Introduction
1.2 Basic theories of memory
Conclusions on the 1st chapter
Conclusions on the 2nd chapter
Conclusion
Bibliography
Appendix
Introduction
Primary school age is the pinnacle of childhood. The child retains many childish qualities - frivolity, naivety, looking at an adult from the bottom up. But he is already beginning to lose his childish spontaneity in behavior, he has a different logic of thinking. The leading activity of children of primary school age is educational activity. Learning for a child is a significant activity. At school, he acquires not only new knowledge and skills, but also a certain social status. The interests, values of the child, the whole way of his life are changing.
The relevance of the work.To date, there is a problem of developing the memory of younger students. memory is the most important defining characteristic of the mental life of an individual. No actual action is mentally outside the process of memory, because the flow of any, even the most elementary, mental act necessarily presupposes the retention of each of its given elements for "linking" with the subsequent ones.
Memory is one of the most important mental cognitive functions, the level of development of which determines the productivity of assimilation of various information, both by a child and an adult.
The development of memory is influenced by other processes and personality traits: motivation and emotions, will and sociability, interests, self-control and especially thinking, which is extremely important for the effectiveness of the memory of a developing child.
Object of study:memory of children of primary school age.
Subject of study:features of memory development in younger students.
Objective:to identify the characteristic features of memory development in children of primary school age.
Work tasks:
1. To study the problem of memory in the psychological and pedagogical literature.
Analyze the main theories of memory.
Consider the features of the development and formation of memory in children of primary school age in the learning process.
Conduct a Pilot Study children's memoryprimary school age.
Research hypothesis:We assume that the development of memory is directly related to the conditions of education and training. The memory indicators of younger students studying in classes with in-depth study are higher than the memory indicators of younger students studying in the traditional form of education.
Research methods:analysis of psychological and pedagogical literature, observation, experiment, statistical method.
Theoretical basis of the study:works by B.G. Ananyeva, P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky, L.V. Zankov, P.I. Zinchenko, A.N. Leontiev, A.R. Luria, S.L. Rubinstein, N.A. Rybnikova, A.A. Smirnova, B.M. Teplov and others.
Empirical base of research:this study was conducted in secondary school No. 57 in Moscow. The study sample consisted of 20 junior schoolchildren aged 9-10 years.
Work structure.Course work consists of a table of contents, introduction, two chapters, conclusions for each chapter, conclusion and list of references.
memory primary school age
1. Theoretical foundations of the study of memory in primary school age
1.1 The problem of memory in the psychological and pedagogical literature
Memory- one of the most important mental cognitive functions, the level of development of which determines the productivity of assimilation of various information, both by a child and an adult.
At the same time, the development of memory is influenced by other processes and personality traits: motivation and emotions, will and sociability, interests, self-control and especially thinking, which is extremely important for the effectiveness of the memory of a developing child (B.G. Ananiev, P.P. Blonsky, L. S. Vygotsky, L. V. Zankov, P. I. Zinchenko, A. N. Leontiev, A. R. Luria, S. L. Rubinstein, N. A. Rybnikov, A. A. Smirnov, BM Teplov and their students).
Domestic psychologists in different years have received interesting factual material on the development of meaningful memorization in children, as well as on their teaching of individual complex techniques (semantic correlation, classification, semantic grouping of coherent text, visual modeling), which in one way or another contributes to increasing memory productivity.
All psychologists emphasize the active principle in the processes of children's memory, the leading role of the semantic processing of information:
memory can be controlled already at a relatively early stage of ontogeny;
memory can be developed depending on the use of certain means.
However, the features of the development of the imagination of children of different ages in the process of the formation of cultural memory, as shown by the analysis of domestic and foreign studies, have not yet been the subject of a special study.
In working with children on the development of memory, perception and retelling of literary texts, experts recommend using such a special methodological technique as posing individual questions or groups of questions in the form of a plan, which, first of all, activates the mental and mnemonic activity of schoolchildren (A.M. Borodich , R. I. Gabova, L. R. Golubeva, A. P. Ivanenko, N. A. Orlanova, F. A. Sokhin, L. P. Fedorenko, etc.).
Experts have proven that drawing up a plan, or semantic grouping, is one of the effective methods that provide a high degree of comprehension of a coherent text.
Two books by M.S. Rogovin: the first one was published in 1966 by the Higher School publishing house under the title "Philosophical problems of the theory of memory", the second (significantly revised version of the first one) - in 1976 by the same publishing house under the title "Problems of the theory of memory".
As M.S. Rogovin, for a superficial glance, memory is something simple and understandable. It is assumed that any impression leaves behind some trace, which persists for a more or less long time. This is the essence of memory.
At the physiological level, this process is interpreted as a certain change in the work of nerve cells under the influence of previous stimuli. A similar view of M.S. Rogovin designates as the thesis about the naturalness (self-evidence) of memory. But what is self-evident, upon closer examination, turns out to be something incomprehensible. And all further analysis convincingly confirms the validity of this statement.
The first fundamental conclusion that follows from the scientific analysis of the essence of memory is that we are dealing with a very complex and multifaceted phenomenon. It turns out that memory should be understood not as a single ability to preserve and reproduce previous impressions, but as a set of mechanisms of various kinds. For example, individual differences in this area concern not only the speed and strength of memorization, but also the relative ease of perception and retention of certain material, as well as preferences given to one or another method of memorization. The same is evidenced by the diverse manifestations of memory impairment - amnesia. This implies the fundamental possibility of dismembering this complex phenomenon for a variety of reasons.
There are motor and sensory memory, figurative and verbal, mechanical and logical memory. If we consider memory as a process, then we can single out separate aspects of this process - fixation, preservation, forgetting, reproduction. Memorization itself can be involuntary or arbitrary, short-term or long-term. Reproduction can be direct (immediate) or indirect (mediated by associations). In turn, direct reproduction can be the result of repeated perception (recognition) or arise spontaneously (reminiscence). Thus, memory turns out to be a mental function that is very complex in its structure. In addition, it is intimately connected with other cognitive processes (perception, attention, thinking, speech) and with the general mental organization and orientation of the personality.
An essential aspect of the study of the problem of memory is the study of those brain mechanisms that ensure the preservation of past impressions. Throughout the 20th century, many studies of this kind were carried out both in animals and in humans. They show that, first, there is no brain "memory center". Violations of this function are observed in lesions of different brain structures, but the vastness of the lesion is more significant than its specific localization. Such facts are in good agreement with the conclusion of psychologists that memory is not a separate ability; it is closely connected with other aspects of cognitive activity.
Secondly, it has been proven that with the help of electrical stimulation of certain parts of the cerebral cortex (temporal lobes of the dominant hemisphere), it is possible to artificially evoke visual and auditory images of the past, which W. Penfield called "flashes of the experienced."
Modern neurophysiology has put forward interesting hypotheses regarding possible mechanisms for fixing memory traces. However, so far not a single particular question about the "traces" of memory - their localization, structure, strength, methods of actualization, etc. - There are no unified and firmly substantiated ideas. Despite the exceptionally subtle research carried out, there is still much more unknown and incomprehensible in this area than unequivocally proven. Having stated that modern neurophysiology, while reporting some curious facts about the functioning of brain mechanisms for processing information about the external world, does not bring us too close to understanding the essence of memory as a cognitive process, M.S. Rogovin returns to the psychological aspect of the problem. Here he distinguishes between analytical and synthetic approaches. The first consists in an attempt to isolate the main elements of memory, and the second is aimed at determining the place of this cognitive process in the general structure of a person's mental life.
As the basic elements of memory, the old psychology called associations, i.e. links between individual representations. Indeed, our memory is largely built on connections. The laws of associations were first deduced by Aristotle, who sees their reason in the existence of similarities and differences between objects and grouped them according to the predominant sensory modality. Later, external associations (by similarity and contrast, as well as by coincidence in time and space) were supplemented with internal associations (by generic and causal relationships). Associations of the first type form the basis of sensory memory, associations of the second type form the basis of the memory of ideas.
Associationism, which until the 19th century was the main trend in philosophical psychology, largely determined the development of modern experimental psychology. The pioneer of the experimental study of memory, G. Ebbinghaus, used the principle of associations to explain the speed of learning by heart and forgetting what was learned. The same principle formed the basis of the explanatory schemes used by behaviorists (stimulus-response connections) and physiologists of the school of I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlova (conditioned reflex). Although associationism as a universal concept was later ruthlessly criticized by representatives of other areas, such as Gestalt psychology, the prominent role of associations in the organization of the human psyche is beyond doubt. Behind the habitual forms of behavior, behind the acts of speech formalized according to the laws of language and logic, a special scientific analysis reveals a powerful layer of associations - mental formations that serve as raw material and dynamic background for them.
If associations are those elementary structures that form the "foundation" of memory, then memory itself is included in the general structure of the psyche, which is usually denoted by the concept of "personality". The synthetic approach draws attention to the second aspect, which is no less important for understanding the nature of human memory than the study of the process of forming associations. For example, W. Wundt believed that associations as such are directed by apperception, i.e. an act of will that puts them in a certain relation to each other. Representatives of the Würzburg school noted the importance of such intentional moments as "intention", "concentration", "motive" for the organization of associative processes. Gestaltists pointed to the role of structuring the material for its successful memorization.
In the same vein, the concept of F. Bartlett developed, for whom the memory of an adult is the result of the joint work of the senses, constructive imagination and constructive thought. Each memory is included in a larger scheme, due to which it ceases to be a simple copy of the initial impression, but necessarily includes an element of generalization based on past experience.
Memories are not so much a reproduction as a reconstruction of the past. Figuratively speaking, Bartlett "throws a bridge" from memory to imagination. The difference here, in his opinion, is only in the degree of transformation of the source material.
Another point that was outlined in Bartlett's concept, but was developed in more detail in the works of French (P. Janet, L. Levy-Bruhl, M. Halbwachs) and Russian (L.S. Vygotsky, A.R. Luria, A. N. Leontiev) psychologists, this is an indication of the role of social factors in the process of memorization.
Upon closer analysis, the development of human memory turns out to be closely connected with the emergence of abstract-logical thinking and with the use of special mnemonic means (artificial signs). Sign systems (in particular, writing) act as a means of mastering one's own behavior, which is a turning point in the history of the spiritual development of mankind.
In addition, social life sets certain frameworks (coordinate systems) within which only the counting of the events of the life of each individual is possible. Therefore, any memory of a particular event contains, in addition to an image localized in a certain place and time, those general ideas that reflect our personal experience or the experience of our immediate social environment.
This is the essence and specificity of human memory. According to the correct remark of P. Janet, real memory arises only with the use of language, because only then does the possibility of description appear, that is, the transformation of the absent into the present.
A systematic review of various views on the nature and mechanisms of memory is given by M.S. Rogovin to formulate the principles of a structural-level concept designed to integrate diverse facts related to the functioning of this complex cognitive complex.
All this structure is the result of a long phylogenetic and ontogenetic development, during which historically newer formations seem to build on older ones, including them in themselves and rebuilding them qualitatively.
For example, arbitrary memorization necessarily implies a special organization of one's own activity (the division of material, the distribution of repetitions), aimed at memorizing some content with a view to its subsequent reproduction. In this sense, it differs significantly from involuntary memorization, which is a kind of by-product of any activity.
Arbitrary memorization does not at all cancel the involuntary, but only organizes and directs it in a special way. Verbal-logical memory, in comparison with figurative memory, turns out to be a more effective (in terms of subsequent storage) way of encoding information that was originally given in a visual form. Language and other sign systems in this sense can be considered as ready-made means (tools) of memorization.
The structural-level concept of the psyche in itself is not an invention of M.S. Rogovin. Its foundations were laid by the outstanding English neurologist X. Jackson and his student G. Head.
Developing the evolutionary ideas of Ch. Darwin and G. Spencer, Jackson considered the functions of the central nervous system as the result of a gradual complication, ascent to a higher level. In the case of pathology, the reverse process occurs, which Jackson calls dissociation. Jackson's theory at one time found a wide response in French psychology. Its influence is especially noticeable in the works of T. Ribot and P. Janet.
In particular, Ribot in the well-known book "Memory in its normal and diseased state" formulates the so-called law of the reverse development of this function, according to which genetically later formations suffer first of all - verbal-logical memory and the ability of arbitrary memorization and recall. Impressions of the distant past and motor skills (memory-habit) are quite stable in this respect.
This applies both to the entire historical development of human cognition and to the individual development of memory in childhood. At the lower levels of functioning, memorization is carried out under the influence of external factors and relies on the natural ability of any living organism to record biologically significant or frequently repeated impressions.
At the level of voluntary and conscious regulation of activity, memorization takes the form of purposeful memorization. At the same time, inner speech becomes the main tool for organizing one's own behavior. So, it is the structural-level concept that seems to be the most adequate for revealing the nature of memory.
1.2 Basic theories of memory
In recent years, there has been a rapid growth in the number of scientific papers devoted to the general theory of memory. The systemic unity and conventionality of distinguishing between memory, information and sign systems became obvious, which determined new requirements for their study.
retrospectively,
In modern studies, memory is acquiring an ever greater ontological status and is already associated, first of all, with relevantsystem processes, which in themselves may not look like memory in the usual sense for us.
Memory is increasingly viewed as actual and continuous processes of self-reproduction and self-translation of systems,for outside these processes, memory does not exist, as well as these processes themselves, due to the dynamic and information-conditioned nature of biological and social systems.
The close relationship between sign systems and memory has been overlooked for a long time, but their joint study in the framework of interdisciplinary research has also shown the insufficiency of widespread "autonomous" approaches to the study of signs and sign systems. Like memory, various types of sign systems are mainly considered "statically", as objective means of replacing some autonomous subject or semantic content that exist relatively independently of the activities of subjects. Biological and social systems preserve and transmit themselves through their actual functioning, through "living semiosis" that conditions and is conditioned by memory. In this regard, these processes must be considered both as determined by memory and sign systems, and as defining and implementing them in such a way that the sign, information and actual system processes become distinguishable only conditionally.
Systematic studies of memory and awareness of the need to create a general theory of memory were induced not only by its biological research, but also by the "boom" in the study of social (cultural, collective, historical) memory, which occurred and continues to occur in the 1990s and early 2000s.
Works in the field of social memory have shown that its simple understanding as a material imprint (imprints) or a system of material carriers of information relating to the past is not enough. Social memory must be considered as a process both from the side of its creation, and from the side of its translation, reproduction and actual functioning in the form of the social system itself.
The study of social memory is largely independent of biological research, but in recent years there has been a growing body of work that combines biological and social concepts of memory into a single, usually evolutionary, theory.
At the present stage, the theory and methodology of interdisciplinary memory research is still under active development. In the process of solving this problem, it is necessary to avoid various forms of reductionism, including the consideration of biological and social systems as systems based only on memory.
At the same time, the working concept of "memory" makes it possible to reveal new aspects of the study of complex systems, therefore, as a preliminary result, it is necessary to emphasize the following:
The objects of systemic and interdisciplinary research of memory can be considered at least two systems of inheritance: biological and social. These systems must be studied not only as conditions that ensure the reproduction and adaptation of biological and social systems to the environment on the basis of past experience,but also as the foundations and forms of their actual existence.
2. The considered studies of the nature of memory and its evolution show that memory, being a systemic process, exists both at the individual and supra-individual levels.
3. Often in studies, information, sign systems and actual processes are considered as autonomous (hypostatized) realities, as, for example, in the statement "knowledge is transmitted by tradition." or "language contains information.".
Association is understood as a connection between mental phenomena, in which the actualization of one of them entails the appearance of another.E. Muller built a kind of hierarchical system in which categorical representations were under the control of some higher level, which makes decisions about the inhibition or activation of associative links. E. Müller's student A. Yost later described two general laws of memory trace strength dynamics. According to the first of them, "of two associations of equal strength, but of different ages, the older one is forgotten more slowly. The second law is related to the memorization of material: the increment in the strength of the trace caused by new memorization is inversely proportional to the initial strength of the trace."
Another associative memory model was proposed by J. Anderson and G. Bower. Their theory is analyzed in the monograph by E.I. Goroshko "An integrative model of a free associative experiment".
J. Anderson and G. Bower believe that words can be mutually associated only if the concepts corresponding to them are included in the propositions encoded in memory. At the same time, a person's long-term memory is a huge network of intersecting propositional trees, each of which includes a certain set of memory nodes with labeled connections.
In his study “On Memory”, while conducting experiments on memorizing rows of meaningless syllables, he deduced a general rule for the emergence and decay of associations: “If any mental formations ever filled consciousness simultaneously or in close sequence, then subsequently the repetition of some members of this experience will cause representations of the rest of the members, even if their original causes were absent.
This is due to two reasons:
) in any mental phenomenon of a waking person there is nothing that would be completely and completely conscious, since there is always something unconscious in it; at the same time, there is never a completely unconscious in it, since at least some moments are always partially conscious;
) until now, components have not yet been identified in mental phenomena, about which one could confidently say that this component is associated only with consciousness, but this one - only with the unconscious. These reasons do not allow us to study the consciousness and the unconscious separately.
1.3 Features of the development and formation of memory of children of primary school age in the learning process
From the moment the child enters school, it begins to mediate the entire system of his relations, and one of its paradoxes is as follows: while social in its meaning, content, and form, this system is at the same time carried out purely individually, and its products are the products of individual assimilation. In the process of educational activity, the child masters the knowledge and skills developed by mankind. The main direction during this period of a child's life is educational activity, and its success largely depends on the level of development of various types of children's memory.
The work of many researchers (P. Ya Galperin, Ya. P. Kolominsky, ES Nemov, E. A. Panko, A. A. Smirnov, L. D. Stolyarenko, etc.) is devoted to the development of the memory of younger students. formation in theoretical and applied aspect.
Under the influence of learning, younger schoolchildren undergo a restructuring of all their cognitive processes and acquire new qualities. Children are included in new activities for them and systems of interpersonal relations that require them to have new psychological qualities. From the first days of learning, a child needs to maintain increased attention for a long time, be diligent enough, perceive and remember well everything that the teacher says.
The main neoplasm of primary school age is abstract verbal-logical and reasoning thinking, the emergence of which significantly restructures other cognitive processes of children; thus, memory at this age becomes thinking, and perception becomes thinking. Thanks to such thinking, memory and perception, children are subsequently able to successfully master truly scientific concepts and operate with them.
Exploring involuntary memorization, P.I. Zinchenko found that the productivity of involuntary memorization increases if the task offered to the child involves not just passive perception, but active orientation in the material, the performance of mental operations. In addition to involuntary memorization, an important neoplasm appears in the child's psyche - children master mnemonic activity proper, they develop arbitrary memory.
An increase in voluntary memory in children can be achieved through targeted memorization using special techniques, the effectiveness depends on:
· From the goals of memorization (how strongly, for a long time a person wants to remember). If the goal is to learn in order to pass the exam, then soon after the exam a lot will be forgotten, if the goal is to learn for a long time, for future professional activity, then the information is not forgotten much;
· From teaching methods. Learning methods are:
mechanical verbatim multiple repetition - mechanical memory works, a lot of effort, time is spent, and the results are low. Mechanical memory is a memory based on the repetition of material without comprehending it;
logical retelling, which includes logical comprehension of the material, systematization, highlighting the main logical components of information, retelling in your own words - logical memory (semantic) works - a type of memory based on the establishment of semantic connections in the memorized material. Logical memory efficiency is 20 times better than mechanical memory;
figurative memorization techniques (translating information into images, graphs, diagrams, pictures) - figurative memory works. Figurative memory can be of different types: visual, auditory, motor-motor, gustatory, tactile, olfactory, emotional;
mnemonic memorization techniques (special techniques to facilitate memorization).
In studies of the memory of children aged 3-7 years, Z.M. Istomina identified three mnemonic levels of her development:
· the first level is characterized by the absence of singling out the purpose of memorization or recall;
· the second - the presence of this goal, but without the use of any methods aimed at its implementation,
· the third - the presence of a goal to remember or recall and the use of mnemonic methods to achieve this.
Students in the initial period of learning have the second and, to a greater extent, the third level of memory development, while they can quite well highlight the mnemonic goal.
This happens when the child is faced with conditions that require him to actively memorize and recall. Memorization must be motivated by something, and the mnemonic activity itself must lead to the achievement of a result that is significant for the child.
There is a dependence of the isolation of the mnemonic goal on the nature of the activity performed by the child. It turned out that the most favorable conditions for understanding the mnemonic goal and the formation of memorization and recall arise in such life circumstances in which the child must fulfill the instructions of an adult in play activity.
The main indicator of the development of a child's voluntary memory is not only his ability to accept or independently set a mnemonic task for himself, but also to control its implementation, i.e. exercise self-control. In this case, the essence of self-control lies in the ability of a person to correlate, compare the result obtained in the process of performing any activity with a given model in order to timely correct errors and prevent them further.
Primary schoolchildren have the following levels of self-control of children, depending on the completeness of self-report:
the first level is characterized by the fact that they could not exercise self-control at all;
the second level is characterized by the fact that during the second viewing of the pictures they gave an account only of some elements of the series reproduced for the first time;
the third level of self-control development is characterized by the simultaneous fulfillment of a self-report and a mnemonic task.
In general, the possibilities of self-control in the process of memorization at primary school age increase significantly, and most children of this age successfully use self-control both when memorizing visual and verbal material.
Self-control, being an integral part of educational activity, acting in a visual-effective form, stimulates children to master the logical method of memorization and mnemonic activity. By forming this ability in the process of mnemonic activity, the teacher helps the child develop not only memory, but also the arbitrariness of behavior in general.
Self-regulation of behavior is a particular difficulty for children of 6-7 years of age who begin to study at school. The child must sit still during the lesson, not talk, not walk around the classroom, not run around the school during breaks. In other situations, on the contrary, he is required to display unusual, rather complex and subtle motor activity, as, for example, when learning to draw and write.
It is believed that a child who crosses the threshold of school for the first time is characterized by mechanical memory, the ability to remember only by association. At the same time, they refer to the child's amazing ability to senselessly reproduce some obscure text. Indeed, rote memorization is highly developed in children of this age. However, young children can access not only mechanical memorization, but also elements of the logical one. This type of memory usually manifests itself when remembering content understandable to children.
Conducted by A.A. Smirnov, comparative studies of memory in children of primary and secondary school age led to the following conclusions:
from 6 to 14 years old, children actively develop mechanical memory for units of information that are not logically connected;
Contrary to popular belief about the existence of an advantage of memorizing meaningful material that increases with age, the inverse relationship is actually found: the older a younger student becomes, the less advantage he has of memorizing meaningful material over meaningless. This is probably due to the fact that the exercise of memory under the influence of intensive learning based on memorization leads to a simultaneous improvement in all types of memory in a child, and above all those that are relatively simple and not associated with complex mental work.
The memory of children of primary school age is quite good, and this primarily concerns mechanical memory, which progresses quite quickly during the first three to four years of schooling. The indirect, logical memory lags somewhat behind in its development, since in most cases the child, being busy with learning, work, play and communication, completely manages with mechanical memory.
A six-year-old child often replaces unfamiliar words with more familiar ones, arbitrarily changes the sequence of events in a fairy tale without violating the main logic of presentation, may miss details or add something of his own. This arbitrariness largely depends on his attitude towards the heroes of the work. With a positive attitude, much of the "bad" associated with the hero is forgotten by them, but details are introduced that enhance the positive aspects. The opposite picture is observed with a negative attitude towards the hero.
Learning plays a major role in the development of children's logical memory. The indicators of children who have been trained in the methods of organizing logical connections, the results are 1.5 times higher than in children where these mnemonic methods were not taught.
In the course of special education, children may well master such methods of logical memorization as semantic correlation and semantic grouping, and successfully use them for cosmic purposes.
It is advisable to carry out such training in two stages: at the first stage, the formation of semantic correlation and semantic grouping as mental actions takes place, at the second, the ability to apply these actions in the course of mnemonic activity is formed.
When teaching the mnemonic action of classification, success is achieved if its formation is carried out in accordance with the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions by P.Ya. Galperin:
Stage of practical action. Here, children use material and practical actions - they learn to arrange pictures into groups.
Stage of speech action. After a preliminary acquaintance with the pictures, the child must tell which of them can be attributed to one or another group.
Stage of mental action. At this stage, the distribution of pictures into groups is carried out by the child in his mind, then he names the groups.
When the children have already learned to single out certain groups in the presented material (for example, animals, dishes, clothes, etc.), to attribute each picture to a specific group or general picture, to select individual elements, then they proceed to the formation of the ability to apply grouping for the purpose of memorization.
Thus, a teacher working with children should take into account the possibilities of various types of memory of his pupils and develop them. Accordingly, the teacher must know the methods of developing various types of memory in younger students and apply them individually, depending on the level of their formation in the child.
Conclusions on the 1st chapter
. Memory- one of the most important mental cognitive functions, the level of development of which determines the productivity of assimilation of various information, both by a child and an adult. At the same time, other processes and personality traits influence the development of memory: motivation and emotions, will and sociability, interests, self-control, and especially thinking, which is extremely important for the effectiveness of the memory of a developing child.
In the works of domestic researchers, it was shown that the development of human memory goes in the direction from direct memorization to indirect memorization, based on the use of auxiliary means (mainly language).
2. In recent years, there has been a rapid growth in the number of scientific papers devoted to the general theory of memory. The systemic unity and conventionality of distinguishing between memory, information and sign systems became obvious, which determined new requirements for their study.
The emergence and development of the ideas of the general theory of memory only in recent years is due to the fact that for a long time memory was understood mainly psychologically or historically and was considered only retrospectively,as a kind of "imprint", "trace" of the past, or as a set of sign systems that store information about past events in the present.
For the first time, ideas regarding the preservation, reproduction and forgetting of information were tested in the associative theory of memory. The principle of association has become a key principle in explaining the dynamics of memory processes.
In accordance with the association theory, forgetting the studied material is explained by the disintegration of associations. The most significant contribution to the study of forgetting in the framework of the associative theory was made by G. Ebbinghaus.
The identification of the unconscious in the psyche began since the time of Leibniz, and the beginning of the quantitative registration of human reactions to unconscious stimuli, which is the basis of the scientific study of the unconscious, is associated with the work of Gershuni and his collaborators.
So far, there are no scientifically proven answers to the questions: what is the unconscious, whether there is an unconscious memory, what properties of objects it is formed on, how and where it is formed and functions, how it differs from conscious memory.
3. The work of many researchers (P. Ya Galperin, Ya. P. Kolominsky, ES Nemov, E. A. Panko, A. A. Smirnov, L. D. Stolyarenko, etc.) is devoted to the development of the memory of younger students. formation in theoretical and applied aspect.
In a child of primary school age (6-7 years old), an involuntary type of memory predominates, in which there is no consciously set goal. During this period, the dependence of the memorization of material on its features such as emotional attractiveness, brightness, sonority, discontinuity of action, movement, contrast, etc. remains. If the objects that the child meets are called, then he remembers them better, which indicates the essential role of the word.
In addition to involuntary memorization, an important neoplasm appears in the child's psyche - children master mnemonic activity proper, they develop arbitrary memory.
2. Experimental study of memory in primary school age
2.1 Organization and research methods
The experimental base was secondary school No. 57 of the city of Moscow. The study involved 10 junior schoolchildren from a class with in-depth study of the Russian languageand literature(first group) and 10 junior schoolchildren studying in the traditional form of education (second group).
The purpose and tasks set determined the course of the study, which was carried out in several stages:
The first stage is a theoretical analysis of the literature on the topic under study.
The second stage is the preparatory stage. At this stage, a sample was formed and diagnostic tools were selected in order to study the memory of younger schoolchildren.
The third stage is experimental. This stage included an experimental study of students of the first and second groups using the methods of 10 words, "Memory for images", "Semantic memory".
The fourth stage is analytical. It is associated with the analysis and processing of the results obtained.
For the study of memory, the technique "Memory for images" was used, designed to study figurative memory (Appendix). The essence of the technique lies in the fact that the subject is exposed to a table with 16 images for 20 seconds. The images must be memorized and reproduced on the form within 1 minute. The child needs to draw or write down (express verbally) those images that they remember. The evaluation of the test results is based on the number of correct reproduction of images. The technique is used in a group and individually. Norm - 6 correct answers and more.
The "10 words" technique was also used to diagnose memory. It is used to diagnose verbal short-term memory. The children were read 10 words with an interval of 4-5 seconds between words. After a ten-second break, the students write down the words they remember. The evaluation of the results was carried out according to the formula: C=a/10, where C is memory, a is the number of correctly reproduced words. For children 8 - 9 years old, 6 words are the normative indicator.
And also for the diagnosis of memory, the technique "Semantic memory" based on understanding was used (Appendix). In the process of semantic memorization, mnemonic supports are created. The connections used for memorization are not independent, but auxiliary in nature, they serve as a means of helping to remember something. The most effective will be mnemonic supports that reflect the main thoughts of any material. Diagnostics takes place in 2 stages. At the 1st stage, pairs of words that have a semantic connection are read out. Then the experimenter reads only the first word of each pair, and the subjects write down the second. If the second word is written correctly, then put "+", and incorrectly "-". At stage 2, pairs of words that do not have a semantic connection are read out.
The results are processed as follows:
Volume of logical memory Volume of mechanical memory Number of words of the 1st stage (a1) Number of memorized words (b1) Coefficient of logical memory Number of words of the 2nd stage (a2) Number of memorized words (b2) Coefficient of logical memory С2=b2/a2С1=b1 /a1
Thus, the norm of logical memory for children 8-9 years old is 10 words out of 15, and mechanical memory is 7 words out of 15.
2.2 Research results and their analysis
The results of the study of memory in younger students are presented in the tables.
Table 1
Indicators of verbal short-term memory according to the "10 words" method in junior schoolchildren of the first and second groups.
Groups of 10 words Average score U - criterion First group 8.90* Second group 5.3
Note:
<0,01
<0,05
Rice. one. Average indicators of verbal short-term memory according to the "10 words" method in junior schoolchildren of the first and second groups.
According to the data given in Table 1, the average indicators of verbal short-term memory according to the "10 words" method in schoolchildren of the second group are lower than those of schoolchildren in the first group.
table 2
Average indicators of figurative memory according to the method "Memory for images" among schoolchildren of the experimental and control groups.
Groups Memory for images Average score U - criterion First group 132 * Second group 8.4
Note:
*significant differences were noted at p<0,01
** Significant differences were noted at p<0,05
Rice. 2. Average indicators of figurative memory according to the method "Memory for images" among schoolchildren of the first and second groups.
According to the data given in Table 2, the average indicators of figurative memory according to the "Memory for images" method in schoolchildren of the second group are lower than those of schoolchildren in the first group.
Table 3
Average indicators of semantic memory according to the method "Semantic memory" among schoolchildren of the first and second groups (stage 1).
GroupsMethodology "Semantic memory" Stage 1Average score U - criterionFirst group 12.20 *Second group 7.5
Note:
*significant differences were noted at p<0,01
** Significant differences were noted at p<0,05
Rice. 3.
According to the data shown in Table 3, the average indicators of logical memory according to the "Semantic Memory" method in schoolchildren of the second group are lower than those of schoolchildren in the first group.
Table 4
Average indicators of semantic memory according to the method "Semantic memory" among schoolchildren of the experimental and control groups (stage 2).
GroupsMethodology "Semantic memory" Stage 2Average scoreU - criterionFirst group5.56*Second group3.1
Note:
*significant differences were noted at p<0,01
** Significant differences were noted at p<0,05
Rice. 4. Average indicators of semantic memory according to the method "Semantic memory" among schoolchildren of the first and second groups.
According to the data given in Table 4, the average indicators of mechanical memory according to the "Semantic Memory" method in schoolchildren of the second group (traditional form of education) are lower than those of schoolchildren in the first group (a class with in-depth study of the Russian language and literature), which is proof of the hypothesis put forward and confirms her.
Conclusions on the 2nd chapter
Thus, the hypothesis put forward that the development of memory is directly related to the conditions of education and training was confirmed.
The memory indicators of younger schoolchildren studying in a class with in-depth study of the Russian language and literature are higher than the memory indicators of younger schoolchildren studying in the traditional form of education.
Memory, being the basis of the entire learning process, is formed and changed throughout a person's life. Under favorable social conditions, the memory of mentally healthy children has a positive trend.
Children without mental retardation took part in this study. But in children of the second group (traditional form of education), memory indicators are much lower.
This indicates that the development of memory is directly related to the conditions of education and training.
The social and mental conditions of raising children are associated with the development of cognitive functions.
To increase memory performance in children, it is necessary to regularly conduct correctional and developmental classes.
Conclusion
Memory is the basis of successful educational and labor activity of every person. In order to actively use memory, it is necessary to teach the child to manage the mechanisms and processes of memory.
In the process of learning, the child himself learns to use his memory, but corrective and developmental activities can improve certain types and mechanisms of memory that are necessary in everyday life.
In the process of the general development of the child, the activity of memory becomes more and more manageable.
With the development of arbitrary memory, the possibilities of independent various activities of the child expand and its more and more active inclusion in various types of communication with adults and peers.
The activity of memory and imagination changes depending on the motives that prompt the child to make an effort: memorization and recall of perceived material, to create a new drawing, composition or retelling.
Imitative and involuntary activity turns into creative activity, which the child learns to control, subordinating it to the accepted task.
Speaking about children's memory, we can say that with the development of the child, memory becomes selective, i.e. the child remembers what interests him better and for a longer period of time, and uses this material in his activities.
Memory is characterized by its plasticity and constant development. Psychologists say that a child's memory is better than that of an adult.
Practice shows that children, although they memorize material easily, reproduce it randomly, since they still do not know how to extract the necessary information under certain conditions. But with age, the child learns to use his memory and even use various techniques for memorization.
Bibliography
1.Aseev V.G. Age-related psychology. - M.: Academy Publishing House, 1994. - 320 p.
2.Vygotsky L.S. Psychology. - M.: Publishing house EKSMO-Press, 2000. - 1008 p.
.Vygotsky L.S. Memory and its development in childhood. - M.: Vlados, 1999. - 234 p.
.Gamezo M.V. Age and pedagogical psychology / M.V. Gamezo, E.A. Petrov. - M.: Pedagogical Society of Russia Publishing House, 2004. - 512 p.
.Children's practical psychology. / Ed. Bogdana N.N. - Vladivostok: VGUES Publishing House, 2003. - 116 p.
.Zenkovsky V.V. Psychology of childhood. - Ekaterinburg: Business Book Publishing House, 1995, - 346 p.
.Krysko V.G. Psychology and pedagogy. - M.: Vlados, 2001. - 378 p.
.Mukhina V.S. Developmental psychology: phenomenology of development, childhood, adolescence. - M.: Academy Publishing House, 2000. - 456 p.
.Nikitina T.B. How to develop a good memory. - M.: AST-PRESS, 2006. - 320 p.
.Obukhova L. Child psychology: Theories, facts, problems. - M.: Academy Publishing House, 1995. - 360 p.
.Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of General Psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter Publishing House, 2002. - 720 p.
.Smirnov A.A. Age and individual differences in memory. - M.: APN, 1999. - 221 p.
.Smirnova E.O. Psychology of the child: From birth to seven years. - M.: School - press, 1997. - 383 p.
.Stolyarenko L.D. Fundamentals of psychology. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix Publishing House, 1997. - 736 p.
.Cold M.A. General questions of psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter Publishing House, 2002. - 272 p.
Appendix
Method of memory for images.
Instruction: "You will be presented with a table with images. Your task is to in 20 seconds. memorize as many images as possible. After 20 sec. the table will be removed, and you must draw or write down (express verbally) those images that you remember.
The evaluation of the test results is carried out according to the number of correct reproduction of images. The norm is 6 or more.
Stimulus material:
Methodology "Semantic memory"
Stage one.
Instruction: " Guys, now I will read you a couple of words, your task is to try to remember them. Listen very carefully. After I finish reading the pairs of words, I will read only the first word a second time, and you need to remember and write down the second word.
The psychologist reads out a pair of words for memorization. Children try to memorize them in pairs. Then the experimenter reads only the first word of each pair, and the children try to remember and write down the second. Words must be read slowly.
doll-play
chicken-egg
scissors-cut
hay horse
book-teach
baochka-fly
brush-teeth
Pioneer drum
Snow winter
cock-scream
ink-tead
milk cow
Steam locomotive = go
Pear compote
Lamp-evening.
Second phase.
Instruction: " Guys, now I will read you another 10 pairs of words again, try to remember the second word of each pair in the same way. Be careful!"
In the same way as in the first case, pairs of words are read slowly, and then only the first word of each pair.
beetle chair
Feather-water
Points error
bell-memory
dove father
Lake-tram
Comb-wind
Boiler boots
mother castle
Match Sheep
Grater-sea
sleigh-factory
fire fish
Poplar kissel.
After the experiment, the number of memorized words for each series is compared, and the subjects answer the questions: "Why were the words from the second experiment worse remembered? Did you try to establish a connection between the words?"
Tutoring
Need help learning a topic?
Our experts will advise or provide tutoring services on topics of interest to you.
Submit an application indicating the topic right now to find out about the possibility of obtaining a consultation.
Target: Determine the predominant memory type.
Equipment: four rows of words written on separate cards; stopwatch.
For memorization by ear: car, apple, pencil, spring, lamp, forest, rain, flower, pan, parrot.
For memorization with visual perception: airplane, pear, pen, winter, candle, field, lightning, nut, frying pan, duck.
For memorization with motor-auditory perception: steamboat, plum, ruler, summer, lampshade, river, thunder, berry, plate, goose.
For memorization with combined perception: train, cherry, notebook, autumn, floor lamp, meadow, thunderstorm, mushroom, cup, chicken.
Research order. The student is told that a series of words will be read to him, which he must try to remember and, at the command of the experimenter, write down.
The first row of words is read. The interval between words when reading is 3 seconds; the student should write them down after a 10-second break after the end of reading the entire row; then rest 10 minutes.
The experimenter reads the words of the third row to the student, and the subject repeats each of them in a whisper and "writes" in the air. Then write down the memorized words on a piece of paper. Rest 10 minutes.
The experimenter shows the student the words of the fourth row, reads them to him. The subject repeats each word in a whisper, "writes" in the air. Then write down the memorized words on a piece of paper. Rest 10 minutes.
Processing and analysis of results. The predominant type of memory of the subject can be concluded by calculating the coefficient of the type of memory (C). C= a / 10, where a is the number of correctly reproduced words. The type of memory is determined by which of the rows had a greater reproduction of words. The closer the coefficient of the memory type is to one, the better developed the given type of memory is in the subject.
Pictogram
Target: study of the features of thinking, mediated memory, affective-personal sphere.
As a method of experimental psychological research, it was proposed in the early 1930s. Pictogram (from Latin pictus - drawn, Greek grapho - writing).
Usually, the subject is asked to memorize a certain number of words or expressions, and for each of them you need to draw any image or sign, that is, write down a number of concepts pictographically. As stimuli, concepts of varying degrees of generalization are used, and mainly those whose direct representation is difficult or impossible (for example, "jolly holiday", "warm wind", "deceit", "justice", etc.).
A feature of the instruction is the orientation of the subject to the study of only the features of memory, as well as the prohibition to use any letter designations. After completing the drawings, the subject must name the corresponding concepts or expressions. One of the most important elements of the study is a conversation that allows you to reveal the meaning of the symbols produced by the subjects. The examination time is not regulated.
If, when using the variant of the pictogram according to A. N. Leontiev, the choice of the subject was limited to 30 images included in the set of cards (while the number of possible options decreased in the process of completing tasks), then the only factor limiting the choice of image in the variant with free drawing is intellectual -associative fund of the subject's personality, his affective attitudes. Thus, the nature of the subject's activity and the possibility of interpreting the drawing bring the test closer to projective methods.
Another feature that expands the interpretative orientation of the methodology is the fact that indirect memorization reflects both mnemonic and intellectual processes (AR Luria, 1962). The construction of an image suitable for memorization is a consequence of the creative activity of thinking, which reflects its individual structure (S. V. Longinova, S. Ya. Rubinshtein, 1972). Hence - ample opportunities for the study of thinking, primarily the process of generalization. (It is no coincidence that the first studies using pictograms (G. V. Birenbaum, 1934) were devoted to the analysis of the peculiarities of thinking of patients with mental illness, since the construction of a pictogram is associated with significant mental effort and is not available with intellectual insufficiency).
In Soviet psychology, the technique was used in the context of studying mediated memorization within the framework of a cultural-historical concept (L. S. Vygotsky, 1935). The simplest method of pictographic research was proposed by L. V. Zankov (1935). The subjects were asked to remember a specific word with the help of a specific image in the picture, by establishing a connection between the word and the presented image. The variant of the test proposed by A. N. Leontiev (1930) required a more complex activity: the choice of a picture word from the proposed set for memorization. This version of the test is widely used, especially in clinical studies of children (A. Ya. Ivanova, E. S. Mandrusova, 1970; L. V. Bondareva, 1969; L. V. Petrenko, 1976).
At present, there is a tendency to develop and improve the interpretative scheme of the methodology, which takes into account the various categories of the studied indicators and provides for the formalization of data. This expands the possibilities of the methodology, which previously allowed only a qualitative generalized interpretation of the results, is the basis for the standardization of indicators, which brings the test closer to modern psychodiagnostic methods.
One of the most complete schemes for analyzing pictogram data is the interpretive scheme of B. G. Khersonsky (1988). The interpretation consists of a qualitative analysis of each image, followed by a formalized assessment based on assignment to a particular type; assessment of the quantitative ratio of images of various types in this protocol; taking into account analytical factors that are inaccessible to formalization (special phenomena), including the graphic features of the picture. Qualitative analysis takes into account: the theme of the drawing, factors of abstractness (concrete images, metaphorical images, geometric, graphic and grammatical symbols, individually significant images, formal images). Additionally, drawings are evaluated by the frequency factor (standard, original, repetitive) and by the adequacy factor (proximity of the image and concept, degree of generalization, conciseness of the image). The registered special phenomena include: associations by consonance; super-abstract symbolism; undifferentiated images; "shock" reactions; the use of letters; stereotypes; statements of the subjects, etc.
The graphic features of the drawing are analyzed taking into account the location on the sheet of paper, the nature of the lines, size, pressure, etc. Differential diagnostic criteria for evaluating rictograms, obtained on the basis of a comparison of the contingents of sick and healthy individuals, are singled out. There are norms that are both statistical and descriptive.
The construct validity of the standardized form of the pictogram was analyzed on the basis of a comparison of the obtained data with the Rorschach test, drawing projective tests, in particular, verbal methods for studying thinking. Validity criterion (current) was determined by comparing the results of patients with various mental illnesses and healthy.
The pictogram is one of the most widely used methods for studying the cognitive sphere and personality in domestic clinical psychodiagnostics.
Features of the conduct.
A set of words
Easy job
Poverty
Fun party
Development
Hard work
Winter day
The subject is not given any restrictions on the completeness and content of the image, as well as on the materials used: color, size, time.
The order of processing and interpretation.
When processing experimental data, not only the indicators of all four criteria are taken into account, but also procedural issues (ease of completing the task, emotional attitude towards it, the need for a wider space, etc.).
Evaluation criteria:
The most important criterion is adequacy". Sometimes one drawing is enough to evaluate, sometimes it is necessary to obtain additional information from its author. If the connection between the proposed concept and its pictogram is justified, the expert puts a “+” sign, in the absence of a connection - a “-” sign. The norm is characterized by high rates according to the criterion of adequacy - from 70% and above.
Some time after completing the task - usually in 15-20 minutes - the expert checks the ability of the subject to restore the list of initial concepts using his own pictograms. Usually, for this, the list of concepts is closed, and the subject is asked to restore them in random order. If the subject used the same pictograms to convey different concepts, he makes mistakes and all kinds of inaccuracies such as synonymy, reduction of a complex concept, confusion. 80% and above. According to this indicator, one can judge the role of memory in thinking. Some researchers considered its role so important that, for example, Blonsky even defined the mind as memory, that is, in thinking he focused primarily on the memorability of signs.
The third criterion - "concreteness - abstractness" - is also evaluated by the expert according to the degree of conformity of the pictogram to the real object. If this correspondence is as specific as possible (for example, a happy holiday is depicted as a feast with specific guests and table setting), then the expert evaluates the pictogram at 1 point. If the image is rather abstract (for example, the same happy holiday is depicted as a series of exclamation marks), then the pictogram is estimated at 3 points. There may be mixed images that are difficult to attribute to extreme types. In this case, they receive a score of 2 points. Expert assessments are then summed up and the average data are calculated, which normally correspond to a value of 2 points.
The fourth criterion - "standard-originality" of pictograms - is also evaluated by the expert, firstly, according to his subjective idea, and, secondly, according to the degree of coincidence of images in different subjects. Coincidences already indicate the standard of the task, and such pictograms receive the lowest score, equal to
Unique, non-repeating pictograms receive a score of 3 points, intermediate options receive a score of 2 points. The results are summarized and the average data are calculated, which normally correspond to a value of 2 points.
Diagnosis and correction of memory of younger students
Methods for diagnosing the memory of younger students
memory junior high school student diagnostics
Methodology. Evaluation of working auditory memory
Child with an interval of 1 second. The following four sets of words are read in turn:
Month carpet fork school
Wood glass sofa man
Jump dust joke sleep
Yellow heavy bold red
doll book coat notebook
bag apple phone flower
After listening to each of the set of words, the subject, approximately 5 seconds after the end of reading the set, begins to slowly read the next set of 36 words with intervals of 5 seconds between individual words:
Glass, school, fork, button, carpet, month, chair,
man, sofa, cow, tv, tree, bird,
sleep, bold, joke, red, swan, picture,
heavy, swim, ball, yellow, house, jump,
notebook, coat, book, flower, telephone, apple,
doll, bag, horse, lie down, elephant.
This set of 36 words randomizes the perceived words from all four listening sets, marked above with Roman numerals. For their better identification, they are underlined in different ways, and each set of 6 words has its own way of underlining. Thus, words from the first small set are underlined with a solid single line, words from the second set with a solid double line, words from the third set with a dashed single line, and words from the fourth set with a double dashed line.
The child must hear by ear in the long set those words that were just presented to him in the corresponding small set, confirming the identification of the found word with the statement "yes", and its absence with the statement "no". The child has 5 seconds to search for each word in a large set. If during this time he could not identify him, then the experimenter reads out the following words and so on.
Evaluation of results
The indicator of working auditory memory is defined as the quotient of the average time spent on the identification of 6 words in a large set (for this, the total time the child worked on the task is divided by 4), by the average number of errors made plus one. Mistakes are all words that are indicated incorrectly, or words that the child could not find in the allotted time, i.e. missed.
Comment. This technique does not have standardized indicators, therefore, conclusions about the level of development of a child's memory are not made on its basis. Indicators using this technique can only be compared in different children and in the same children when they are re-examined, making relative conclusions about how the memory of one child differs from the memory of another child, or about what changes have occurred in the memory of this child over time .
Methodology. Determination of the amount of short-term visual memory
The child is alternately offered each of the following two drawings (Fig. 48 A, B). After presenting each part of the drawing, he receives a stencil frame (Fig. 49 A, B) with a request to draw on it all the lines that he saw and remembered on each part of the fig. 48. Based on the results of two experiments, the average number of lines that he reproduced correctly from memory is established.
A line is considered correctly reproduced, the length and orientation of which does not differ much from the length and orientation of the corresponding line in the original drawing (deviation of the beginning and end by no more than one cell, while maintaining its angle of inclination).
The resulting indicator, equal to the number of correctly reproduced lines, is considered as the amount of visual memory.
The relationship of temperament and the level of memory development of younger students
Diagnosis and correction of memory of younger students
Initially, the younger student remembers visual material better: the objects that surround the child and with which he acts, the image of objects, people. The duration of memorization of such material is much higher ...
Diagnostics of cognitive processes and the level of their development at the initial stage of schooling
Methodology and methodology for studying the influence of psychomotor tone on the intellectual development of a child of primary school age
To study the level of intelligence in children of primary school age, there are many methods and tests, such as: Methods for determining the level of mental development of children 7-9 years old. Proposed by E.F. Zambiciavichen...
Mnemic techniques as a means of developing the figurative memory of younger students at the lessons of literary reading
1.1. The Essence, Structure and Content of Figurative Memory in Psychological and Pedagogical Literature For millions of years, man has lived in the wild. Life itself depended on the state of its signal system: sight, hearing, touch, taste, smell...
Determination of the psychological reasons for the failure of junior schoolchildren
Currently, practical psychology has a large number of research methods that allow you to determine the effectiveness of memory in various aspects: depending on the content of the memorized material, storage time ...
Features of short-term memory in children of primary school age with visual impairment
The huge role of memory in various visual impairments is indicated by V.P. Ermakov and G.A. Yakunin (2002). This is due to the fact that the blind and visually impaired must remember as much as the sighted. Blind and visually impaired children, in their opinion...
Peculiarities of mastering the process of reading in junior schoolchildren with STD
In the study of violations in mastering the process of reading in younger schoolchildren, the methods developed by Volkova L.S., Golubeva G.G. were used. Konovalenko V.V., Konovalenko V.S. )
