In which the bulk of the genetic material is concentrated.

Two important processes take place in the nucleus. The first of these is the synthesis of the genetic material itself, during which the amount of DNA in the nucleus doubles (for DNA and RNA, see). This process is necessary so that during the subsequent division () the two daughters have the same amount of genetic material. The second process is the production of all types of RNA molecules, which, migrating into the cytoplasm, provide the synthesis necessary for life.

The nucleus differs from the cytoplasm surrounding it in terms of the refractive index of light. That is why it can be seen live, but usually special dyes are used to identify and study the nucleus. The Russian name "nucleus" reflects the spherical shape most characteristic of this organoid. Such nuclei can be seen in the liver, nerve, but in smooth muscle and epithelial nuclei are oval. There are nuclei and more bizarre shapes.

The most dissimilar nuclei in shape consist of the same components, that is, they have a common structural plan. In the nucleus, there are: nuclear membrane, chromatin (chromosome material), nucleolus and nuclear juice (see photo). Each nuclear component has its own structure, composition and functions.

The nuclear membrane includes two membranes located at some distance from each other. The space between the membranes of the nuclear envelope is called the perinuclear space. There are holes in the nuclear envelope - pores. But they are not end-to-end, but are filled with special protein structures, which are called the nuclear pore complex. Through the pores, RNA molecules exit the nucleus into the cytoplasm, and move towards them into the nucleus. The membranes of the nuclear envelope themselves ensure the diffusion of low molecular weight compounds in both directions.

Chromatin (from the Greek word chroma - color, paint) is a substance that is much less compact in the interphase nucleus than during. When stained, they are painted brighter than other structures.

In the nuclei of the living, the nucleolus is clearly visible. It has the appearance of a calf of a rounded or irregular shape and stands out clearly against the background of a rather homogeneous nucleus. The nucleolus is a formation that occurs in the nucleus on those that are involved in the synthesis of RNA ribosomes. The region that forms the nucleolus is called the nucleolar organizer. In the nucleolus, not only RNA synthesis takes place, but also the assembly of ribosome subparticles. The number of nucleoli and their sizes can be different. The products of the activity of chromatin and the nucleolus initially enter the nuclear juice (karyoplasm).

For and the core is absolutely necessary. If the main part of the cytoplasm is separated experimentally from the nucleus, then this cytoplasmic lump (cytoplast) can exist without a nucleus for only a few days. The nucleus, surrounded by the narrowest rim of the cytoplasm (karyoplast), completely retains its viability, gradually ensuring the restoration of organelles and the normal volume of the cytoplasm. However, some specialized

Nowadays, the presence of a dual-core processor is considered the minimum allowable standard for completing more or less serious computer equipment. Moreover, this parameter is relevant even for mobile computer devices, tablet PCs and solid smartphones-communicators. Therefore, we will understand what kind of kernels these are and why it is important for any user to know about them.

The essence in simple words

The first dual-core chip designed specifically for mass consumption appeared in May 2005. The product was called the Pentium D (formally related to the Pentium 4 series). Prior to this, such structural solutions were used on servers and for specific purposes, they were not inserted into personal computers.

In general, the processor itself (microprocessor, CPU, Central Processing Unit, central processing unit, CPU) is a crystal on which billions of microscopic transistors, resistors and conductors are deposited using nanotechnology. Then gold contacts are sprayed, the "pebble" is mounted in the microcircuit case, and then all this is integrated into the chipset.

Now imagine that two such crystals were installed inside the microcircuit. On the same substrate, interconnected and acting as a single device. This is the dual-core subject of discussion.

Of course, two "pebbles" is not the limit. At the time of writing, a PC equipped with a chip with four cores is considered powerful, not counting the computing resources of the video card. Well, on servers through the efforts of AMD, as many as sixteen are already in use.

Nuances of terminology

Each die usually has its own L1 cache. However, if they have a common one of the second level, then it is still one microprocessor, and not two (or more) independent ones.

A core can be called a full-fledged separate processor only if it has its own cache of both levels. But this is only necessary for use on very powerful servers and all sorts of supercomputers (favorite toys of scientists).

However, Task Manager on Windows or System Monitor on GNU/Linux can show cores as CPUs. I mean, CPU 1 (CPU 1), CPU 2 (CPU 2) and so on. Let this not mislead you, because the duty of the program is not to understand the engineering and architectural nuances, but only to interactively display the loading of each of the crystals.

This means that we are smoothly moving on to this very loading and, in general, to questions of the expediency of the phenomenon as such.

Why is it needed

The number of cores, different from one, is conceived primarily to parallelize the tasks being performed.

Suppose you have turned on your laptop and are reading sites on the World Wide Web. Scripts, with which modern web pages are simply obscenely overloaded (except for mobile versions), will be processed by only one core. A 100% load will fall on it if something bad drives the browser crazy.

The second crystal will continue to work in normal mode and will allow you to cope with the situation - at a minimum, open the "System Monitor" (or terminal emulator) and force quit the crazy program.

By the way, it is in the "System Monitor" that you can see with your own eyes what kind of software has suddenly gone crazy and which of the "pebbles" makes the cooler howl desperately.

Some programs are initially optimized for multi-core processor architecture and immediately send different data streams to different crystals. Well, ordinary applications are processed on the principle of "one thread - one core."

That is, the performance gain will become noticeable if more than one thread is running at the same time. Well, since almost all operating systems are multitasking, the positive effect of parallelization will manifest itself almost constantly.

How to live with it

With regards to mass consumer computing, single-core chips today are mainly ARM processors in simple phones and miniature media players. Outstanding performance from such devices is not required. Maximum - run Opera Mini browser, ICQ client, simple game, other unpretentious Java applications.

Everything else, starting with even the cheapest tablets, must have at least two crystals in the chip, as stated in the preamble. Buy such things. Based on at least those considerations that almost all user software is rapidly getting fat, consuming more and more system resources, so a power reserve does not hurt at all.

Previous publications:

The nucleus of the cell is the central organelle, one of the most important. Its presence in the cell is a sign of the high organization of the body. A cell that has a well-formed nucleus is called a eukaryotic cell. Prokaryotes are organisms consisting of a cell that does not have a formed nucleus. If we consider in detail all its components, we can understand what function the cell nucleus performs.

Core structure

1. Nuclear shell.
2. Chromatin.
3. Nucleoli.
4. Nuclear matrix and nuclear juice.

The structure and functions of the cell nucleus depend on the type of cells and their purpose.

nuclear envelope

The nuclear envelope has two membranes - outer and inner. They are separated from each other by the perinuclear space. The shell has pores. Nuclear pores are necessary so that various large particles and molecules can move from the cytoplasm to the nucleus and vice versa.

Nuclear pores are formed by the fusion of the inner and outer membranes. The pores are rounded openings having complexes, which include:

1. A thin diaphragm covering the opening. It is pierced by cylindrical channels.
2. Protein granules. They are located on both sides of the diaphragm.
3. Central protein granule. It is associated with peripheral granules fibrils.

The number of pores in the nuclear envelope depends on how intensively synthetic processes take place in the cell.

The nuclear envelope consists of outer and inner membranes. The outer one passes into the rough EPR (endoplasmic reticulum).

Chromatin

Chromatin is the most important substance in the cell nucleus. Its functions are the storage of genetic information. It is represented by euchromatin and heterochromatin. All chromatin is a collection of chromosomes.

Euchromatin are parts of chromosomes that are actively involved in transcription. Such chromosomes are in a diffuse state.

Inactive sections and whole chromosomes are condensed clumps. This is heterochromatin. When the state of the cell changes, heterochromatin can turn into euchromatin, and vice versa. The more heterochromatin in the nucleus, the lower the rate of synthesis of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and the lower the functional activity of the nucleus.

Chromosomes

Chromosomes are special formations that appear in the nucleus only during division. The chromosome consists of two arms and a centromere. According to their form they are divided into:

• Rod-shaped. Such chromosomes have one large arm and the other small.
• Equal-shouldered. They have relatively equal shoulders.
• Diverse. The arms of the chromosome are visually different from each other.
• With secondary straps. Such a chromosome has a non-centromeric constriction that separates the satellite element from the main part.

In each species, the number of chromosomes is always the same, but it is worth noting that the level of organization of the organism does not depend on their number. So, a person has 46 chromosomes, a chicken has 78, a hedgehog has 96, and a birch has 84. The fern Ophioglossum reticulatum has the largest number of chromosomes. It has 1260 chromosomes per cell. The male ant of the species Myrmecia pilosula has the smallest number of chromosomes. It has only 1 chromosome.

It was by studying the chromosomes that scientists understood what the functions of the cell nucleus are.

Chromosomes are made up of genes.

Gene

Genes are sections of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules that encode certain compositions of protein molecules. As a result, the body manifests one or another sign. The gene is inherited. Thus, the nucleus in the cell performs the function of transferring genetic material to the next generations of cells.

Nucleoli

The nucleolus is the densest part that enters the nucleus of the cell. The functions that it performs are very important for the entire cell. Usually has a rounded shape. The number of nucleoli varies in different cells - there may be two, three, or none at all. So, in the cells of crushing eggs there are no nucleoli.

The structure of the nucleolus:

1. granular component. These are granules that are located on the periphery of the nucleolus. Their size varies from 15 nm to 20 nm. In some cells, HA may be evenly distributed throughout the nucleolus.
2. Fibrillar component (FC). These are thin fibrils, ranging in size from 3 nm to 5 nm. FC is the diffuse part of the nucleolus.

Fibrillar centers (FCs) are low-density fibril regions, which, in turn, are surrounded by high-density fibrils. The chemical composition and structure of PCs are almost the same as those of the nucleolar organizers of mitotic chromosomes. They include fibrils up to 10 nm thick, which contain RNA polymerase I. This is confirmed by the fact that the fibrils are stained with silver salts.

Structural types of nucleoli

1. Nucleolonemic or reticular type. It is characterized by a large number of granules and dense fibrillar material. This type of nucleolus structure is characteristic of most cells. It can be observed both in animal cells and in plant cells.
2. Compact type. It is characterized by a small severity of nucleonoma, a large number of fibrillar centers. It is found in plant and animal cells, in which the process of protein and RNA synthesis is actively taking place. This type of nucleoli is characteristic of actively proliferating cells (tissue culture cells, plant meristem cells, etc.).
3. Ring type. In a light microscope, this type is visible as a ring with a bright center - a fibrillar center. The average size of such nucleoli is 1 µm. This type is typical only for animal cells (endotheliocytes, lymphocytes, etc.). In cells with this type of nucleoli, the level of transcription is rather low.
4. Residual type. In cells of this type of nucleoli, RNA synthesis does not occur. Under certain conditions, this type can turn into reticular or compact, i.e., be activated. Such nucleoli are characteristic of the cells of the prickly layer of the skin epithelium, normoblast, etc.
5. segregated type. In cells with this type of nucleoli, rRNA (ribosomal ribonucleic acid) synthesis does not occur. This happens if the cell is treated with some kind of antibiotic or chemical. The word "segregation" in this case means "separation" or "isolation", since all components of the nucleoli are separated, which leads to its reduction.

Almost 60% of the dry weight of the nucleoli is protein. Their number is very large and can reach several hundred.

The main function of the nucleoli is the synthesis of rRNA. The embryos of ribosomes enter the karyoplasm, then through the pores of the nucleus they seep into the cytoplasm and onto the endoplasmic reticulum.

Nuclear matrix and nuclear juice

The nuclear matrix occupies almost the entire nucleus of the cell. Its functions are specific. It dissolves and evenly distributes all nucleic acids in the interphase state.

The nuclear matrix, or karyoplasm, is a solution that includes carbohydrates, salts, proteins and other inorganic and organic substances. It contains nucleic acids: DNA, tRNA, rRNA, mRNA.

In the state of cell division, the nuclear envelope dissolves, chromosomes form, and the karyoplasm mixes with the cytoplasm.

The main functions of the nucleus in the cell

1. informative function. It is in the nucleus that all the information about the heredity of the organism is located.
2. Inheritance function. Thanks to the genes that are located on the chromosomes, the body can pass on its traits from generation to generation.
3. Union function. All organelles of the cell are united into one whole precisely in the nucleus.
4. regulation function. All biochemical reactions in the cell, physiological processes are regulated and coordinated by the nucleus.

One of the most important organelles is the cell nucleus. Its functions are important for the normal functioning of the whole organism.

CORE, an essential component of animal and plant cells. The question of the presence of a nucleus in bacteria and lower algae is somewhat disputable, but even here, judging by the latest data, one has to admit its existence in the form of a substance diffusely distributed in the plasma. Most often the cell has one I., but two-nuclear and multinuclear cells meet. The form I. is very various; as a rule, it corresponds to the shape of the cell, however, along with the most common round-oval shape, there are ya very bizarre shapes, for example. multilobed nuclei of leukocytes, ring-shaped nuclei, etc. The position of the nucleus in the cell also varies in the same way: as a rule, it is located in the center or closer to the basis, sometimes, however, it also occupies a different position. The nucleus is separated from the protoplasm by a thin but clearly visible nuclear membrane. Violation of the integrity of this shell leads to the fusion of the substance of the I. with sprotoplasm, which in turn sometimes gives a picture of the dissolution of the cellular plasma. , and intravital structure of I. Histologically, in I. they distinguish a protein liquid substance - nuclear juice, in which more solid elements are immersed - a delicate, slightly stained network of the thinnest threads, the so-called. linen, or achromatic network, as well as lumps and granules of very different shapes and sizes, very different in individual I. These granules, intensively perceiving the hist. colors are designated by the morphological concept of chromatin. Depending on the ability to stain with acidic or basic paints, basi- and oxychromatin are distinguished. In addition to the above formations, the nucleus contains a clearly demarcated and also intensely stained nucleolus body. The number and size of nucleoli vary considerably. Question about fiz.-chem. the structure of the living I. cannot be considered in the present, the time finally resolved. According to some, the nucleus is optically empty, devoid of any structure, an accumulation of protein bodies in a colloidal state, according to others, when observed in vivo in the nucleus, it is possible to detect a very delicate fibrous structure (P. I. Zhivago). In chem. relation to Ya. is a complex mixture of proteinaceous 70" schesv, among to-rykh nucleoproteins rich with phosphorus prevail. I undergo very significant changes in the process of division, which always precedes cell division; these changes are especially great in the process karyokinesis(see), when the chromatin substance I. takes the form of special, clearly demarcated sections-chromosomes. The physiological significance of I. is very clearly illustrated by the experiments of merogony, that is, cutting the cell into pieces with the creation of nuclear and non-nuclear fragments. At the same time, only the sites supplied with a fragment of the self turn out to be viable. Apparently, the general regulation of enzymatic processes in the cell, as well as participation in regenerative processes, lies on the nucleus. This is illustrated for example. data of Klebs, who showed in plants the migration of the nucleus towards the damaged and regenerating part of the cell. Chromosomes present in the nucleus are considered carriers of hereditary material. In protozoa, generative (micronucleus) and somatic (macronucleus) self are distinguished. The ubiquity of the nuclear substance indicates its high value for 6IOL. Processes.S. Salkpnd.

Good day, dear visitor. Today we’ll talk about what processor cores are and what function they perform. We want to say right away that we are not going to climb into the jungle, which not every technologist will master. Everything will be accessible, understandable and easy, and therefore drag the sandwiches.

I would like to start with the fact that the processor is the central module in the computer, which is responsible for all mathematical calculations, logical operations and data processing. In fact, all its power is concentrated, oddly enough, in the core. Their number determines the speed, intensity and quality of processing the information received. So let's take a closer look at the component.

Main characteristics of CPU cores

The core is a physical element of the processor (not to be confused with logical cores -), which affects the performance of the system as a whole.

Each product is built on a certain architecture, which indicates a certain set of properties and capabilities inherent in the line of manufactured chips.

The main distinguishing feature is, i.e. the size of the transistors used in chip production. The indicator is measured in nanometers. It is transistors that are the basis for the CPU: the more of them are placed on a silicon substrate, the more powerful a particular instance of the chip.

Let's take for example 2 models of devices from Intel - Core i7 2600k and Core i7 7700k. Both have 4 cores in the processor, however, the manufacturing process is significantly different: 32 nm versus 14 nm, respectively, with the same die area. What does it affect? The latter can be observed such indicators:

• the base frequency is higher;
• heat dissipation - lower;
• the set of executable instructions is wider;
• maximum memory bandwidth - more;
• support for more features.

In other words, process reduction = productivity increase. This is an axiom.

Kernel functions

The central core of the processor performs 2 main types of tasks:

• intrasystem;
• custom.

The second one includes application support functions through the use of the software environment. Actually, application programming is just built on loading the CPU with the tasks that it will perform. The goal of the developer is to set the priorities for the execution of a particular procedure.

Modern operating systems allow you to correctly use all the processor cores, which gives maximum system productivity. From this it is worth noting a banal, but logical fact: the more physical cores on the processor, the faster and more stable your PC will work.

How to enable all cores

Some users, in pursuit of maximum performance, want to use the full processing power of the CPU. To do this, there are several ways that can be used separately, or combine several items:

• unlocking hidden and unused cores (not suitable for all processors - you need to study the instructions on the Internet in detail and check your model);
• activation of the mode to increase the frequency for a short period;
• manual overclocking of the processor.

The easiest method to start all active cores at once is as follows:

• open the "Start" menu with the corresponding button;
• write the command "msconfig.exe" in the search bar (only without quotes);
• open the “advanced parameters” item and set the necessary values ​​​​in the “number of processors” column, after activating the checkbox opposite the line.

How to enable all cores in Windows 10?

Now, when Windows starts, all computing physical cores will work at once (not to be confused with threads).

Owners of older AMD processors

The following information will be useful to owners of older AMD processors. If you are still using the following chips, you will be pleasantly surprised:
The technology for unlocking additional cores is called ACC (Advanced Clock Calibration). It is supported on the following chipsets:
The utility that allows you to open additional kernels for each manufacturer is called differently:
In this simple way, you can turn a 2-core system into a 4-core one. Most of you didn't even know about this, right? Let's hope I've helped you achieve productivity gains for free.

In this article, I tried to explain to you in as much detail as possible what the kernel is, what it consists of, what functions it performs and what potential it has.

In the following educational programs, a lot of interesting things await you, and therefore not material. Bye Bye.