful properties of most of the flowers and plants they knew. Therefore, we figured out which of them can simply be eaten, and which ones can be used to get spices or incense. The richest nature of India is so diverse that it gave the inhabitants such plants that were not found anywhere else, and they, in turn, learned to cultivate them and use them with maximum benefit for themselves. A little later, a wide variety of spices and incense attracted many merchants from different countries.

Civilization

Ancient India with its extraordinary culture already existed in the 3rd millennium BC. Around this time, the civilizations of such major cities as Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, where people were able to build two- and even three-story houses, using burnt bricks, also belong to this time. At the beginning of the 20th century, British archaeologists managed to find the ruins of these ancient settlements.

Especially surprising was Mohenjo-Daro. As scientists have suggested, this city was built for more than one century. Its territory occupied an area of ​​250 hectares. The researchers found straight streets with tall buildings here. Some of them towered over seven meters. Presumably, these were buildings with several floors, where there were no windows or any decorations. However, there were ablution rooms in the living quarters, which were supplied with water from special wells.

The streets in this city were laid out in such a way that they ran from north to south as well as from east to west. Their width reached ten meters, and this allowed scientists to assume that its inhabitants already used carts on wheels. In the center of the ancient Mohenjo-Daro, a building was built, where there was a huge pool. Scientists still have not been able to accurately determine its purpose, but they have put forward a version that this is a city temple erected in honor of the god of water. Not far from it there was a market, spacious craft workshops and granaries. The city center was surrounded by a powerful fortress wall, where, most likely, the locals hid when they were in danger.

Art

In addition to the amazing layout of cities and unusual buildings, during large-scale excavations that began in 1921, a large number of various religious and household items were found that were used by their inhabitants. According to them, one can judge the high development of the applied and jewelry art of Ancient India. The seals found at Mohenjo-Daro were beautifully carved, indicating some similarity between the two cultures: the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia during Akkad and Sumer. Most likely, these two civilizations were connected by trade relations.

Ceramic products found on the territory of the ancient city are very diverse. The polished and shiny vessels were covered with ornaments, where images of plants and animals were harmoniously combined. Most often, these were containers covered with red paint with black drawings applied to them. Multicolored pottery was very rare. As for the fine arts of Ancient India from the end of the 2nd to the middle of the 1st millennium BC, it has not survived at all.

Scientific achievements

Scientists of ancient India were able to achieve great success in various branches of knowledge and, in particular, in mathematics. Here, for the first time, the decimal number system appeared, which provided for the use of zero. It is still used by all mankind. Approximately in the III-II millennium BC, during the civilization of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, according to modern scientists, the Indians already knew how to count in tens. Those numbers that we still use to this day are commonly called Arabic. In fact, they were originally called Indian.

The most famous mathematician of Ancient India, who lived in the Gupta era, and this is the 4th-6th centuries, is Aryabhata. He was able to systematize the decimal system and formulate rules for solving linear and indefinite equations, extracting cubic and square roots, and much more. The Indian believed that the number pi is 3.1416.

Another proof that the people and nature of ancient India are inextricably linked is Ayurveda or the science of life. It is impossible to determine exactly which period of history it belongs to. The depth of knowledge possessed by the ancient Indian sages is simply amazing! Many modern scientists rightly consider Ayurveda to be the progenitor of almost all medical areas. And this is not surprising. It formed the basis of Arabic, Tibetan and Chinese medicine. Ayurveda has absorbed the basic knowledge of biology, physics, chemistry, natural science and cosmology.

Mysteries of Ancient India: Qutub Minar

20 km from old Delhi, in the fortified city of Lal Kot, there is a mysterious metal pillar. This is the Qutub Minar, made from an unknown alloy. Researchers are still at a loss, and some of them are inclined to think that it has an alien origin. The column is about 1600 years old, but for 15 centuries it has not rusted. It seems that the ancient masters were able to create chemically pure iron, which is difficult to obtain even in our time, with the most modern technologies. The whole ancient world and India in particular are full of extraordinary mysteries that scientists have not yet been able to unravel.

Reasons for the decline

It is believed that the disappearance of the Harappan civilization is associated with the arrival of the northwestern tribes of the Aryans in these lands in 1800 BC. They were warlike conquering nomads who raised cattle and ate mainly dairy products. Aryans first of all began to destroy large cities. Over time, the surviving buildings began to fall into disrepair, and new houses were built from old bricks.

Another version of scientists concerning the nature and people of Ancient India is that not only the enemy invasion of the Aryans contributed to the disappearance of the Harappan civilization, but also a significant deterioration in the environment. They do not exclude such a reason as a sharp change in the level of sea water, which could lead to numerous floods, and then to the emergence of various epidemics caused by terrible diseases.

social organization

One of the many features of ancient India is the division of people into castes. Such a stratification of society occurred around the 1st millennium BC. Its emergence was due to both religious views and the political system. With the advent of the Aryans, almost the entire local population began to be attributed to the lower caste.

At the highest level were the brahmins - priests who ruled religious cults and did not engage in heavy physical labor. They lived solely on the sacrifices of believers. A step lower was the caste of kshatriyas - warriors with whom the brahmins did not always get along, as they often could not share power among themselves. Next came the vaishyas - shepherds and peasants. Below were the Shudras, who did only the dirtiest work.

Consequences of stratification

The society of ancient India was organized in such a way that the caste of people was inherited. For example, the children of the Brahmins, growing up, became priests, and the Kshatriyas - exclusively warriors. Such a division only hindered the further development of society and the country as a whole, since many talented people could not realize themselves and were doomed to live in eternal poverty.

Ancient India is one of the most unusual civilizations of antiquity. Already in those days, it was spoken of as a "country of wise men." was in close interaction with both the Arab countries and the ancient world, exerting a significant influence on their development. Many writers and philosophers of antiquity sought to visit India at least once in their lives in order to enrich their worldview.

The first people in India

And this is no accident - nature and people still continue to interest archaeologists. Its territory was inhabited in ancient times. The first tribe to inhabit what is now India were the Dravidians. Then other settlers came to replace the Dravidians, who differed significantly in their way of life and traditions. The two largest cities of ancient India, which at various times were political centers, are Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa.

The unexpected discovery of the archaeologist Sakhni

For the first time, the Harappan civilization was discovered by archaeologists who were interested in the nature and people of Ancient India, and for whom India itself was the homeland. Initially, the goal of the Indian archaeologist R. Sahni and his colleague R. Banerjee was to discover the location of the temple of Old Shiva. However, instead of the ruins of the ancient sanctuary, the remains of the foundation of the ancient city quarter appeared before the researchers. Once on the site where the excavations were carried out, there were two- and three-story residential buildings, statues stood on the streets. The city was decorated with gardens, bridges and parks, and in almost every quarter there was a well.

Legend confirmed by facts

After this discovery, the scientist became even more interested in Ancient India, nature and people who were once part of Sahni and decided to undertake another expedition. This time he traveled a distance of 600 km from the place where the first discovery was made. The intuition of the archaeologist, as well as the stories of local residents, did not let the researchers down. Even the name of the hill, where the British once chose bricks for the construction of the railway, inspired mystical awe. In the translation "Mohenjo-Daro", where the Sakhni expedition was going to go, means "Settlement of the Dead".

The legend, which was told by the locals, was subsequently fully confirmed by the finds of Sakhni. It was believed that in ancient times there was a city on the site where the Mohenjo-Daro hill was located. Its ruler angered the higher powers with his dissolute life, and the gods decided to destroy this civilization. Indeed, in the process of excavations, Sakhni discovered a huge city on the territory of the hill, which was a contemporary of Ancient Egypt.

Further research

Sahni and his expedition continued to make discoveries that provided more and more information about what the nature and people of ancient India were like. They found several more large cities on the same territory, as well as about a thousand small settlements. The found civilization was named Harappan. In its size, it was four times larger than the Sumerian.

When archaeologists studied the extracted remains, they came to the conclusion: the Harappan civilization arose around 3300 BC. e. According to scientists, in the years of its heyday its population was about 5 million people. The population of the city of Mohenjo-Daro was a mix of different races. Most of the inhabitants were Dravidians, who are believed by scientists to have been Australoids. And also on the territory of the Harappan civilization lived representatives with a Sumerian, European and Mongoloid appearance.

Scientists in the process of excavation also compiled a technological map. Nature and people of ancient India, apparently, were in harmony with each other. The city streets of the Harappan civilization alternated with gardens, not separated from the surrounding nature. In terms of their location, the streets are in many ways reminiscent of modern ones. Their width was about ten meters. The wide streets were connected by narrow lanes.

Benefits of Indian lands in antiquity

But the cities were not built all at once. The nature and people of Ancient India, briefly described in the works of the mentioned archaeologists, were a kind of symbiosis. The very first of the settlements, which date back to the 6th-4th centuries BC. e., and became the progenitors of ancient Indian civilization. The place for settlement between Northern Balochistan and the valley provided the ancestors of modern Hindus with water, grain, flint deposits. Herds of wild goats and buffalo grazed in the valleys - all conditions contributed to the development of agriculture and farming in these places.

Scientists believe that representatives of the ancient Indian civilization traded mainly with the Sumerians. Sumerian manuscripts also point to this fact. In the territory where the Harappan civilization was once located, various goods of foreign origin were found in large quantities. These are cotton fabrics, beads, jewelry and shells.

Decline of proto-Indian civilization

It is believed that the period of decline of the Harappan civilization falls on 1800 BC. e. Many scientists are convinced that this happened due to the invasion of the Aryans - warlike conquerors from the northwest. Translated from the ancient Indian language, "Aryans" means "noble." These were nomadic tribes who were engaged in cattle breeding and ate mainly dairy products. In the future, the cow among the Indians received the status of Nature and the people of Ancient India, thus, gave way to "deities" who came from outside.

Other versions of scientists

First of all, the big cities were destroyed by the Aryans. Many buildings fell into disrepair, and old brick was used to build new houses. The nature and people of ancient India, studied by other archaeologists, may not fully fit into the coherent theory of the researcher Sahni. Some scientists believe that the reason for the decline of the Harappan civilization was not only enemy invasions, but also environmental degradation. This is a change in the level of the seabed, which caused floods, and an epidemic of terrible diseases. The version that the crisis was caused by low yields due to soil salinization is also not ruled out.

Nature and people of ancient India: Indian castes

In ancient Indian society, the division into castes dates back to about the first millennium BC. e. The need for it was due not only to religious views, but also to the political system. The fact is that the entire population, which was subjugated by the Aryan conquerors, belonged to the lowest caste. The highest caste included brahmins - priests who did not engage in heavy physical labor. They subsisted on sacrifices.

Consequences of the caste system for society

The next caste, with which the Brahmins often had conflicts, are warriors, or kshatriyas. Between themselves, they often could not share power. The kshatriyas were followed by vaishyas - peasants and shepherds. The lowest caste was the Shudras. Shudras were servants who did the dirtiest work. Caste was hereditary. The children of brahmins could only be brahmins, the children of sudras could only be sudras. Such a stratification of society led to the fact that many talented people were doomed to vegetate in poverty, which hindered the development of the entire people.

Throughout the excavations, other scientists were also interested in the mystery of the Harappan civilization. Among them are anthropologists who were interested in Ancient India, nature and people who lived in Mohenjo-Daro. They compiled an approximate portrait of a typical representative of the Harappan civilization. Based on the excavations, scientists concluded that they were dark-haired and dark-eyed people with swarthy skin. They belonged to the Mediterranean branch

Nature and people of ancient India: a scheme for building cities

The largest cities of the Harappan civilization were built with great precision. The streets were as if drawn under a ruler, the houses were the same and geometrically correct. In their form, the dwellings of the ancient Hindus resembled boxes for cakes. In these cities, people had the opportunity to enjoy all the amenities. The so-called ditches flowed through the streets, from which water was supplied to each house.

Why Proto-Indian Architects Are Brilliant

Mother Nature and the people of Ancient India (5th graders begin to get acquainted with the culture and traditions of this country in the context of studying the history of the Ancient World) have learned to live in amazing harmony. This symbiosis may impress some of the most sophisticated connoisseurs with some facts. Sewerage was an amazing achievement of that time. Still not having the slightest idea that bacteria multiply especially rapidly at warm temperatures, the then architects made a brilliant decision for their time. Under the ground, they laid pipes of baked bricks, through which all sewage was removed outside the city. This allowed a large number of people to live in a limited area.

India is a South Asian country located on the Hindustan Peninsula. India as a state within its current borders was created in 1947, when it was divided by the British government into two independent states, India and Pakistan. However, we must not forget that the historical and modern borders of India are different, many historical areas that once belonged to India are now part of neighboring states.

India's external borders had a great influence on the fate of India. On the one hand, India, due to its borders, is isolated from the outside world. On the northern, northwestern and northeastern borders of the country there are mountain ranges (Himalayas, Karakoram, Purvachal), and on the other sides it is washed by the waters of the Indian Ocean (Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal). This isolation naturally affected the history and culture of India. The historical path of India is unique, and Indian culture is distinguished by its originality.

Nevertheless, from ancient times, mountain passes led to the territory of India, which served as a gateway to India both for trade caravans and for the conquering armies. Basically, we are talking about the northwestern border, where there are such mountain passes as: Khyber, Gomal, Bolan, through which almost all the conquerors came from the territory of modern Afghanistan to India (Aryans, Persians, Alexander the Great, Mahmud of Ghaznevid, Muhammad Guri, Babur ). In addition, India can be reached from the north and northeast from China and Myanmar.

If we talk about the maritime border of India, then despite its great length, India has never been considered a strong maritime power. This is due to the fact that the coastline is poorly dissected, so there are few natural harbors on the coast where sailing ships could take shelter from the winds. Basically, Indian ports are located either in the mouths of rivers or artificially arranged. Difficulties for sailors were also created by shallow water and reefs off the coast of India. Nevertheless, the Indians nevertheless made attempts to try themselves as sailors.

In history and ethnography, India is traditionally divided into three physical and geographical regions: 1) the Indo-Gangetic Plain, 2) the Deccan Plateau (Decan), 3) the Far South.

The Indo-Gangetic Plain is historically the most important part of India, because it was there that great empires have always been located. This northern plain is divided into two parts by the Thar Desert and the Aravalli Mountains. The western part is irrigated by the waters of the Indus, and the eastern part by the Ganges and its tributaries. Thanks to the rivers, the soil here is fertile, which led to the prosperity of the local population. It was here that the great civilizations of antiquity and medieval states arose. It was the Indo-Gangetic Valley that was most conquered, five decisive battles in Indian history took place on its land.

India can be called a land of contrasts. There is a well-known phrase "India is a world in miniature". If we talk about the climate, then in India it varies from the dry frosts of the Himalayas to the tropical heat of the Konkan and the Coromandel coast. All three types of climate can be found in India: arctic, temperate and tropical. The same goes for precipitation. There are very dry places in India like the Thar desert, and on the other hand the wettest point on the planet is Cherrapunji.

The English historian Smith calls India an "ethnographic museum," and for good reason. India is a museum of cults, customs, faiths, cultures, religions, languages, racial types and differences. From time immemorial, peoples belonging to different races (Aryans, Persians, Greeks, Turks, etc.) came to India. There are many ethnic groups living in India, all of them have their own traditions, customs and languages. There is a huge variety of religious denominations in India. This includes world religions - Buddhism, Islam, Christianity; local religions - Sikhism, Jainism and many others. The most widespread religion in India is Hinduism, it is practiced by the majority of the Indian population.

Harappan civilization and Mahenjo-Daro (2500 - 1500 BC)

Indian culture and history is one of the oldest on earth. According to some historians, Indian history is not inferior in antiquity to the histories of Egypt and Sumer. The Harappan civilization in the Indus Valley arose around 2500 BC. and lasted for about a millennium, that is, until 1500 BC. Most of the main cities of this civilization were located along the banks of the Indus. The first large-scale studies of it began in 1921. This civilization was named after the name of the first large city found. The second most famous and largest city of the Indus civilization was Mahenjo-Daro (Hill of the Dead).

The ethnic composition of the population of the Indus Valley and its roots are still a mystery. The Harappan culture was urban, and all cities were built according to a single plan. The Indians of that era were active in trade with other countries, were engaged in crafts, agriculture and cattle breeding. They had a written language, which, unfortunately, has not been deciphered, so this culture is studied from archaeological finds. The reasons for the decline of this civilization are still not clearly defined, but most likely it is associated with natural disasters. The last centers of Harappan culture may have fallen at the hands of the Aryans, who came to India around 1500 BC.

Vedic period (1500 - 500 BC)

The Aryans are nomadic tribes who invaded India from the northwest, through the Khyber Pass. Literary monuments (Vedas) are practically the only source of our knowledge about this period, while archaeological data are very scarce. The ancient Aryans did not have a written language, and the Vedic texts were passed from mouth to mouth, later they were written down in Sanskrit. The period of the first Aryan settlements, which is studied according to the Vedas, is called the Vedic period. A characteristic feature of the Vedic era is the dominance of religion and ritual cults in the life of society. Many elements from the Vedic religion entered Hinduism. It was during this period that there was a division of society into Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The Vedic religion itself also underwent changes, transforming into Vedic Brahminism. The main difference between Brahminism was the recognition of the supreme god of Brahma, while in the old Vedic religion, Indra was recognized as the supreme god.

The Vedic era lasted until the VI century. BC, before the formation of the first states in the Ganges valley.

The emergence of the first states in the Ganges valley

6th century - an era of change. During this period, in addition to the appearance of the first states, new religions appeared, the main ones being Jainism and Buddhism. Buddhist and Jain texts have not only sacred value, but also historical value, since we mainly draw information about the states of that era from them. According to Buddhist sources, at that time there were 16 states that were constantly at war with each other. By the 4th century BC. there has been a tendency towards unification, the number of states has decreased, but political fragmentation has not yet been overcome.

The existing political instability in the country made India an easy prey for Alexander the Great, who invaded its territory in 326 BC. The great conqueror did not go far inland, he was forced to leave the country before reaching the Ganges valley. He left some garrisons in India, which later assimilated with the local population.

With the advent of new religions (the main ones are Jainism and Buddhism), Vedic Brahmanism lost its ground, but by the 1st century BC. Brahminism is reborn in the form of Hinduism, absorbing and assimilating many folk beliefs and cults.

Magadha-Maurian era (4th century BC - 1st century)

After the departure of Alexander the Great, the rulers realized the need for unification, and the ruler of the state of Magadha, Chandragupta Maurya (317 BC), the founder of the Maurya dynasty, became the leader of the association. The capital of Magadha was the city of Pataliputra. The most famous ruler of this dynasty was Ashoka (268 - 231 BC). He became famous as a distributor of Buddhism, the policy of his state in many aspects was also based on the religious and ethical norms of Buddhism. In 180 BC The Mauryan dynasty was overthrown by the Shung dynasty. It was a weak dynasty, and the once great Mauryan state collapsed.

Gupta era (4th–6th centuries)

Until the 4th century power was divided between clans and tribes. In 320, a new Gupta dynasty (4th-6th centuries) was founded, and a vast empire was created under their rule. The era of the Guptas is the heyday, the "golden age" of the culture of Ancient India. Literature and architecture enjoyed the greatest patronage. In the VI century. The Gupta empire was on the verge of collapse and fell under the onslaught of nomadic tribes (Huns) invading Indian territory.

The Beginning of Medieval Indian History

After the fall of the Gupta state, political fragmentation began in the country. The first who, after the Guptas, tried to unite the country within a single state was Harsha (Harshavardhan), he ascended the throne in 606 and ruled until 646. It is from him that the beginning of the medieval history of India is considered to be. The capital of the state of Harsha was Kanauj. He was an educator. He patronized literature and science, favorably treated Buddhism. Harsha did not have strong successors, immediately after his death his state collapsed, and a period of political disintegration again followed. In the conditions of feudal fragmentation, the Indian rulers were unable to repulse a new threat - the Muslim conquests.

Muslim invaders

Arabs were the first Muslims to enter India. The Arabs began their campaigns of conquest after the death of Muhammad (632). By the 8th century, the turn came to India. In their conquests, the Arabs limited themselves to the territory of Sindh. Their main conquests were associated with the name of Muhammad ibn Qasim (712). Their campaigns were predatory, and the Arabs did not make any fundamental changes in the administration of India, but for the first time they organized Muslim settlements in India with a system of government different from the traditional Indian one.

The next conqueror was Mahmud of Ghaznevid. Ghazna is a principality in Afghanistan. He made his first campaign in 1000, and took up the tradition of going to India every year. He made his last campaign in 1027. Gradually, Ghazna lost its political influence, and its rulers ceded power to another Afghan principality, Gur. The rulers of Gur also could not ignore India, and these campaigns were led by Muhammad Guri. He made his first campaign in 1175, and the last in 1205. Muhammad Guri, as governor in India, left his commander Qutb-ud-din Aibek, who soon began to rule as an independent ruler, and it was with him that the era of the Delhi Sultanate began.

The era of the Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526)

There were four dynasties in the Delhi Sultanate: Ghulams (1206-1287), Khilji (1290-1320), Tughlaks (1320-1414), Sayyids (1414-1451), Lodi (1451-1526). ). The Sultans of Delhi no longer limited their military campaigns to the northwest of the country, but conducted them throughout India. The main goal of their domestic policy was conquest, the administrative system of the Sultans of Delhi was fragmented and poorly controlled. During the period of the Delhi Sultanate, India was attacked by the Mongols and invaded by Timur (1398-1399). In 1470, the Russian merchant Afanasy Nikitin visited India. But he did not visit the Delhi Sultanate, but one of the states on the Deccan - the state of the Bahmanids.

Mughal Empire (1526-1658)

The history of the Delhi Sultanate ended in the Battle of Panipat in 1526, when Babur won a victory over the ruler from the Lodi dynasty. He became the founder of the Mughal Empire: Babur (1526-1530), Humayun (1530-1556), Akbar (1556-1605), Jahangir (1605-1627), Shah Jahan (1627-1658) .), Aurangzeb (1658-1707), Late Mughals (1707-1858). This era is full of events in both foreign and domestic policy of India. The military strategy of Babur, the reforms of Akbar, the great buildings of Shah Jahan, the intransigence of Aurangzeb glorified the Muslim rulers of India far beyond its borders.

New History of India (1856-1947)

The new history of India is the era of the Europeans. The first to open the way to India were the Portuguese. Vasco da Gama reached the shores of India in 1498. They settled on the western coast of the country (Goa-Diu). Their power has always been limited to the coastline, they did not go inland. Gradually, they gave way to the Dutch, who began their activities in 1595. Another contender for Indian trading possessions was the French, who came to India in 1664.

The history of the English East India Company dates back to 1600. The Battle of Plassey in 1757 is considered to be the starting point for the conquest of India by the British, when the English commander Robert Clive defeated the ruler of Bengal, Siraj-ud-doula. The establishment of British rule in India was completed by 1856. India became the "pearl" of the British colonial possessions. It was both a raw material base and a sales market for the UK.

The Indians were not ready to put up with their situation, uprisings broke out in the country (the Great Sepoy Uprising (1857 - 1859), a national liberation movement was organized. Leaders of the independence movement such as: Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Vinayaka Damodar Savarkar held different views on the path to liberation.The great thinker of the 20th century, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (Mahatma Gandhi), believed that the path to freedom lies through "ahimsa" (non-violence).He propagated that boycotts and inaction are much more effective than forceful and armed methods of struggle.

Democratic Republic of India

On February 20, 1947, British Prime Minister Clement Richard Attlee announced the readiness of the British government to grant India full independence by June 1948 at the latest. After negotiations with all interested parties and a number of agreements, the Governor General of India, Louis Mountbatten, presented a plan for the division of British India into two independent states: Muslim and Hindu. Based on this plan, the British Parliament drafted and passed the Indian Independence Act, which received royal assent on July 18, 1947. At midnight on August 14/15, 1947, India became an independent state.

August 15, 1947 - Independence Day of India. The first prime minister of India was Jawaharlal Nehru. The division of India, carried out on a religious basis, was accompanied by numerous victims. Those regions where the majority of the population were Muslims went to Pakistan, and the rest to India. Kashmir is still a disputed territory.

According to the Constitution adopted in 1950, India is a sovereign federal secular democratic republic. Until the 1990s power in the country belonged to the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Nehru Gandhi clan. Since the 1990s India lived under a coalition government. In the 2014 parliamentary elections, the Indian People's Party (BJP) won a decisive victory, and Narendra Modi was elected to the post of prime minister.