Phonetics is a branch of the science of language that studies the sounds of a language, stress, slot.
SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE
Sound is the basic unit of language along with words and sentences (see pp. 22,157). However, unlike the latter, in itself it does not have any meaning.
Sounds play an important semantic role in the language: they create an external, sound shell of words and thus help to distinguish words from each other.
Words differ in the number of sounds of which they are composed, the set of sounds, the sequence of sounds.
Note. In addition to sounds, stress helps to distinguish between words and their forms, for example: circles - circles (see p. 15).
PRODUCTION OF LANGUAGE SOUNDS
The sounds of the tongue are formed in the speech apparatus when air is exhaled. The vocal apparatus includes the larynx with vocal cords, oral and nasal cavities, tongue, lips, teeth, and palate.
In the speech apparatus, the exhaled air passes through the larynx between the tense vocal cords and through the mouth.

a hollow cavity, which can change its shape at the same time. This is how vowels are formed. They consist only of voices. Exhaled air can meet an obstruction in the oral cavity in the form of a closure or convergence of the speech organs and exit either through the mouth or through the nose. This is how consonants are formed. They are made up of noise, and some are made up of voice and noise.
vowels
In Russian, there are six main, i.e., stressed, vowels: [a], [o], [u], [e], [i], [s].
Vowels are stressed (for example, juice, var [a], drill Iu], forest [b], blue [y]) and unstressed (for example, water [a], grass [a], sudik [y], forest [and], Leah [and], former [s]).
CONSONANTS
Consonants in Russian are divided into hard and soft, voiced and deaf.
Paired hard and soft consonants distinguish words, for example, horse [kbn '] and kon [ibn]; onion [bow] and hatch [l'uk].
Paired and unpaired consonants by hardness / softness

Paired consonants by hardness / softness				Unpaired consonants by hardness / softness
solid	Soft	solid	soft	only hard	only soft
m	[b'1	[I]	ІН’]	[w], [w], [c]	K], [Sch’1 II’]
[in]	m	[P]	[P']
[G]	[G']	[R]	IP']
[D]	[DI	[WITH]	[with']
[in]	[in 1	[T]	[»’]
[X]	[to']	[f]	[f'1
[I]	[L"]	[X]
M	[«* ]

Voiced and deaf consonants can distinguish between words, for example: ball - heat, stake - goal, house - volume.
Voiced and voiceless consonants are paired and unpaired.
Paired and unpaired consonants according to voiced / deafness
The voiced consonant at the end of a word and before a deaf consonant is replaced by a paired deaf consonant. This replacement is called stunning (oak [p], cork [p]).
A deaf consonant before a voiced consonant (except for l, p, m, n, d) is replaced by a paired voiced consonant. This replacement is called voicing a consonant (request [h ']).
SOUND ALTERNATION
The alternation of sounds is the change of sounds in the same
parts of a word, for example: throw - throw, bake-bake.
In place of stressed vowels [a], [o], [e] in an unstressed position in the same part of the word, other vowel sounds are pronounced, for example: [vbdy] - [wadamp;], [vbs] - [voz'yt " ], [l*5s] -
[lisok]. In this case, they say: percussion alternates with unstressed ones.
Notes. 1. The alternation of vowels [a], [o], [e] with stress and in an unstressed position is not reflected in the letter, for example: table - tables.

1. The alternation of paired voiced and deaf, deaf and voiced consonants is not reflected in the letter, for example: garden - sidik.

In place of the stressed vowels [y], [th], [s] in an unstressed position, the same sounds are pronounced, for example: bough - suchbk, leaf - leaf, joint - docking.
Voiced and deaf consonants before all vowels and unpaired voiced consonants th, p, l, m, n differ, for example: water, lantern, twist, wick, juice, goiter, harm, flag, snow, know.
In words, there are alternations of consonants before vowels and before unpaired voiced consonants, for example:
ACCENT
Stress is the emphasis on one of the syllables with greater force when pronouncing a word.
The stress always falls on the vowel sound in the syllable, for example: grass, zero, heavenly, welcome.
Notes. 1. To indicate the stress on the letter, in necessary cases, the sign "at the top of the stressed vowel" is used.

1. In some words of the Russian language, the stress is placed first on one, then on another syllable. Both options are correct, for example: tvdrog and theorb g, otherwise and otherwise, thinking and thinking, keta and kety, at the same time and at the same time, etc.
2. Words usually have only one stress. In compound words, in addition to the main one, there may be a side, weaker stress, for example: small-scale, hay-mower.

THE ROLE OF ACCENT IN THE WORD
Stress is one of the phonetic signs of a word. Sometimes only the stress distinguishes words, for example: pirit and parity.
Notes. 1. In Russian, stress can be on different syllables, so it is called heterogeneous, for example, on the first syllable: begat, in the evening, nyvolochka, plbtnichat; on the second syllable: run, child, brown, zapamp; mint;

in the third syllable: come running, actual. advance; on the fourth syllable: accordion, battery; on the fifth syllable: avitaminbs, racing, etc.

1. The stress in Russian can be on any part of a word, for example, a prefix: namp; inscription, shout out, signature, bzhig, white, on the root: bold, prikydyvat, podsinovik, apple tree, mild, gudgeon, on the suffix: derevknpy, oak, rozhdk , press, whiten, decoration, hot, write, at the end: hot, young, five, step, take, carry, carry.
2. Russian stress in variable independent words during their declension or conjugation can be preserved on the same part of the word on which it was in the initial form: drive - water, young - young, siniy - sinego, veyehat - vyedu, lypa - on lype, chicken - chicken, paint - paint - painted, can move to another part of the word (from the beginning of the word to the end and vice versa): rozhdk - horns, accept - accepted, igrun - igrun, blue - blue, rivers - rivers, ugpU - igry.
3. When word-formation, the stress can also remain on the same part of the word, for example: house - house, do - make, blue - blue, can go either closer to the end of the word, for example: blue - blue, dog - forest, good - good, pkt - heels, or closer to the beginning of the word: ask - priba, city - city, dead - dead.
4. There is no general rule for preserving and shifting stress in the Russian language: when mastering our native language, we remember the stress in each individual word. In case of difficulty, we turn to the dictionary.

SYLLABLE
A syllable is one vowel sound or several sounds in a word, which are pronounced with one push of air in the process of speaking. A syllable is the smallest unit of pronunciation of a word.
Syllables consisting of two or more sounds can end either in a vowel (these are open syllables, for example: earth, water, grass) or in a consonant (these are closed syllables, for example: par-ta, kos- tyum, red, yellow-tet, mountain-dost, black).
GRAPHIC ARTS
Graphics is a set of special signs with the help of which oral speech is transmitted in writing.
To convey words, alphabetic and other graphic means are used (hyphen, space (gap between letters),

dash). In addition, punctuation marks are used to convey sentences (see p. 238).
RUSSIAN LETTERS
To convey sounds in Russian writing, special signs are used - letters. A set of letters arranged in a certain sequence makes up the alphabet.

			Russian alphabet and				letter names
BUT	B	AT	G	d	HER	F	3 And	And	To	L
a	bae	ve	ge	de	her	zhe	ze and	th	ka	ale
M	H	O	P	R	C T	At	F X	c.	H	W
Em	en	O	pe	er	es ta	At	ef ha	ce	Che	sha
sch		Kommersant		S	b	uh	Yu Ya
shcha	solid sign			s	soft sign	uh	yu i

Notes. 1. Do not mix sounds and letter names of these sounds in oral speech: [l] - sound, "el" -7 letter.
2. Talk about a letter: a letter denotes a sound.
According to the style, the following types of letters are distinguished:
a) large (capital, uppercase) and small (lowercase), for example: В and в; F and f; B and c; F and f;
b) printed and handwritten, for example: B and B; b i b; A and A; a and a.
The letters of the Russian alphabet are divided into three groups: 1) 10 vowel letters: a, o, y, s, e, i, e, e, yu, and; 2) consonant letters -21: b, є, d, d, d, g, z9 k9 i, m, i, l, r, s, g, f, x, c9 n, w, u; 3) 2. letters, not denoting sounds: b, b.
There are 33 letters in the Russian alphabet.
DESIGNATION ON THE LETTER OF SOUNDS
Vowel sounds are indicated by special letters.
Not all basic consonants are designated by special letters.
Hard consonants that make up pairs with soft consonants, as well as hard hissing ones, have their own letters, for example: [b] (fight), [c] (heron), [r] (frame), [g] (heat), [w] (a cap). To designate non-hashing soft consonants, the letters of hard consonants are used in combination with the letters b, e, e, u, i, and (see table on p. 19).
Two letters b and b do not have a sound meaning, that is, they do not denote sounds. They are used in combination with other letters

to indicate the softness of consonants (b) and separate pronunciation (b, b).
Soft hissing consonants [h *] and [sh *] are indicated by their own letters: cast iron [chv], pike [sh *].
The soft consonant [th] is indicated by the special letter th and some letter combinations (see table).
RATIO OF SOUNDS AND LETTERS
There is no complete correspondence between letters and sounds in Russian writing. Some letters designate their sound (boron, sleep) and other sounds (tooth [p], hedgehog [sh]).
Some letters have one sound meaning, i.e., they denote one sound: April [a]; windows, others - two sound values, i.e., they denote two sounds: pit [ya], hedgehog [yb], spruce [ye], southern [yu].
Some combinations of letters denote one sound: happiness [u '], dawn [s], yeast [zh *], silently [w], etc., others - two sounds: pours [yb], entrance [ye].

Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies sounds in the flow of speech, their compatibility and their positional changes.

Descriptive phonetics can be based on both acoustic characteristics of speech sounds and articulatory ones. From an acoustic point of view, speech sounds are characterized by the following features: pitch, strength, timbre and duration. The pitch of the sound depends on the number of vibrations of the vocal cords, expressed in hertz per second: the more hertz per second, the higher the sound. The strength of the sound, or intensity, depends on the amplitude of the vibrations of the vocal cords. The strength of sound is measured in decibels. The timbre of sound depends on the totality of the fundamental tone and overtones. The duration of a sound depends on the amount of time it takes to pronounce the sound. The duration of the sound is related to the rate of speech. The faster the tempo, the shorter the duration of the sound, and vice versa, the slower the tempo, the longer the duration of the sound.

The articulatory characteristic of sounds is based on differences in the movement of the organs of speech.

Both acoustic and articulatory characteristics are based on the results obtained using experimental phonetic methods.

Among the experimental phonetic methods, acoustic and somatic methods stand out. Acoustic methods, which are used to study various acoustic properties of sounds, include, for example, spectrographic and oscillographic methods. Somatic methods, which are based on the registration of movements of the organs of speech, include, for example, radiographic.

In the "Russian Grammar" when describing intonation, the acoustic characteristics of speech sounds are used, and in the phonetic description - their articulatory characteristics. When describing the articulation of sounds, radiographs are given. The "Phonetics" also gives a description of combinations of sounds in word forms, in different positions in relation to the morphemic structure of word forms. This description allows us to identify the possibilities and limitations of the compatibility of sounds in word forms from the point of view of phonetics and morphemic composition.

The speech stream is a continuous linear sequence of sounds. Sound is the smallest non-significant unit of speech flow. Sound appears in speech indivisibly, as a whole; it is impossible to single out individual elements of pronunciation (articulation) from it. So, for example, you can pronounce one after another the sounds that make up the word mole, but you cannot pronounce separately the softness of the sound [l`] or the labialization (roundness) of the sound [o].

Note 1. Here and everywhere below, sounds and their combinations within word forms are enclosed in square brackets (for example, [s`t`う n`]), and phonemes and their combinations within word forms are enclosed in two vertical bars || (for example, |c 3 m`en` 2 |).

Note 2. The selection of individual sounds is to a certain extent coarsened, since in the speech stream the sounds follow directly one after another, changing depending on the quality of the previous or subsequent sound.

The sound itself does not have a linguistic meaning, but it is indirectly connected with the meaning: meaningful units are composed of sounds, which, in particular, may consist of one sound. For example, in Russian, the sound [and] within the word form can be a morph that carries a certain meaning: in the word form horses and - inflection them. n. pl. h., in the word form (in) the way - this is an inflection of the preposition. p. units h., in the word form of the hand - inflection genus. p. units h., in the word form call - imperative inflection. With linear sound division, for example, in the word form of the hand, four sounds are distinguished: [ruk`i], each not individually associated with any meaning, and when dividing the same word form into morphs, two significant sound sequences are distinguished, two morphs: [hand`- and].

Word forms can consist of one, two or more sounds. So, word forms (prepositions) with, o, in consist of one sound, hell, on, on - from two, under, at, times - from three, pile, port, bone - from four, caravan, sundress - from seven sounds .

Sounds are divided into vowels and consonants. When pronouncing consonants, the air stream encounters an obstacle formed as a result of the closure (full or partial) of the speech organs. When pronouncing vowels, the air stream does not meet any obstacle, the air passes freely through the organs of speech.

Russian grammar.

Phonetics studies the sound side of the language, which is the external expression of our thought, its form and matter, and how the material form should be studied independently, separately from the other side of the language - the internal, i.e. meaningful.

Phonetics(from Greek phoneticos - sound, voice) - a section of linguistics that studies the sound side of the language. Unlike other linguistic disciplines, phonetics studies not only the language function, but also the material side of its object: the work of the pronunciation apparatus, as well as the acoustic characteristics of sound phenomena and their perception by native speakers.

The sounds of speech are closely related to biology, the physiological characteristics of a person, with his social nature, therefore they can be considered from different angles. Modern phonetics distinguishes four aspects in the sound of speech: functional(or linguistic), articulatory, acoustic and perceptual. Other scientists speak of only three such aspects:

1) physical(timbre, pitch, voice power);

2) physiological(the work of the speech organs, the device of the speech apparatus);

3) linguistic(how sounds that mean nothing in themselves are involved in distinguishing between morphemes and words).

The first two aspects are studied phonetics, last - phonology. Phonetics and phonology- not independent sciences, but sections of the same field of knowledge, because the object of their study is the sound structure of the language. Due to the fact that these sections deal with the sound structure of the language in different ways, each of them has its own subject of study.

Phonetics associated with such non-linguistic disciplines as the anatomy and physiology of speech production and speech perception, on the one hand, and the acoustics of speech, on the other. Like linguistics in general, phonetics is associated with psychology, since speech activity is a part of human mental activity.

Unlike non-linguistic disciplines, phonetics considers sound phenomena as elements of a language system that serve to translate words and sentences into a material sound form, without which communication is impossible.

In accordance with the fact that the sound side of the language can be considered in the acoustic-articulatory and functional-linguistic aspects, phonetics proper and phonology are distinguished in phonetics.

Phonetics deals with the study of the conditions of sound formation, based on the capabilities of the human pronunciation apparatus, and also analyzes the acoustic features of sound units, the patterns of combinations of sounds, the influence of the characteristics of one of the neighboring sounds on another (different types of accommodation or assimilation), the nature of the syllable, the laws of adding sounds into syllables, factors that determine syllable division, phonetic organization of the word, in particular stress, intonational means (pitch of the main tone of voice, strength, duration, tempo, pauses, timbre).

The beginning of the study of the mechanism of formation of speech sounds dates back to the 17th century. and was caused by the needs of teaching the deaf and dumb (works by H.P. Bonet, J. Willis, and others). At the end of the 18th century H. Krazenstein laid the foundation for the acoustic theory of vowels, which was developed in the middle of the 19th century. G.L.F. Helmholtz. By the middle of the 19th century. studies in the field of anatomy and physiology of sound production were summarized in the works of E.V. Brucke. From the linguistic point of view. the doctrine of the sound side of the language in all its sections was first presented in the works of E. Sievers in 1876 and 1881. An important role in the development of phonetics was played by the works of G. Sweet, O. Jespersen, M. Grammon, and others. In Russia, the works of I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay, as well as his students - V.A. Bogoroditsky and L.V. Shcherby. Of the modern linguists, one can note R.I. Avanesova, L.R. Zinder, M.I. Matusevich, A.A. Reformatsky and others.

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The goals of mastering the discipline.
The objectives of mastering the discipline "Introduction to Linguistics" are the formation of knowledge in the field of linguistics, the development of students' personal qualities, as well as the formation of general cultural, universal (

The place of the discipline in the structure of the BEP of the bachelor's degree.
The discipline "Introduction to Linguistics" (B3.B.5.) refers to the basic part of the professional cycle of disciplines. To master the discipline "Introduction to Linguistics"

Competences of the student, formed as a result of mastering the discipline.
A graduate must have the following general cultural competencies (OC): owns a culture of thinking, is able to generalize, analyze, perceive information, set goals

EDUCATIONAL AND THEMATIC PLAN
p / n Topics Lectures Seminars Self. work 1. Linguistics as a science. "Introduction to Language

MODULE 1. EXTERNAL LINGUISTICS.
À Normative time for studying the module: lectures - 12 hours practical classes - 14 hours student independent work - 14 hours ¤ Objectives

Learning element 1.3. Language as a social phenomenon.
Language is the chronicler of the life of the people. Raising the question of the essence of language in the history of linguistics. Language functions. Bilateral (dialectical) connection between language and society. Sociolinguistics as a branch of linguistics

Textbooks: a) Basic literature: Barannikova L.I. Introduction to linguistics. Saratov, 1973. Budagov R.I. Introduction to the science of language.

II. Object, subject and goals of linguistics as a science.
The science of language is called linguistics, linguistics or linguistics. The first term is the most common, the last - international. The word linguistics

V. Main problems and tasks of general linguistics.
General linguistics has its own special problems, different from the private. The tasks of general linguistics include the following: Definition of an object

VII. Methods of linguistics.
“Method (from the Greek methodos - “way of research”) in linguistics: a) generalized sets of theoretical attitudes, techniques, methods of language research,

IX. The place of linguistics in the system of sciences and its connection with other sciences.
As you know, modern science consists of three main sections: natural sciences (or natural sciences that study the phenomena and laws of the development and existence of nature),

II. The concept and types of language dynamics. Extra- and intralinguistic (internal) conditions of language development.
The main condition for the existence of a language is its continuous change (spontaneous and conscious). This change is a complex and multifaceted process and is associated with the concept of dynamics

III. Theories of the origin of language.
The question of when and how language arose has been of interest to people since ancient times. Language arose before the birth of the science about it, so science draws the idea of ​​the time and essence of this phenomenon from indirect and

V. The hypothetical nature of the original sound speech.
When considering the question of the stages of development of a human being, a number of questions arise concerning the problem of the origin of language as a mechanism of human communication: 1) about the arsenal of sound

Language is the chronicler of the life of the people.
2. Raising the question of the essence of language in the history of linguistics. 3. Functions of the language. 4. Bilateral (dialectical) connection between language and society. 5. Sociolinguistics as a section of languages

Raising the question of the essence of language in the history of linguistics.
The question of what language is, what are its functions and essence, has long occupied people. Even in the ancient period, there were two main views on the language: 1) Language is a natural phenomenon, it is about

Language functions.
There are various classifications of language functions. The most common classification refers to the main functions of the following language facts: Communicative (contact set

Bilateral (dialectical) connection between language and society.
The essence of language was correctly defined only in line with the theory of dialectical materialism, which claims that language has a social nature, arises and develops in society exclusively

Territorial and social differentiation of the language. The concept of the national and national language. Literary language.
2. Stylistic differentiation of the language. 3. The concept of the norm. literary norm. 4. The problem of codification of language norms. 5. Auxiliary languages: Koine, Pidgins, Creole languages,

II. Style differentiation of language.
"Style is always characterized by the principle of selection and combination of available language means ...; differences in styles are determined by differences in these principles." Otb

III. The concept of the norm. literary norm.
The language norm is a set of the most stable traditional implementations of the language system, selected and fixed in the process of public communication. "Nor

IV. The problem of codification of language norms.
Norms develop spontaneously, in the practice of social life. In the literary language at a certain level of development of society, these norms can be consciously regulated, otherwise, codified

Learning element 1.5. LANGUAGE OF ART LITERATURE.
REFERENCES: 1.Vinogradov V.V. About the language of fiction. M., 1959. 2. V. V. Vinogradov. On the theory of artistic speech. M., 1971. 3. Stepanov Yu.S. Yaz

MODULE 2. INTERNAL LINGUISTICS.
À Normative time for studying the module: lectures - 12 hours practical classes - 16 hours student's independent work - 13 hours ¤ Objectives of the mod

II. The concept of a sign.
A sign in the broadest sense is any material carrier of social information. The sign is a substitute. Prof. P.V. Chesnokov gives the following definition of the sign

IV. Linguistic sign as a linguistic category.
The language consists of units, which are signs for the transmission of extralinguistic information. A linguistic sign is something (spoken or written) that

The structure of the language.
In Language, each speech work is divided into smaller meaningful parts that have separateness, variability and the ability to be used endlessly in the same or other combinations for

The concept of systemic language.
Unlike a simple structure based on the mutual arrangement and connection of its constituent parts, the system is based on a complex unity of heterogeneous interdependent elements. It's not easy anymore

III. Basic units of phonetics.
The basic units of the sound structure of a language are: sound, syllable, phonetic word, speech tact, phrase, stress, intonation. Sound is the smallest unit

IV. The concept of a phoneme.
“A phoneme (from the Greek phonema - sound, voice) is a unit of the sound structure of a language that serves to identify and distinguish between significant units of the language - morphemes, in which it is included as

V. The concept of phonetic laws.
Phonetic laws (sound laws) are the laws of the functioning and development of the sound matter of a language, which govern both the stable preservation and the regular change of its sound

VI. Basic phonetic processes.
The main phonetic processes of the language are as follows. Assimilation is the process of assimilation of consonants of the same dignity. The phenomenon of assimilation is

VII. Other phonetic processes.
Epentheza - the insertion of sound in certain combinations: land (Bolg.) - earth, temper - ndrav. Prosthesis - adding a sound at the beginning of a word: osm (Old Russian) - resurrection

Learning element 2.7. GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE OF THE LANGUAGE.
Plan. I. Background. II. The concept of the grammatical structure of the language as an object and subject of the study of grammar. III. Lexical and grammatical meaning of the word. Difference

I. Background.
Grammar as a science studies the grammatical structure of a language. This science has a long tradition. The origins of modern European grammatical thought and, accordingly, terminology should be sought in the works

II. The concept of the grammatical structure of the language as an object and subject of the study of grammar.
Grammar (Greek grammatike - the art of writing letters, from gramma - letter, spelling) - 1) the structure of the language, i.e. system of morphological categories and forms, syntactic categories and con

III. Lexical and grammatical meaning of the word. difference between them.
“In a word, its sound matter and its meaning - lexical and grammatical - are articulated. The grammatical meaning of a word includes: its meaning as a part of speech, i.e. as a unit belonging to the definition

IV. The concept of the grammatical form of a word.
The concept of grammatical form is closely related to the concept of grammatical meaning. The concept of form can be defined from philosophical and linguistic points of view. From a philosophical point

V. The concept of a grammatical category.
The concept of grammatical category is closely connected with the concept of grammatical form. This term is borrowed from logic. Even in ancient times, the concept of a logical category

VI. Formal and functional grammar.
“In accordance with the main characteristics of the grammatical structure of the language - its formal organization and its functioning - in Russian science with the greatest certainty, starting with the works of L.V. Shche

Languages ​​living and dead
"A language exists only insofar as it is used, spoken, perceived, written and read." (Sapir. E. Language // Selected works on linguistics and cultural studies. M

Artificial languages.
Work on the creation of artificial languages ​​began in antiquity. The first projects of this kind that have come down to us appeared no later than the 4th-3rd centuries. BC, and in the XVII century. R. Descartes, then G.V. Leibniz

INDEPENDENT WORK OF STUDENTS
The objective of the seminars is to develop students' skills of independent work with linguistic sources of various types, to teach them how to use the whole range of sources.

Abstract topics.
1. Problems of language and speech in modern research. 2. Identity and difference in language and speech. 3. Word in language and speech. 4. The functioning of the language system in speech.

I. Language is the chronicler of the life of the people.
II. Raising the question of the essence of language in the history of linguistics. III. Language functions. IV. Bilateral (dialectical) connection between language and society. V. Sociolinguistics as a section

I. Territorial and social differentiation of the language. The concept of the national and national language. Literary language.
II. Style differentiation of language. III. The concept of the norm. literary norm. IV. Auxiliary languages: Koine, pidgins, creoles, lingua franca. LITERATURE:

Topic 13. LETTER
Plan. 1. General concept of writing and prerequisites for writing. 2. Stages and forms of development of descriptive writing. 3. Graphics. 4. Alphabet. 5. Spelling.

CONTROL QUESTIONS
Topic: LANGUAGES OF THE WORLD 1. Explain the difference between language, dialect and jargon. 2. What determines the degree of prevalence of the language? 3. What underlies the genealogical class

STUDENTS
1. Distribute the following languages ​​by families and groups in accordance with the genealogical classification of languages: Sanskrit, Abkhazian, Basque, Ukrainian, Turkmen, Alt

TOPICS OF COURSE WORKS AND THES
1. Phrase-syntactic schemes in modern Russian. 2. Segmented and non-segmented sentence in the language system. 3. The place of an inarticulate sentence in the language system.

QUESTIONS FOR THE EXAM
1. Linguistics as a science, its object, subject, purpose, tasks and structure. Place of the course “Theory of language. Fundamentals of linguistic teachings” in the system of linguistic disciplines. 2. The connection of linguistics

INTERNATIONAL
1. Page of the Department of Russian Language and Theory of Language on the website of the PI SFedU: http://pi.sfedu.ru/pageloader.php?pagename=structure/university_departments/chairs/russian_language 2. Encampus: http://w

PHILOLOGICAL PORTALS
1. Donetsk linguistic portal http://mova.dn.ua/index.php 2. Ukrainian philological portal http://litopys.org.ua/ 3. Philological search engine http://philology.flexum.ru

SITES OF PHILOLOGICAL DEPARTMENTS AND DEPARTMENTS
1. State Institute of the Russian Language named after A.S. Pushkin Institute http://pushkin.edu.ru 2. Institute of Linguistic Research RAS http://iling.spb.ru/ 3. Russian Language Institute named after

PHILOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES
1. Association of Linguistic Experts of the South of Russia http://ling-expert.ru 2. International Association of Teachers of Russian Language and Literature (MAPRYAL) http://www.mapryal.org 3. Association

LIBRARIES
1. From the Archives of the Russian Revolution: http://www.magister.msk.ru/library/revolt/revolt.htm 2. Philosophy in Russia: http://www.philosophy.ru/ 3. Toronto Slavic Quarterly, ed. Zakhar

DICTIONARIES
1. Vishnyakova O. V. Dictionary of paronyms of the Russian language http://www.classes.ru/grammar/122.Vishnyakova/ 2. Interactive dictionaries of the Russian language on the website of the IRL V.V. Vinogradov: www.slovari.r

LINGUISTICS SITES
1. Archive of St. Petersburg Russian studies www.ruthenia.ru/apr/index.htm 2. Tower of Babel. Database of Comparative Linguistics. http://starling.rinet.ru/index2ru.htm 3. Geneal

MAGAZINES
1. "Kazan Linguistic School": the works of the school, information about its history, scientific life and priorities are presented: http://www.kls.ksu.ru 2. HumLang (Human Language), ed. A.A. Polikarpov:

FOREIGN ELECTRONIC EDITIONS
1. Alsic: Apprentissage des Langues et Systemes d "Information et de Communication. The journal provides an opportunity to exchange the latest theoretical and practical developments in the following areas

GLOSSARY
Adstrat - (lat. - layer, layer) a type of contact of languages, in which the language of the aliens affects the language of the natives and is preserved as a neighbor with it. Accentol

Lecture No. 1

PHONETICS AS A SCIENCEABOUT SOUND SIDE

LANGUAGE

Lecture plan

The concept of systemic language. The main features of the systematic nature of the language.

Phonetics as the science of the sound side of language.

Connection of phonetics with other linguistic disciplines.

Phonetic transcription rules.

Theoretical and practical significance of studying the phonetic structure of a language.

Literature:

1. Bulanin L.L. Phonetics of the modern Russian language. M., 1970.
2. Zinder L.R. General phonetics. M., 1979.
3. Matusevich M.I. Modern Russian language. Phonetics. M., 1976.
4. Reformatsky A.A. About the comparative method. Russian language in the national school, 1962, No. 5.
5. Reformatsky A.A. Linguistics and poetics. M., 1987.
6. Reformatsky A.A. On the correlation of phonetics and grammar (morphology). In the book: A.A. Reformatsky. From the history of Russian phonology. M., 1970.
7. Panov M.V. Russian phonetics. M., 1967.
8. Panov M.V. Modern Russian language. Phonetics. M., 1 979.

10. F. de Saussure. Works on linguistics. M., 1977.

The concept of systemic language. The main features of the systematic language

There are a large number of languages ​​in the world. They are diverse both in sound appearance, and in vocabulary, and in grammatical structure. However, they all have something in common: they perform the same functions - through them some thoughts are expressed, some messages are transmitted. In other words, language performs the function of communication between people, is a means of communication between them. Each language is necessarily divided into some elements that are repeated in certain combinations with each other as part of other larger units. Each language has an extensive set of such recurring elements and a flexible system of rules by which these elements are combined into meaningful statements.

No matter how different the definitions of the language are, one can find an indication of its systemic nature in them.

The general scientific concept of a system, with all the variety or shades of its use, always includes the idea of ​​some association of some objects and the relationship between these objects. Objects that are combined into a system are usually called elements of this system.

“If language were a dump of disparate facts - words, forms, sounds, then it could not serve people as a means of communication. All the variety of cases and situations of communication, all the variety of needs for naming things and phenomena, the expression of various concepts, people can turn into social value only due to the fact that the language is systematically organized and controlled by its own internal laws and in each language - special. These laws group the entire inventory of language into orderly series of interrelated phenomena, whether it be a system of case or verb forms, classes of parts of speech in morphology, series and pairs of consonantism and vocalism in phonetics.

All this together forms a structural model of the language, distributed into a number of systems and subsystems, dissected and simultaneously connected with each other by many relationships. Outside of these relations, any fact, be it a word, a form or a sound, is not yet a fact of language, just as a brick in itself, outside its place in a construction site, is not yet a part of a building, but only a building material. These elements become facts of the language only when they obey one or another model operating in the given language, i.e. when they become members of the system,” wrote A.A. Reformed.

Thus, language is a system. The system and its sound side. This means that each phonetic unit is determined by its relationship to other phonetic units.

What are the relationships between the units of the system? In the most general form, they can be reduced to three types: syntagmatic, paradigmatic and hierarchical relations.

Syntagmaticrelations determine the connection of units in the speech stream - (these relations are also called combinatorial).

paradigmaticis, in the terminology of F. de Saussure, associative relations (grouping units into classes based on the commonality or similarity of some of their essential properties).

Hierarchical - these are relations according to the degree of complexity, or relations of “entry” of less complex units into more complex ones. Hierarchical relationships can be defined in terms of"included in ..." or "consists of ...".

Phonetics as the science of the sound side of language

The section of the science of language that deals with the study of its sound side is called phonetics. Phonetics as a science studies "the sound means of a language in all their manifestations and functions, as well as the relationship between the sound and written form of a language."

The sound side of the language includes two groups of units: segment and supersegmentphonetic units.

Segment - these are phonetic units that are the shortest segments of the speech flow. Segment means segment. The speech stream is divided into segments of different lengths. The shortest, further indivisible phonetic units - segments, segments of the speech flow are the sounds of speech. They are located in the flow of speech one after another, form a sequence, a chain, a line. That is why they are called differently. linear phonetic units.

In addition to segmental phonetic units, there aresuper-segment (supra-segment, super-segment)phonetic units. These include stress and intonation.

Their main difference from sounds is that they do not exist separately from the material shells of language units, they characterize these material shells as a whole, as if built on top of them. Therefore, supersegmental units cannot be pronounced separately, isolated from the composition of the material shells of words and sentences. For stress, the segment is a word (or phonetic word), for intonation, a sentence.

The sound side of the language is a very complex phenomenon. Therefore, it can be approached from different points of view. Distinguish general and private phonetics.

General phonetics deals with the study of the nature of the sound of speech as a unity of the physiological-acoustic and linguistic aspects, the study of the general conditions for the formation of speech sounds and their acoustic correlates, the study of the general patterns of syllable formation, the general theory of stress and intonation, the study of the general patterns of development of the phonetic system (sound laws), the general theory graphics and spelling. General phonetics is based on the facts of many languages.

The sound side of a particular language is studiedprivate phonetics.For example, the phonetics of the Russian language is a private phonetics.

Private phoneticscan consider the facts of some language statically, without development. In this case we have phonetics synchronic or descriptive. For example, our subject is the phonetics of the modern Russian language. This means that this phonetics is synchronous, descriptive, it will touch upon the issues of the sound side of the Russian language of our time, which is why it is called the phonetics of the modern Russian language. You can study the sound side of the Russian language of some other period, say, Old Russian. But here, too, the facts of language are considered statically, i.e. in a frozen form, as they were at that time.

The sound side of the language can be studied diachronically or historically, those. in development. How did the units of the phonetics of the Russian language change from period to period, what were the sounds, what happened to them, which remained, which changed into other sounds or coincided with other sounds, which disappeared altogether, etc.? For example, in the Old Russian language there were vowels[b] and [b], over time, they disappeared in weak positions (for example, at the end of a word), and in strong positions they switched to other sounds:sn = sleep, day = day(in Old Russian language[b] was a vowel of the non-front row, in a strong position - under stress, it turned into a vowel[about], in a weak position - disappeared at the end of a word;[b] was a front vowel sound, in a strong position - under stress, it turned into a vowel[e], in a weak position - disappeared at the end of the word. Letterь at the end of the word day in modern Russian is an indicator of the softness of the preceding consonant[n "]).

Sometimes it is useful to use the facts of historical phonetics to explain the phonetic features of the current state of the Russian language. For example, why catfish - catfish (genus pad.), and sleep - sleep (rod.pad.), why from noun. wall adjective is formed wall-n-oh, but from noun. laugh adjective is formed funny etc.? These questions can be answered only by using the facts of historical phonetics. For example, in Old Russian the word son in the form of rod.pad. sleep at the root had a reduced non-front vowel[b] , which in this case was in a weak position (before a syllable with a strong vowel[a]) and fell out; the same happened walked with reduced front vowel[b], which is in the genus. pad. the words day, i.e. day shape, being in a weak position (before a syllable with a strong vowel[a]), dropped out: sleep [sleep] - sleep [sleep]; day [d "en"] - day [d "n" a].In modern Russian, these vowels are called "fluent vowels". As for the adjective funny, in which in place[x] appears [w], then such a change[x] in [w] is explained by the fact that in the Old Russian language, when forming an adjective funny used suffix-н- with an initial reduced front vowel[b]. Before this vowel, all consonants softened, except for back lingual[k, g, x], which in this position turned into soft hissing[h", w", w "]: hand - hand-n-oh - hand-n-oh - hand-n-oh; friend - friend-n-th - friend-n-th - friend-n-th ; laugh laugh-n-oh - laugh-n-oh - laugh-n-oh.As you can see, after changing[k - h], [g - f], [x - w],which took place before a front vowel[b], the vowel itself [b] fell out, and back-lingual consonants were in front of the consonant[n].

For a deep explanation of the facts of a language, one often turns to the material of other languages, including related ones. In this case, phonetic research becomes narrower comparative because comparing facts from different languages.

Relationship of phonetics with other linguistic disciplines

What is the place of phonetics among other linguistic disciplines that study other sections, levels of the language, how is phonetics related to vocabulary, morphology and syntax?

Phonetics occupies a special place among other linguistic disciplines. Lexicology, morphology and syntax, which study various linguistic categories and means of their expression, deal with the semantic side of the language. Phonetics is a sound form in which the grammatical system of a language is represented, i.e. morphological forms of words in their sound design and phrases - in all the variety of their melodic pattern, with their phrasal stresses, etc. So, one of the means of expressing grammatical forms in Russian is phonetics. This includes the different sounding of affixes (e.g., water - water), alternation of sounds (for example, alternationo / a: finished - finished),moving accent (ex. arms with stress on the first syllable and arms with stress on the second syllable), melodic (e.g.,narrative and interrogative) in phrases that differ in certain cases only in the movement of tone (for example,You will go home. Are you going home?)In syntax, when characterizing the types of sentences according to the purpose of the utterance, intonation is necessarily taken into account. Thus, since our speech is always sound speech, the relationship between phonetics and grammar is found in the connection between the sound form of speech and its grammatical expression.

Such is the connection between phonetics and the vocabulary of the language, i.e. vocabulary. Due to the presence of certain sounds that make up the word and make up its sound image (for example,table - chair, steel - cold),thanks to the difference in accent(castle - castle) the meaning of the word is recognized.

Thus, the sound appearance of a word is the form in which its content is clothed. As you can see, the connection of phonetics with the dictionary is primarily reflected in the fact that the word is unthinkable outside of its sound image. Therefore, the distinction of words is carried out, as a rule, through the difference in their sound image.

Phonetic transcription rules

The writing system does not accurately convey sounding speech: the same sound is often written in different letters, and different sounds can be denoted by the same letter. Yes, in words oak and soup the last consonant is the same - [p], and different letters are written - b and p. In the word feast the first consonant sound is soft [p "], and the same letter p is written as in the word ardor, at the beginning of which is a solid sound [n]. To more accurately record sounding speech, the science of language has developed the principles of the so-called phonetic transcription.

Phonetic transcriptioncalled a system of recording sounding speech - words or whole phrases - using letters and special conventions. Transcription was invented long before the invention of gramophone and tape recording, which allows you to absolutely accurately capture the sound; due to its convenience and practical accessibility, transcription is widely used both in the scientific description of sounding speech and in the practice of teaching the Russian language.

For school teaching of Russian phonetics, a somewhat simplified phonetic transcription is usually used, which reflects only the main features of the sounds of Russian speech. When transcribing words and whole expressions, a number of rules must be observed.

An indicator of phonetic transcription are square brackets. Such brackets enclose the transcribed text or a single word, sound.

1. Each sound of the language in transcription corresponds to only one transcription sign - a letter or a specially introduced graphic designation of a sound or a phonetic sign of a sound.
2. When transcribing, all letters of the Russian alphabet are used, except for vowels e, yo, yu, i and consonants sch (denotes a long soft sound [sh ':], for example, pike [sh ': uk]) and th.

Letter y sometimes used in school teaching of phonetics to indicate the special consonant sound "yot", which is heard in words such as I [ya], south [yuk], my [maya], sing [payu], sing [payot], my [my], ley [l "hey], etc. However, most often in transcription, the Latin letter is used to denote varieties of this sound j ("yot"): [ja], [najy ], as well as special transcription marks [and] or [ i ], which denote a weakened version of the sound “yot” - the sound “[and] non-syllable”, for example, at the end of words: [may], [atkroi].

1. Letters ъ ("er") and ъ (“er”) in transcription, special short (reduced) vowel sounds are indicated: [b] is a reduced vowel of the front formation, similar to the short sound [and], and [b] is a reduced vowel of a non-front formation, a very short sound, which is something the average between the sounds [a], [e] and [s].
2. To designate a vowel sound that is pronounced in the first pre-stressed syllable after solid consonants in accordance with stressed [a] and [o], the symbol is used[ Λ ].
3. The transcription uses only lowercase letters (even when recording the pronunciation of personal names and the first word of a phrase): [ivan] Ivan; [ja to you n "ishu] I am writing to you ... (P.).
4. Special transcription icons are:

a) ["] - a sign of word stress, which is placed above the stressed vowel in the word;

b) ['] (apostrophe) - an indicator of the softness of a consonant sound:
[p'at'] five;

in ) [:] - a sign for indicating the longitude of the sound: [en: y] Anna
(V. p.); [ish: "y] I'm looking; rej: "y] I'm driving; another way of notation
longitude of sound - a line above the corresponding letter;

d) [-] (hyphen) - an indicator of the fusion of grammatical words
within one phonetic word: [u-you] you; [read]
would read;

E) [|] - an indicator of the boundary between syntagmas within a phrase (short pause); [׀׀ ]– phrase boundary indicator (long pause) .

6. Phonetic words are separated in transcription by spaces, punctuation marks are not put, cf .: [what ja magu ish": o
say "] What else can I say?(P.).

Theoretical and practical significance of studying the phonetic structure of a language

The study of phonetics is of great theoretical and practical importance.

Any linguistic (i.e. linguistic) unit of the semantic level (eg, morpheme, word, sentence) has a certain material shell, a certain sound. Due to the constant connection of sound and meaning, a language unit is every time recognized by native speakers as a given unit, and not some other unit.

The material shell of morphemes, words, sentences is created from sound units. The system of sound units of a language forms its sound side.

Sound sidelanguage is the "natural matter" of language, the language of words. Therefore, the study of a language - its grammatical structure and vocabulary - in itself already involves the study of its phonetic system. Phonetic units do not exist by themselves and not for themselves, but to serve vocabulary and morphology. Therefore, it is necessary to study the functioning of phonemes as part of the word forms of a given language, because without this it is impossible to correctly assess the role of phonetic units and their opposition in the language as a means of communication.

Phonetics is the study of the sound side of a language.The significance of phonetics as a scientific discipline is determined primarily by the importance of its sound side in the language.

Phonetics is useful in many practical matters, but its theoretical significance is no less important: it teaches the young philologist to understand that language is a single, harmonious, intelligent, internally consistent integrity. The laws of the language are simpler, understandable at the level of phonetics, because phonetics itself is simpler than vocabulary and grammar. It is convenient to test a new theory, to test the correctness of new linguistic views on the material of phonetics.

Sound speech is “more important” than written speech. Each person talks more than he writes (and usually listens more than he reads). First, a person learns to speak and only then - to write. Writing skills overlay and depend on oral skills.

Phonetics is of great practical importance and is used in a wide variety of fields.

1. First of all, it serves as the basis for the methodology of teaching reading and writing. Rational literacy education is possible only with a clear understanding of the difference between the sound and written forms of language and with regard to the complex relationships that exist between these two forms of language.
2. The needs of education, public speech, radio raise the issue of establishing orthoepic norms, which is also one of the most important practical tasks of phonetics.
3. The need to create a written language for non-literate peoples, as well as the constant improvement of the spelling of the old written languages, determines the practical significance of phonetics in this direction as well.
4. Phonetics is also based on speech therapy, which deals with the correction of pronunciation deficiencies that are impossible without a clear understanding of the mechanism of pronunciation and the linguistic function of what is pronounced. Only considering this function, it is possible to distinguish the essential from the non-essential and find the right way to eliminate this or that lack of speech.
5. On the phonetic basis, the education of the deaf and dumb is also built - deaf pedagogy.
6. It goes without saying that the importance of phonetics for pronunciation, for teaching expressive reading, etc. Teaching can be rational only when the teacher is clearly aware of what are the features of the pronunciation of a given individual sound, word, sentence.
7. In the process of studying phonetics:

a) lay the foundations for a scientific understanding of sound
sides of the language, in contrast to the graphic;

b) the system of Russian graphics is clarified, i.e. the system of correlations between the letters of the Russian alphabet and the sounds of the Russian language;

c) a conscious attitude to spelling is developed;

d) individual disparate information is brought into the system and comprehended in the light of phonetic patterns
by language;

e) many information of the modern Russian language receives historical coverage;

f) the lexical level of knowledge of the language is expanding and
sharpened linguistic sense.

Phonetics- a branch of the science of language, which studies the sounds of speech, stress, syllable.

A person can make several hundred different sounds. But in his speech (through which people communicate with each other) he uses a little more than fifty sounds. In the written speech of the Russian language, there are only 31 letters and 2 signs to designate (record) these sounds.

It is necessary to distinguish between the sounds and letters of our speech.

Sound is the smallest sound unit of a syllable.
Letters- These are signs that indicate sounds in writing.

Sound is what we hear and pronounce.
The letter is what we see and write.

When writing in a word, there may not be a quantitative relationship between sounds and letters (pit - three letters, and four sounds y-a-m-a). In some words, we do not pronounce all the sounds that are indicated by the corresponding letters when writing (the word honest does not pronounce the sound indicated by the letter T) or pronounce another sound (in the word please, pronounce the sound [ W], and write With), etc. Such inconsistencies are determined by the rules of spelling and orthoepy.
Letters arranged in a certain order are called an alphabet, or alphabet. Each letter has its own name.

Vowel sounds

vowels called sounds, in the formation of which the voice is most involved, and the exhaled air during their formation, without encountering obstacles, exits easily through the mouth.

There are six vowels - a, o, u, uh, s, and , but in writing they are indicated by ten letters - a, o, u, uh, s, i, e, yo, yu i . The last four letters are called compound vowels, as they mean two sounds at the same time: e-ye, yo-yo, yu-yu, ya-ya - go - [ j "e]hat, hedgehog- [ j "about]zhik, spinning top - [ j "y]la, pit-[ j "a]ma. In Russian, native Russian words do not begin with the letter й. The letter y is called non-syllable, or semi-vowel, in transcription it is designated as [ j"].

Consonants

Consonants called sounds, which are formed with the participation of voice and noise or only one noise. The air leaving the lungs meets various obstacles in the oral cavity. There are only 20 consonants. According to the participation of the voice in their formation, they are divided into voiced and deaf. There are 10 voiced consonants in Russian and 10 deaf ones.

voiced - b, c, d, e, f, h, r, l, n, m
Deaf - p, f, k, t, w, s, x, c, h, u

The first six voiced and deaf are paired consonants, as they are formed with the same articulation. With known positions of these paired consonants in the layer, they are easily replaced by one another. For example, at the end of words, instead of a voiced one, a voiceless consonant is pronounced, paired with a voiced one.

We say: [ sat], [bread], [drizzle], but we write: garden, bread, frost. Before voiced sounds, instead of a voiceless consonant, a voiced one is pronounced. We say [ goats "ba], and we write mowing.

Paired consonants are easy to remember, knowing that voiced ones are the first consonants in the alphabet - b, c, d, e, g, z.

The remaining four voiced - r, l, n, m and four deaf - x, c, h, u are unpaired consonants and are not replaced by one another. Of the consonants, 4 sibilants stand out - w, h, w, w .
All consonants except sibilant and c can be both hard and soft.

Was, ball - consonants b, l in these words are solid.

Bili- consonants b, l this word is pronounced softly.

Usually the softness of the consonant sound is easily distinguished by ear.

The softness of the consonant is created by additional articulation - the rise of the middle part of the tongue to the hard palate. At the end of words, the softness of the consonants is heard even more clearly, since it often serves as a means of distinguishing the meaning of the word:
became - steel, was - true story, become - stan, fry - heat.

Consonant c and consonants hissing w, w in Russian are always hard, hissing" h, w- always soft. After cь (soft sign) never "is written ( finger, well, cucumber), and after hissing w, w, as well as h,_uь (soft sign) is sometimes put, but not to indicate the softness of the preceding consonant, but to indicate various grammatical forms of words - gender, number, designation of a part of speech ( night, cut, clouds, watchman).

The softness of consonants (except for hissing) in writing is indicated in two ways:
1) placing ь after a consonant at the end of a word or in the middle of it between two consonants - steel, day, true story, dictionary, dove, skates, hemp, money, rural, letter;
2) setting letters after a consonant and, e, yo, Yu, I; before these letters, all consonants (except for hissing and " c") are pronounced softly, although their softness is not heard as clearly as in front of a soft sign - beat, bureau, uncle, less often, gray.

In some words with two consonants, if the first of them is pronounced softly, after it is written b - very, request, threshing, marriage, etc.
In other words, although the softness of the first consonant is heard, b (soft sign) is not written - early, mason, tip.
In addition to softening consonants, a soft sign is also used to separate sounds when it stands between a consonant and a vowel (family, blizzard, beat)

Syllable

syllable the part of the word is called, which is pronounced with one push of the exhaled air from the lungs and in which there is only one vowel, for example:
Go-lo-va, extreme, my-I, city-born, city-ska-ya.

A word can have one syllable or several. There is always only one vowel in each syllable, but there may be no consonants at all (my-ya - the second syllable does not have a consonant), there may be several. Consonants are adjacent to vowels for the convenience of their pronunciation.

Examples:
My, my-me, casually, seven-me, local and local, sister and sister, stone, public.
If the consonants stand on both sides of the vowel, then such a syllable is called closed ( extreme. kao man. like, long). if only on one side, then open ( mo-i, boo-ma-ga, de la).
The division of words into syllables is necessary for mastering the rules of word hyphenation, for determining stress, for correct pronunciation of words and spelling.

stress

stressed is called pronunciation of one of the syllables of the word with greater force. This is a sound accent. Usually there is one sound stress in a word, but in compound words there can be two ( cafe e-restaurant a n, bargain about in-industry s sluggish).

The stress in Russian can be on any syllable on the first, second, third, etc. Therefore, they are called free ( book and" ha, boom a" ha, before e" lka).

Stress can be both mobile and permanent.

Permanent the stress is always placed on the same syllable ( longing, longing, longing).

Movable stress shifts from one syllable to another head, head, head).

Stress in Russian not only performs a pronunciation function (i.e., indicates how to pronounce the word correctly), but can simultaneously indicate a different semantic meaning of the word ( at same and already e , zas s fall and backfill a be, house a and d about ma).

Phonetic parsing

Phonetic analysis of the word is carried out according to the following plan:

1. Transcribe the word by putting the stress.
2. Determine the number of syllables, indicate stress.
3. Show what sound each letter corresponds to. Determine the number of letters and sounds.
4. Write the letters of the word in a column, sounds next to them, indicate their correspondence.
5. Specify the number of letters and sounds.
6. Characterize the sounds according to the following parameters:
vowel: stressed / unstressed;
consonant: deaf / voiced, hard / soft.

Sample phonetic parsing:
his [ j "and-vo] 2 syllables, second stressed

In phonetic analysis, they show the correspondence of letters and sounds, connecting letters with the sounds they designate (with the exception of the designation of hardness / softness of a consonant with a subsequent vowel). Therefore, it is necessary to pay attention to the letters denoting two sounds, and to the sounds indicated by two letters. Particular attention should be paid to the soft sign, which in some cases denotes the softness of the preceding paired consonant (and in this case, it, like the consonant preceding it, is combined with a consonant sound), and in other cases does not carry a phonetic load, performing a grammatical function.

Students should be able to do not only complete (presented above), but also partial phonetic analysis, which is usually carried out as a “background”, additional task to the vocabulary dictation, syntactic analysis of a sentence, etc.

The following types of exercises may be suggested:
find words that:
- the number of letters is greater than the number of sounds;
- the number of letters is less than sounds;
- all consonant sounds are voiced (deaf, hard, soft);
- there is a sound [ b"] (or any other, the detection of which requires the use of certain skills and abilities);
- the sound side of which somehow correlates with their semantics (for example: rustle, whisper, screech, rumble, thunder, drum etc.).

At the unified state exam as tasks for the section " Phonetics» it is proposed to make a partial phonetic parsing.