1.2. Specific Russia By the middle of the XII century. specific order was established in Russia. Within the framework of a single state, separate territories were held by the military force of Kyiv. With the development of feudal landownership, it became possible for each land to exist as an independent

ESSAY

RUSSIA IN THE PERIOD OF FEUDAL Fragmentation ( XII- 13th century)

PLAN.

REASONS AND ESSENCE

1. Causes.

1.1. Change of early feudal monarchy

1.2. Division of labor.

1.3. Strengthening the political power of local princes and boyars.

1.4. First strife.

1.5. Russia in the middle of the XI century.

1.6. strife at the end of the 11th century.

2. Essence.

2.1. The weakening of the country on the eve of the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

2.2. The collapse of a single state.

SOCIAL - ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT.

1. Agriculture.

1.1. General characteristics.

1.2. Benefits of estates.

1.3. feudal landownership.

1.4. Enslavement of the peasants.

1.5. exploitation of the peasants.

2. City and craft XII - XIII centuries

2.1. Formation of market relations.

2.2. Urban population.

2.3. Associations.

2.4. Trade and craft nobility.

2.5. Veche meetings.

STATE - POLITICAL STRUCTURE AND MANAGEMENT.

1. Prince's power.

1.1. Princely power.

1.2. political centers.

1.3. All-Russian congresses.

2. Vassals and overlords.

2.1. Scheme of government in small principalities.

2.2. Boyars.

2.3. The role of the clergy in the administration of the principality.

RUSSIAN LANDS AND PRINCIPALITIES IN XII - FIRST HALF XIII in.

1. Vladimir-Suzdal principality.

1.1. Expanding the boundaries.

1.2. City.

1.3. Protecting cities from enemies.

1.4. Indigenous population.

1.5. Conditions for the development of trade, crafts, trade, agriculture, and cattle breeding.

1.6. Princely and boyar land tenure.

1.7. Peculiarities.

1.8. political device.

1.9. major political events.

1.10. The rise of the principality.

1.11. Decay.

2. Galicia-Volyn principality.

2.1. Borders.

2.2. Cities.

2.3. Population.

2.4. Trade routes.

2.5. Conditions for the development of agriculture, cattle breeding, feudal relations, crafts.

2.6. Political life.

2.7. The basis for the restoration of princely power.

2.8. Daniil Romanovich's statement.

3. Novgorod feudal republic.

3.1. Borders.

3.2. Spots.

3.3. Hundreds and graveyards.

3.4. Suburbs.

3.5. Population.

3.6. Conditions for the development of fishing, trade, handicrafts, iron ore mining.

3.7. Features of social - economic development.

3.9. Craft and merchant associations.

3.10. Colonization.

3.11. political system.

4. Kievan principality.

4.1. Loss of national significance.

4.2. Kyiv is the arena of hostilities.

5. Chernigov and Smolensk principalities.

5.1. Allocation of Chernihiv land.

5.2. Fight for Kyiv.

6. Polotsk - Minsk land.

6.1. Isolation from Kyiv.

6.2. Crushing of the Polotsk-Minsk land.

CONCLUSION.

INTRODUCTION.

Feudal fragmentation in Russia was a natural result of the economic and political development of early feudal society.

The formation in the Old Russian state of large land ownership - estates - under the dominance of natural economy inevitably made them completely independent production complexes, the economic ties of which were limited to the nearest district.

The emerging class of feudal landowners sought to establish various forms of economic and legal dependence of the agricultural population. But in the XI - XII centuries. the existing class antagonisms were mostly of a local nature; the forces of local authorities were quite enough to resolve them, and they did not require nationwide intervention. These conditions made large landowners - boyars-patrimonials almost completely economically and socially independent from the central government.

The local boyars did not see the need to share their income with the great Kyiv prince and actively supported the rulers of individual principalities in the struggle for economic and political independence.

Outwardly, the collapse of Kievan Rus looked like a division of the territory of Kievan Rus between various members of the ruined princely family. According to the established tradition, local thrones were occupied, as a rule, only by the descendants of the house of Rurik.

The process of advancing feudal fragmentation was objectively inevitable. He made it possible for the developing system of feudal relations to be more firmly established in Russia. From this point of view, one can speak of the historical progressivity of this stage of Russian history, within the framework of the development of the economy and culture.

Sources.

Chronicles remain the most important sources for the history of medieval Russia. From the end of the XII century. their circle is expanding considerably. With the development of individual lands and principalities, regional chronicles spread.

The largest body of sources is made up of act materials - letters written on a variety of occasions. Letters were granted, deposit, in-line, bill of sale, spiritual, truce, statutory, etc., depending on the purpose. With the development of the feudal-local system, the number of current clerical documentation (scribe, sentinel, bit, genealogical books, replies, petitions, memory, court lists) increases. Actual and office materials are valuable sources on the socio-economic history of Russia.

Reasons and essence

1. Reasons

Feudal fragmentation is a new form of state. political organization

From the second third of the 12th century, Russia began a period of feudal fragmentation that lasted until the end of the 15th century, through which all the countries of Europe and Asia passed. Feudal fragmentation as a new form of state political organization, which replaced the early feudal Kievan monarchy, corresponded to a developed feudal society.

1.1 Change of early feudal monarchy

It was not by chance that feudal republics developed within the framework of former tribal unions, whose ethnic and regional stability was supported by natural boundaries and cultural traditions.

1.2. Division of labor

As a result of the development of productive forces and the social division of labor, the old tribes. centers and new cities have become economic and political centers. With the "reigning" and "charming" of communal lands, peasants became involved in the system of feudal dependence. The old tribal nobility turned into zemstvo boyars and, together with other categories of feudal lords, formed corporations of landowners.

1.3. Strengthening the political power of local princes and boyars

Within the limits of small states-principalities, the feudal lords could effectively protect their interests, which were little considered in Kyiv. Selecting and securing suitable princes at their "tables", the local nobility forced them to abandon the view of the "tables" as temporary feeding for them.

1.4. The first strife

After the death of Vladimir Svyatoslavovich in 1015, a long war began between his numerous sons, who ruled over separate parts of Russia. The instigator of the strife was Svyatopolk the Accursed, who killed his brothers Boris and Gleb. In internecine wars, princes - brothers brought to Russia either the Pechenegs, or the Poles, or the mercenary detachments of the Varangians. In the end, the winner was Yaroslav the Wise, who divided Russia (along the Dnieper) with his brother Mstislav of Tmutarakan from 1024 to 1036, and then after the death of Mstislav became "autocratic".

1.5. Russia in the middle 11th century

After the death of Yaroslav the Wise in 1054, a significant number of sons, relatives and cousins ​​of the Grand Duke ended up in Russia. Each of them had one or another "fatherland", his own domain, and each, to the best of his ability, sought to increase the domain or exchange it for a richer one. This created a tense situation in all princely centers and in Kyiv itself. Researchers sometimes call the time after the death of Yaroslav the time of feudal fragmentation, but this cannot be considered correct, since real feudal fragmentation occurs when individual lands crystallize, large cities grow up to head these lands, when each sovereign principality consolidates its own princely dynasty. All this appeared in Russia only after 1132, and in the second half of the 11th century. everything was changeable, fragile and unstable. Princely strife ruined the people and the squad, shook the Russian state, but did not introduce any new political form.

1.6. End strife 11th century

In the last quarter of the XI century. in the difficult conditions of an internal crisis and the constant threat of external danger from the side of the Polovtsian khans, princely strife acquired the character of a national disaster. The Grand Duke's throne became the object of contention: Svyatoslav Yaroslavich expelled his older brother Izyaslav from Kyiv, "initiating the expulsion of the brothers."

The strife became especially terrible after the son of Svyatoslav Oleg entered into allied relations with the Polovtsians and repeatedly brought the Polovtsian hordes to Russia for a self-serving solution between princely quarrels.

Oleg's enemy was the young Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh, who reigned in the border Pereslavl.

Monomakh managed to convene a princely congress in Lyubech in 1097, the task of which was to secure the "fatherland" for the princes, condemn the instigator of the strife Oleg and, if possible, eliminate future strife in order to resist the Polovtsy with united forces. However, the princes were powerless to establish order not only in the entire Russian land, but even within their princely circle of relatives and cousins ​​and nephews. Immediately after the congress, a new strife broke out in Lyubech, which lasted for several years. The only force that, under those conditions, could really stop the rotation of the princes and the princely squabbles was the boyars - the main composition of the then young and progressive feudal class. Boyar program at the end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th centuries. consisted in limiting princely arbitrariness and excesses of princely officials, in eliminating strife and in the general defense of Russia from the Polovtsians. Coinciding in these points with the aspirations of the townspeople, this program reflected the interests of the whole people and was, of course, progressive.

In the second half of the 11th c. in Russia, signs of strengthening feudal fragmentation are becoming more and more distinct.

Bloody feuds were aggravated by continuous raids, which skillfully used the disunity of the Russian princes. Other princes took the Polovtsy as allies and brought them to Russia.

In 1097, on the initiative of Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh, the son of Vsevolod Yaroslavovich, took place in Lyubech. On it, in order to stop civil strife, it was decided to establish a new order of organizing power in Russia. In accordance with the new principle, each principality became the hereditary property of the local princely family.

The adopted law became the main cause of feudal fragmentation and destroyed the integrity of the Old Russian state. It became a turning point, as there was a turning point in the distribution of land ownership in Russia.

The pernicious error in lawmaking did not immediately make itself felt. The need for a joint struggle against the Polovtsy, the strong power and patriotism of Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) pushed back the inevitable for a while. His work was continued by his son - (1125-1132). However, since 1132, the former counties, having become hereditary "fatherlands", gradually turned into independent principalities.

In the middle of the 12th c. civil strife reached an unprecedented severity, the number of their participants increased due to the fragmentation of princely possessions. At that time, there were 15 principalities in Russia, in the next century - 50, and during the years of government - 250. Many historians consider one of the reasons underlying these events to be the large families of princes: by distributing land by inheritance, they multiplied the number of principalities.

The largest state formations were:

• the Principality of Kiev (despite the loss of the all-Russian status, the struggle for its possession continued until the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars);
• Vladimir-Suzdal Principality (in the 12th-13th centuries, an economic boom began, the cities of Vladimir, Dmitrov Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Gorodets, Kostroma, Tver, Nizhny Novgorod arose);
• Chernigov and Smolensk principalities (the most important trade routes to the upper reaches of the Volga and Dnieper);
• Galicia-Volyn principality (located between the Bug and Dniester rivers, the center of arable landowning culture);
• Polotsk-Minsk land (had a favorable location at the crossroads of trade routes).

Feudal fragmentation is characteristic of the history of many states of the Middle Ages. The uniqueness and grave consequences for the Old Russian state lay in its duration - about 3.5 centuries.

1. Political fragmentation of Russia in the XII-XIII centuries. (causes and consequences of fragmentation, the largest principalities and lands). In 1097, princes from different lands of Kievan Rus came to the city of Lyubech and proclaimed a new principle of relations among themselves: "Let everyone keep his fatherland." Its adoption meant that the princes abandoned the ladder system of succession to princely thrones (it went to the eldest in the entire grand ducal family) and switched to inheriting the throne from father to eldest son within individual lands. By the middle of the XII century. the political fragmentation of the Old Russian state with its center in Kyiv was already a fait accompli. It is believed that the introduction of the principle adopted in Lyubech was a factor in the collapse of Kievan Rus. However, not the only and not the most important. Political fragmentation was inevitable.

What were her reasons? During the 11th century Russian lands developed in an ascending line: the population grew, the economy grew stronger, large princely and boyar land ownership increased, cities grew rich. They were less and less dependent on Kyiv and were burdened by his guardianship. To maintain order within his "fatherland", the prince had enough strength and power. Local boyars and cities supported their princes in their quest for independence: they were closer, more closely connected with them, better able to protect their interests. External reasons were added to the internal ones. The Polovtsy raids weakened the southern Russian lands, the population left the restless lands for the northeastern (Vladimir, Suzdal) and southwestern (Galic, Volyn) outskirts. The princes of Kyiv were weakening in the military and economic sense, their authority and influence in solving all-Russian affairs were falling.

The negative consequences of the political fragmentation of Russia are concentrated in the military-strategic area: the defense capability has weakened in the face of external threats, inter-princely feuds have intensified. But fragmentation also had positive aspects. The isolation of the lands contributed to their economic and cultural development. The collapse of a single state did not mean a complete loss of principles that united the Russian lands.

2. In the middle of the XII century. Kievan Rus is an amorphous formation without a single, clearly fixed center of gravity. Political polycentrism dictates new rules of the game. There are three centers: North-Eastern Russia (Vladimir-Suzdal land), South-Western Russia (Galicia-Volyn principality) and North-Western Russia (Novgorod Republic). Relations between these centers during this period resemble interstate rather than intrastate. Military clashes were also frequent with the participation of a nomadic tribe - the Polovtsy. The formation of the Russian state continued to a greater extent on the territory of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality than all the others. During the early feudal monarchy, people fled to these places in order to ensure their safety. Dense forests reliably sheltered the fugitives. Plowing was possible only in certain areas, but gardening, hunting, and beekeeping developed. The principality was ruled by the descendants of Yuri Dolgoruky, the youngest son of Vladimir Monomakh. In their submission were the old Russian cities: Rostov, Suzdal, Murom. The descendants of Yuri Dolgoruky faced the problem of the boyar freemen, his son Andrei Bogolyubsky fell victim to a conspiracy of a rebellious environment. However, the brother of Prince Andrei, Vsevolod the Big Nest, thanks to diplomacy, corrected the situation in his favor. The territory of the Galicia-Volyn principality bordered on Poland and the Czech Republic. It was a fertile agricultural land, more than once becoming a bone of contention. The region reached its apogee of political influence under Prince Daniel Romanovich (1221–1264). The prince used all sorts of diplomatic tricks to maintain the independence of his fiefdom from the Mongolotatars, resorting to the help of the Polish king. But he still had to recognize vassal dependence on them. Northwestern Russia could not boast of a warm climate. On the contrary, harsh climatic conditions made arable farming impossible. But crafts and trade in furs, honey, and wax flourished. Novgorodians planted vegetables and fished. In the markets of Novgorod one could hear different speeches and see representatives of all religions. This rich land was also distinguished by a special political structure: it was a feudal republic. The city was ruled by a posadnik, he was assisted by a military leader, nicknamed the thousandth. The archbishop was in charge of religious affairs. The prince, if there was a need for military force, was invited from among the most powerful secular rulers. As a rule, this was a prince from the Vladimir land, which received the label of a grand principality under the Mongol Tatar conquerors.

6. The conquest of Russia by the Mongol-Tatars. Mongol-Tatar yoke and its consequences.

At the beginning of the XIII century. the Mongols develop a strong state, which is headed by Genghis Khan, on May 31, 1223, the first clash of the Mongols with the Russians took place on the Kalka River. Due to inconsistency in the actions of the princes, the Russian squads were defeated. Russia was going through a period of political fragmentation, and the chance to join forces in the face of the impending danger was missed. In 1235, at the congress of the Golden Horde nobility, it was decided to march on Russia, which was led by Genghis Khan's grandson Batu. The best commanders were given to him as assistants - Subedei, Jebe. The Ryazan principality was the first to be attacked. This happened in 1237. Vladimir Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich did not provide assistance to the people of Ryazan. Despite heroic resistance, the Ryazan land was completely devastated. Then Batu moved to Vladimir, ruined Kolomna and Moscow, took Vladimir. The main battle took place on the City River on March 4, 1238. In this battle, the Russian army was destroyed, Prince Yuri of Vladimir was killed, and Batu moved to Novgorod. Before reaching 100 versts to it, in the area of ​​Torzhok, the Mongols turned south, fearing a spring thaw. On the way back, they had to overcome the stubborn resistance of the "evil city" of Kozelsk. In 1239, Batu undertook a new campaign, this time to the south. In the autumn of 1240, after stubborn resistance, Kyiv fell, the defense of which was led by the governor Dmitry. Bearing the brunt and heroically resisting, Russia saved Western Europe from a dangerous aggressor. Since 1240, a yoke was established in Russia for 240 years - a system of political and economic domination. The population was heavily taxed, the Tatars brutally suppressed the uprisings, and made sure that the Russians did not arm themselves. Russian princes were obliged to travel to the Horde to receive a label for the right to reign. Simultaneously with the Golden Horde invasion of the Russian people in the XIII century. had to fight against the German and Swedish invaders. Novgorod was famous for its wealth and attracted aggressors. The Swedes were the first to unleash it in the summer of 1240. They approached the river Neva on ships. Izhora and landed on the shore. The 18-year-old Novgorod prince Alexander Yaroslavovich with his retinue made a lightning-fast transition from Novgorod and suddenly attacked the camp of the Swedes (the leader of the Swedes was Birger). The success was complete, Alexander became known as Nevsky. In the same 1240, the German knights also undertook a campaign against Russia. First, they captured the Pskov fortress of Izborsk, and then captured Pskov itself. The threat hung over Novgorod. The rebuff to the enemy was led by Alexander Nevsky. He carefully prepares, collects the Novgorod militia, waits for reinforcements from other Russian lands. Using the method of small but victorious battles, he achieves the transfer of the strategic initiative into his own hands and in the spring of 1242 liberates Pskov from the Germans. On April 5, 1242, a great battle took place on the ice of Lake Peipsi, where the main forces of the German order were defeated. The German army was built in the form of a wedge (the Russians called it "pig"), the tip of which was turned towards the enemy. The enemy's tactic was to dismember the Russian army and then destroy it piece by piece. Anticipating this, Alexander built his army in such a way that the most powerful forces were on the flanks, and not in the center. The knight's wedge broke through the center of the Russians, but was seized, like pincers, by the Russian flanks. A fierce hand-to-hand fight began. Ice cracked under the weight of knightly armor, the Germans began to sink. The remnants of the Germans fled, the Russians pursued them for seven miles. German losses amounted to 500 people. This battle stopped the German aggressive advance to the east, Northern Russia retained its independence.

7. The struggle of North-Western Russia against the aggression of German and Swedish feudal lords in the 13th century. Alexander Nevskiy.

1. The tornado of the Batu invasion threw Russia far back in its development, economic and cultural. Grads and villages lay in ruins, tens of thousands of inhabitants fell under the Horde sabers; others were taken captive on the lasso, and they ended up in slave markets, in the service of new masters, in craft workshops or in the Horde tumens to enrich the khans, murzas and ordinary Horde residents, serve their ambitious goals, decorate their homes and cities. Russia, by its tragic struggle and feat, saved Western Europe from a pogrom similar to what it itself suffered. When the Russian lands lay in ruins, far away, they continued to accumulate wealth and create masterpieces. When, for example, the Church of the Tithes collapsed in Kyiv, the construction of the amazing, airy Saint Chapel on the Ile de la Cité was being completed in Paris, which still amazes with its beauty everyone who sees it in the courtyard of the Palace of Justice. The tragic grandeur of the feat accomplished by Russia is undoubtedly for the civilization of Europe. She repaid her by sending her conquerors to her borders. The appearance of the Germans in the eastern part of the Baltic states dates back to the second half of the 12th century. At first they were merchants and Christian missionaries. Following them, the crusader knights appeared, striving no longer with a cross, but with a sword to conquer new lands. The beginning of active German expansion in the Eastern Baltic is associated with the name of Bishop Albert. He founded the city of Riga at the mouth of the Dvina and brought many German colonists there. In 1202 Albert founded a military-religious organization in the Baltic States - the Order of the Knights of the Sword (Sword-bearers), modeled on the military orders created by the crusaders in Palestine. The Russian princes of the Principality of Polotsk, whose sphere of influence included the Eastern Baltic, did not pay serious attention to the first stage of German colonization. They became concerned only when the aliens set up stone castles and fortresses there. In 1203-1206. Prince Vladimir of Polotsk tried to drive the Germans out of their fortresses, but to no avail. The culmination of this confrontation was the unsuccessful siege by the Russians of the fortresses of Golm and Riga. The defeat of Vladimir allowed the German knights to stand firm in the Baltics. Thanks to weapons and military tactics, relatively small detachments of German knights were able to achieve significant success in battles with the Baltic tribes. In the same period, the Swedes established themselves in Finland. Now the aggressors sought to cut off the Slavs from the sea and achieve complete control over the trade routes through the Baltic. Here it is appropriate to add that the defeat of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1204. sharply aggravated the conflict between Catholicism and Orthodoxy. Thus, the materially constrained Western chivalry received a new justification for its seizures in the east of Europe, which were seen as a struggle for the conversion of pagans to Christianity. Now heretics, i.e. Orthodox, could also act as "converts". Ancient Russia becomes an object of military-spiritual expansion, coordinated from the center of the then Western world - Catholic Rome. For the Roman Church, the expanses of the Russian Plain represented not only a desirable field for missionary activity, but also a huge potential source of financial income (in the form of church fees, donations, indulgences, etc.). The main object of the western onslaught was the northwestern lands of Russia, where the possessions of the Novgorod Republic were located. Russian-Swedish-German wars of the XIII century. on the northwestern borders of Russia can be divided into three stages. The first stage is connected with the German onslaught on the Slavic city of Yuryev in 1224. The second was marked by a bilateral Swedish-German onslaught in 1240-1242. The third stage took the second half of the 13th century. The first object of German expansion into the East Slavic lands was the city of Yuryev (now Tartu), founded by Yaroslav the Wise. Yuryev with its surroundings remained the last region of the Peipus Land not conquered by the Germans. All the Baltic inhabitants who did not want to submit to the power of the crusaders found protection here. In August 1224 Yuriev was besieged by an army of German knights. The city was defended by 200 Russian soldiers led by Prince Vyachko, as well as local residents. It should be noted that the time for the attack was chosen well, since just a year before that, the armed forces of the ancient Russian principalities were defeated by the Mongols on the Kalka River in 1223. and even if they wanted to, they would not be able to organize a strong rebuff to the new aggressor. Having laid siege to Yuriev, the crusaders built a wooden tower nearby, from which they fired at the fortress with stones, arrows and red-hot iron, trying to set fire to the fortress walls. But the defenders of the city did not give up and steadfastly repulsed the onslaught. Yuryev Vyachko, who was waiting for help from the Novgorodians, refused the offer to leave freely. Then the Germans went on the attack, but were repulsed. Encouraged by the success, the defenders of Yuryev made a sortie, trying to destroy the wooden tower that brought them so much trouble. They rolled red-hot wheels out of the fortress and tried to set fire to the tower. A fierce battle flared up around her. Meanwhile, taking advantage of the distraction of the besieged forces, some of the knights again rushed to attack the fortress. Having overcome the shaft, they climbed the walls and burst inside. The rest of the army followed them. In the ensuing massacre, the defenders of Yuriev (including Vyachko) were destroyed. Of all the men who were in the city, the Germans saved the life of only one, gave him a horse and sent him to Novgorod to announce their victory. Thus fell the last stronghold of the Russians in the Baltics, which has since received a new name - Derpt. The further history of repelling the onslaught of the knights on the northwestern borders is connected with the significant assistance provided to the Novgorodians by Vladimir-Suzdal Rus. Its princes took an active part in the defense of their northern neighbors. In the winter of 1234 Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich came to the aid of Novgorod with his son Alexander. The united Russian squads attacked the crusaders near the Emajõge River (in the vicinity of Yuryev). Many knights who tried to cross the river fell through the ice and drowned. After that, the crusaders were forced to make peace with Novgorod. After 2years, the Germanknights were defeated by the Lithuanians in the battle of Siauliai. It seemed that a convenient time was coming to deliver another blow to the crusaders and put an end to their dominance in the Baltics forever. However, the Russians did not take advantage of the given chance and did not join forces with the Lithuanians, with whom they were then at enmity. Soon the invasion of Batu began, which for a long time deprived the Russians of the opportunity to deal with the formidable and dangerous western enemy.

8 Reasons for the rise of Moscow. The beginning of the unification of Russian lands around the Moscow principality in the 14th century.

1. Reasons for the rise of Moscow: 1. Some advantages were in the geographical position: important trade routes passed through Moscow, it had relatively fertile lands that attracted the working population and boyars, and was protected from raids by individual Mongol detachments by forests. (V.O. Klyuchevsky) (See the article in the reader Klyuchevsky V.O. about the reasons for the rise of Moscow) But similar conditions existed in Tver, which stood on the Volga and was even further from the Golden Horde. 2. Moscow was the spiritual center of the Russian lands, but it became so after the first victories in the struggle for the right to lead the unification process. 3. The main role was played by the policy of the Moscow princes and their personal qualities. Having staked on an alliance with the Horde and continuing in this regard the line of Alexander Nevsky, realizing the role of the church in the conditions of the Horde's departure from the policy of religious tolerance, the Moscow princes of the first half of the 14th century. used all means to achieve their goals. As a result, humiliating themselves before the Khan and brutally suppressing anti-Horde uprisings, enriching themselves and collecting Russian land bit by bit, they managed to elevate their principality and create conditions both for uniting the lands and for entering into an open struggle with the Horde. There are other theories as well. For example, the famous scientist A.A. Zimin believed that the reasons for Moscow's victory in the struggle for leadership were the creation of a strong service army and the features of the colonization process, which favorably influenced the development of new areas.

9. Ivan III. Formation of the Russian state.

1. Domestic policy: The cherished goal of Ivan III was to collect lands around Moscow, to put an end to the remnants of specific disunity for the sake of creating a single state. The wife of Ivan III, Sophia Paleolog, in every possible way supported her husband's desire to expand the Muscovite state and strengthen autocratic power. For a century and a half, Moscow extorted tribute from Novgorod, took away land and almost brought the Novgorodians to their knees, for which they hated Moscow. Realizing that Ivan III Vasilyevich finally wanted to subjugate the Novgorodians, they freed themselves from the oath to the Grand Duke and formed a society for the salvation of Novgorod, headed by Martha Boretskaya, the widow of the mayor. Novgorod concluded an agreement with Kazimir, the King of Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania, according to which Novgorod passes under his supreme power, but at the same time retains a certain independence and the right to the Orthodox faith, and Casimir undertakes to protect Novgorod from the encroachments of the Moscow prince. Novgorodians "correct", but all in vain. Ivan III had to make a campaign against Novgorod (1471), as a result of which the Novgorodians were defeated first on the Ilmen River, and then Shelon, but Casimir did not come to the rescue. In 1477, Ivan III Vasilievich demanded that Novgorod fully recognize him as his master , which caused a new rebellion, which was crushed. On January 13, 1478, Veliky Novgorod completely submitted to the authority of the Moscow sovereign. In order to finally pacify Novgorod, Ivan III replaced the Novgorod archbishop Theophilus in 1479, moved unreliable Novgorodians to Moscow lands, and settled Muscovites and other residents on their lands. With the help of diplomacy and force, Ivan III Vasilyevich subjugated other specific principalities: Yaroslavl ( 1463), Rostov (1474), Tver (1485), Vyatka lands (1489). Ivan married his sister Anna to the prince of Ryazan, thereby securing the right to interfere in the affairs of Ryazan, and later inherited the city from his nephews. Ivan acted inhumanly with his brothers, taking away their inheritances and depriving them of the right to any participation in affairs. So, Andrei Bolshoy and his sons were arrested and imprisoned. Reforms of Ivan III: Under Ivan III, the design of the title of "Grand Duke of All Russia" began, and in some documents he calls himself the king. For the internal order in the country, Ivan III in 1497 developed the Code of Civil Laws (Sudebnik). The chief judge was the Grand Duke, the highest institution was the Boyar Duma. Mandatory and local government systems appeared. The adoption of the Code of Laws by Ivan III became a prerequisite for the establishment of serfdom in Russia. The law limited the exit of peasants and gave them the right to transfer from one owner to another once a year (St. George's day). The results of the reign of Ivan III: Under Ivan III, the territory of Russia expanded significantly, Moscow became the center of the Russian centralized state. The era of Ivan III was marked by the final liberation of Russia from the Tatar-Mongol yoke. .

2. A centralized state arises under Ivan III (1462-1505). Under him, Yaroslavl, Rostov, Novgorod, Tver, Vyatka were annexed to Moscow. Ivan III stopped paying tribute to the Great Horde (the largest part of the disintegrated Golden Horde). Khan Akhmat tried to weaken the power of Moscow and moved against her campaign. But after "standing on the Ugra" in 1480, when the Tatars did not dare to attack the Russian regiments, Akhmat retreated to the steppe and died. The Horde yoke has fallen. In 1472, Ivan III married the niece of the emperor of Byzantium, Sophia (Zoya) Palaiologos, and made the Byzantine double-headed eagle the coat of arms of Russia, thus acting as the successor of Byzantium. The foundations of a centralized state apparatus are being formed. Its central bodies were the Boyar Duma and the treasury (office). On the ground - in counties and volosts - governors and volosts ruled. Under Ivan III, there is a mass distribution of land to service people (nobles, boyar children) - the backbone of the army. Ivan III thought about confiscation of church lands for these purposes (secularization), but he did not dare to do this because of the pressure of the clergy. In 1497, the Code of Laws was published - the first all-Russian code of laws. He first introduced a single period for the whole country for the transition of peasants from masters on St. George's autumn day (a week before and after), subject to the payment of debts and the corresponding duties ("elderly"). Under Vasily III (1505-1533), Moscow captured the last independent centers in Russia - Pskov and Ryazan, which completed the unification of the country. The economic recovery that began under Ivan III continued. The unification of Russia proceeded largely by forceful methods, because the economic prerequisites for it were not fully ripe. Both the nobility and the common people had practically no rights in relation to the Grand Duke (they called themselves his serfs), whose power was limited only by age-old customs.

10. Ivan's reforms 4.

Popular performances in 1547 showed that the country needed reforms to strengthen statehood and centralize power. The nobility expressed particular interest in carrying out reforms. A talented publicist of that time, nobleman Peresvetov, was his peculiar ideologist. Peresvetov's proposals largely anticipated the actions of Ivan 4. Around 1549, around the young Ivan 4, a council of people close to him was formed, called the Chosen Rada. It lasted until 1560 and carried out a series of transformations called the reforms of the mid-16th century.

In January 1547, Ivan 4 came of age. Officially married to the kingdom.

A new organ appeared - the Zemsky Sobor. He met irregularly and dealt with the decision of the most important state. affairs. During the period of interregnums, new tsars were elected at Zemsky Sobors. The first Zemsky Sobor was convened in 1549. He decided to draw up a new code of laws and outlined a program of reforms.

Even before the reforms, certain branches of the state. management, as well as the management of individual territories, began to be entrusted to the boyars. So the first orders appeared - institutions in charge of the branches of the state. management or individual regions of the country. The design of the order system made it possible to centralize the administration of the country.

A unified local management system began to take shape. On the ground, management was transferred into the hands of the labial elders, who were elected from local nobles, zemstvo elders, and city clerks. Thus, in the middle of the 16th century, the apparatus of state power took shape in the form of a class-representative monarchy. The general tendency of the country's centralization necessitated the publication of a new set of laws - Sudebnik (1550). The compilers made changes related to the strengthening of the central government.

Even under Elena Glinskaya, a monetary reform was launched, according to which the Moscow ruble became the main monetary unit of the country. In the middle of the 16th century a single unit of taxation was established for the entire state - a large plow.

The core of the army was the noble militia. For the first time, the "Code of Service" was drawn up. In 1550, a streltsy army was created. Foreigners began to be recruited into the army, the number of which was insignificant. Artillery was reinforced. The Cossacks were involved in carrying out the border service. The rear work was carried out by the "staff" - a militia from among the black-haired, monastic peasants and townspeople.

Localism was limited during military campaigns. In the middle of the 16th century an official reference book was compiled - “The Sovereign Genealogy”, which streamlined local disputes.

In 1551, on the initiative of the tsar and the metropolitan, a cathedral of the Russian church was created, which received the name Stoglavy. It was decided to leave in the hands of the church all the lands acquired by it before the Stoglavy Cathedral. In the future, the church could buy land and receive it as a gift only with royal permission.

The reforms of the 50s of the 16th century contributed to the strengthening of the Russian centralized multinational state. They strengthened the power of the king, led to the reorganization of local and central government, and strengthened the military power of the country.

11. Foreign policy of Ivan 4: tasks and main directions.

The foreign policy of Ivan IV was carried out in three directions: in the west - the struggle for access to the Baltic Sea; in the southeast and east - the struggle with the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates and the beginning of the development of Siberia; in the south - the protection of Russian lands from the raids of the Crimean Khanate. Tatar khans made predatory raids on Russian lands. On the territories of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, there were thousands of Russian people in captivity, captured during the raids. The local population was brutally exploited - the Chuvash, Mari, Udmurts, Mordovians, Tatars, Bashkirs. The Volga route ran through the territories of the khanates, but the Volga could not be used by the Russian people throughout its entire length. Russian landowners were also attracted by the fertile sparsely populated lands of these regions.

First, Ivan the Terrible took diplomatic steps aimed at subjugating the Kazan Khanate, but they did not bring good luck. In 1552, the 100,000th army of the Russian Tsar besieged Kazan. It was better armed than the Tatar. The artillery of Ivan IV had 150 large cannons. Using a tunnel and barrels of gunpowder, the Russians blew up the walls of Kazan. The Kazan Khanate recognized itself defeated. The peoples of the Middle Volga region became part of the Russian state. In 1556 Ivan the Terrible conquered the Astrakhan Khanate. From this period, the entire Volga region was the territory of Russia. The free Volga trade route significantly improved the terms of trade with the East.

In the middle of the XVI century. Russia included Bashkiria, Chuvashia, Kabarda. The accession of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates opened up new prospects, access to the basins of the great Siberian rivers became possible. As early as 1556, the Siberian Khan Yediger recognized vassal dependence on Moscow, but Khan Kuchum, who replaced him (? - c. 1598), refused to recognize the authority of Moscow (he oppressed local residents, killed the Russian ambassador).

The merchants Stroganovs, who had a letter from the tsar granting lands to the east of the Urals, with the permission of Moscow, hired a large detachment of Cossacks to fight Khan Kuchum. The leader of the detachment was the Cossack chieftain Yermak (? -1585). In 1581, Yermak's detachment defeated Kuchum's troops, and a year later occupied the capital of the Siberian Khanate, Kashlyk.

Kuchum was finally defeated in 1598, and Western Siberia was annexed to the Russian state. All-Russian laws were approved in the annexed territories. The development of Siberia by Russian industrialists, peasants and artisans began.

Russia's foreign policy actions in the West are the struggle for access to the Baltic Sea, for the Baltic lands seized by the Livonian Order. Many Baltic lands have long belonged to Novgorod Rus. The banks of the Neva River and the Gulf of Finland used to be part of the lands of Veliky Novgorod. In 1558, Russian troops moved to the West, the Livonian War began, which lasted until 1583. The rulers of the Livonian Order hindered the relations of the Russian state with Western European countries.

The Livonian War is divided into three stages: until 1561, Russian troops completed the defeat of the Livonian Order, took Narva, Tartu (Derpt), approached Tallinn (Revel) and Riga; until 1578 - the war with Livonia turned for Russia into a war against Poland, Lithuania, Sweden, Denmark. The hostilities became protracted. Russian troops fought with varying success, occupying a number of Baltic fortresses in the summer of 1577.

The situation was complicated by the weakening of the country's economy as a result of the ruin of the guardsmen. The attitude towards the Russian troops of the local population has changed as a result of military extortions.

During this period, Prince Kurbsky, one of the most prominent Russian military leaders, who also knew the military plans of Ivan the Terrible, went over to the side of the enemy. The devastating raids on the Russian lands of the Crimean Tatars made the situation more difficult.

In 1569, Poland and Lithuania united into a single state - the Commonwealth. Elected to the throne, Stefan Batory (1533-1586) went on the offensive; Since 1579, Russian troops have been fighting defensive battles. In 1579, Polotsk was taken, in 1581 - Velikie Luki, the Poles besieged Pskov. The heroic defense of Pskov began (it was headed by the governor IP Shuisky), which lasted five months. The courage of the defenders of the city prompted Stefan Batory to abandon further siege.

However, the Livonian War ended with the signing of unfavorable for Russia Yam-Zapolsky (with Poland) and Plyussky (with Sweden) truces. The Russians had to abandon the conquered lands and cities. The Baltic lands were occupied by Poland and Sweden. The war exhausted Russia's forces. The main task of gaining access to the Baltic Sea was not solved.

12. Oprichnina Ivan 4: causes, goals, consequences.

the beginning of the policy of the oprichnina is connected with the events of 1565, when the tsar renounced the throne, referring to the "treason" of the boyars. The political calculation of this step was that Ivan IV set three conditions for agreeing to return to the throne: the right to execute traitors at his own discretion; the introduction of the oprichnina to ensure royal life and security; payment for the "rise" (for the initial device) by the rest of the country (zemstvo) 100 thousand rubles. - a huge amount by the standards of that time. in his destiny (oprichnina), the tsar took many counties in the west, south-west and center of the country, rich northern regions, part of the territory of Moscow. the oprichnina corps - a thousand specially selected nobles - received estates in the oprichnina districts, and all the zemstvos were evicted from them. the oprichnina had its own thought, its own court, its own orders. the tsar concentrated in his hands control over diplomacy and the most important affairs, he removed himself from the current administration, all the hardships of the Livonian war lay on the zemstvo. the oprichnina corps had only two duties: the protection of the king and the extermination of traitors. the fight against the alleged betrayal was carried out through mass repression: executions, resettlement, confiscation of land and property. soon terror seized the whole country, not only individual boyar or noble families, but also entire cities became its victims. mass executions took place in Novgorod (according to minimal estimates, there were about 3 thousand victims). the reason for this was the tsar's suspicions about the treacherous ties of the Novgorodians with the Polish king. The oprichnina terror took on a terrifying scope, the leaders of the oprichnina troops changed (A. Basmanov was executed, a small Skurat took his place), but the reprisals against the "traitors" did not stop. eminent boyars with numerous people close to them, and senior government officials, and not at all eminent people, and peasants became victims of repression. The oprichnina lasted 7 years - until 1572 its cancellation was associated with the complete economic decline of the country - the ruin of entire regions, with the defeat of the Russian army in the Livonian war, with the campaign of the Crimean Khan against Russia. the history of the oprichnina is still not entirely clear, there are several concepts trying to explain the meaning and reasons for the policy of state terror of Ivan IV (who received the nickname "Terrible"). a number of historians see in the oprichnina a super-tough path to centralization. in their opinion, Ivan the Terrible's refusal to reform was dictated by a desire to accelerate the pace of centralization. another concept connects the causes of the oprichnina with the desire of the king to have the fullness of state power. while the king was too young, he tolerated smart and powerful advisers (the elected council) next to him, and when he gained the necessary political experience, he removed them and began to rule alone. a number of historians see in the oprichnina a way to fight objective opponents of centralization (Novgorod separatism, the church, etc.). there is a point of view on the oprichnina as the result of the tsar's mental disorders, as the product of his painful suspicion and cruelty. his son, the heir to the throne, Ivan, whom he mortally wounded, also became a victim of the unbridled anger of the king. although actual knowledge about the events of the oprichnina has greatly expanded today, a consistent explanation of this event in Russian history is hardly possible. but the results of the oprichnina and their influence on the further course of events are quite obvious. First of all, the oprichnina led to a severe economic crisis. villages were deserted, in the Novgorod lands up to 90% of arable land was not cultivated. for the state, whose economy was based on the agricultural sector, it was a terrible blow. a consequence of the oprichnina was the fall in the combat power of the Russian army. the impoverishment and ruin of the landlords, from whom the armed forces were formed, caused a crisis in the army. the Livonian war was lost. mass repressions during the oprichnina had demographic consequences. R.G. Skrynnikov's approximate estimates determine the number of deaths at 10-15 thousand people. for Russia, with its traditionally low population density, these losses were enormous. the network of settlements was sharply reduced, the working population decreased. terror led to the final establishment of a despotic regime in Russia. even the feudal elite had no protection from the arbitrariness of the monarch, the Russian nobles (whose rights were significantly limited before the oprichnina) became "serfs of the autocracy." the difficult situation of the country after the abolition of the oprichnina did not improve. the tax pressure of the state on the sharply reduced contingent of the tax-paying class did not weaken. the response of the peasants was to run away (including to the outskirts of the country), leaving for lands that were not taxed. in such a situation, the government in 1581 introduced the regime of "reserved years", when the right of the peasant transition was abolished. this was a real step towards the formation of serfdom. Ivan IV's death in 1584 exposed the crisis of the ruling dynasty. power was inherited by the second son of Ivan the Terrible - Fedor, whose inferiority was obvious. the third son of Ivan IV - Tsarevich Dmitry died as a child in a corner. the sick and morally broken monarch stepped aside from government and entrusted it to his brother-in-law, Boris Godunov. Tsar Fyodor died childless in 1598, and power passed to Godonov. Ivan IV's successors inherited great power from him, but did not strengthen it with the help of terror, which was compromised. they relied on the stability of the apparatus of central and local government elected during the reform period.

13. Time of Troubles: causes, stages, consequences.

"Troubled" time in Russia: causes, watered. alternatives, consequences. Reasons: the consequences of the oprichnina and the Livonian War: the ruin of the economy, the growth of social tension, the deaf ferment of almost all segments of the population. The reign of Ivan the Terrible's son Fyodor Ionovich did not change the situation. The death of the youngest son of Ivan the Terrible, Dmitry, deprived the throne of the last legitimate heir. Fyodor Ionovich died childless, Boris Godunov was elected tsar. Crop failure in 1601-1603, attempts by the neighboring Commonwealth to take advantage of the weakness of Russia. Also, a nobleman appeared in Poland, who declared himself Dmitry, he enlisted the tacit support of King Sigismund III and magnate Mniszek, he entered the southern regions of Russia. Trouble began, a lot of people went over to his side, he becomes king, but he cannot fulfill the promised promises to the Poles. At the wedding with the daughter of Sigismund III, he was killed by the nobles (they did not want him to marry a Catholic). Vasily Shuisky (boyar) becomes king. In the summer of 1606, the uprising in Putivl, reaches Moscow, is defeated. In the summer of 1607 they surrender. False Dmitry II appears, the surviving participants in the uprising, Cossacks, and Polish detachments stand up for him. He settles in Tushino. The tsar concludes an agreement with Sweden and the Russian-Swedish army captures several cities of the country. Due to the participation of Sweden, Poland attacks Russia, captures Moscow. An agreement was signed by the seven boyars (rule of 7 boyars) that Vladislav would be king if he converted to Orthodoxy. Having become king, Vladislav does not fulfill the terms of the agreement. A militia is being created, but it could not liberate Moscow, contradictions - one of the leaders of the militia was killed. A second militia is being created - they are recapturing Moscow from the Poles. In January 1613, the Zemsky Sobor elected 16-year-old Mikhail Romanov. A new dynasty of kings has begun. An agreement was signed with Sweden (receives the fortress of Korela and the coast of the Gulf of Finland), Poland (receives Smolensk, Chernigov).

14. Russia in the 17th century: the main trends of political and socio-economic development.

Time of Troubles created in Ross was unique. Situats.- power in the hands of societies. The unity of the state It was destroyed. (Smolensk. - Pole, Novgorod-Swedes) great value. preserved national unity. He had churches and the needs of the people in the king. 1613 - select. New king. Most representative. Patriarch Filaret helped. Elected. The king is his son. - Michael. Ramanov. The power of the tsar at first limited the boyars. The Winter Councils could not stop the enslavement of the taxable estates, including the townspeople. Increasingly role at cathedrals iral. Boya nobles. But they could also limit the king's power. The beginnings of the estate monarchy of Russia. Insignificant Because of the weakness of the city. And people do not know. Their rights in the zemstvo cathedrals. In the 17th century there is a process of transition. From the estates to the obsolete role of the boyar duma in the zemstvo sobor falls. 1648 sudnik - "cathedral code" in Kator opr ​​pavovy. The status of the foundations of the estates of Russia. It was enlarged. Taxes, returning the lands to the Pasadians, securing the townspeople for their cities. Code - legal. Designed System. Fortress. Peasants - local, patrimonial, monastery, became dependent. From Mrs. The owners could sell to buy mortgage fronts. By inheritance of the peasants. Nobles podluch the right of inheritance. Exchange of estates for estates. The prohibition of the expansion of the church. Land ownership.

15. Reforms of Peter I and their significance.

16. Foreign policy of Peter I. Formation of the Russian Empire.

1 . By the beginning of the reign of Peter I, the vast territory of Russia was actually deprived of sea routes. The struggle for access to the sea eventually acquired paramount importance for the further development of the Russian state.

From the beginning of his assertion on the Russian throne, Peter I had to conduct military operations with the Crimea. The purpose of the hostilities was the task of consolidating the position of the Russians in the Azov and Black Seas. But the first attempts to solve this problem ended in failure for Russia.

Grand Embassy

Peter I, through diplomatic steps, seeks to strengthen the position of Russia and the alliance of European powers against Turkey (in 1697, Russia, Austria and Venice entered into an offensive alliance). For this purpose, the so-called Great Embassy was organized in Europe in 1697. By creating it, Peter also sought to establish trade, economic and cultural ties with European powers. The embassy consisted of 250 people. In it, incognito, under the name of the officer of the Preobrazhensky regiment Pyotr Mikhailov, was Peter I himself. He headed the embassy F.Ya. Lefort. The great embassy visited Holland, England, Saxony, Venice. In addition to negotiating and clarifying the alignment of forces in Europe, Peter became acquainted with European industry, primarily shipbuilding, fortification and foundry. The tsar inspected shipyards and arsenals, manufactories, visited parliament, museums, theaters, and mints. He even personally worked in the shipyards of the East India Company in Holland.

The central event during the first period of the reign of Peter I was the Northern War.

During the Great Embassy, ​​Peter realized that he would not be able to find allies in the war with Turkey. At the same time, he found allies in the war with Sweden, during which Russia could get a way to the Baltic Sea. The consolidation of Russia on the Baltic coast made it possible to establish trade and economic ties with the developed countries of Europe.

In 1699–1700 The Northern Alliance was concluded between Russia, Denmark, the Commonwealth and Saxony, directed against Sweden.

The course of the Northern War

1. Having enlisted the support of a number of European powers, Peter I declared war on Sweden in 1700, and the Great Northern War (1700–1721) began.

2. At the first stage of the war, Russian troops were defeated during the siege of Narva. The first failures, however, did not break Peter, he energetically set about creating a regular army.

3. The Russians won their first significant victory near Dorpat at the end of 1701. New victories followed - the capture of the Noteburg (Oreshek) fortress, which received the new name Shlisselburg.

4. In 1703, Peter I founded a new city - St. Petersburg - to protect the Neva from the Swedes. Here later he moved the capital of Russia. In 1704, Russian troops managed to capture Narva, the fortress of Ivan-Gorod.

5. The most significant battle of the Northern War was the Battle of Poltava, victorious for the Russian army (June 27, 1709), which changed the entire course of the war and increased the prestige of Russia.

6. The war after the Battle of Poltava continued for another 12 years. It ended in 1721 with the Treaty of Nishtad.

The results of the war

After the conclusion of peace with Sweden in 1721, Russia received a reliable outlet to the Baltic Sea and became a maritime power.

2 . In a quarter of a century, the 18th century, which was not at all as swift as the 19th and even more so the 20th century, Peter I turned Russia into a great power, not inferior in its industrial and military strength to the developed European countries of that time. Peter the Great introduced Russia to the progressive achievements of Western culture, opened an outlet to the Baltic Sea, which the rulers of Moscow wanted to achieve starting from the 16th century. The country not only entered "on the threshold" of Europe, but also became the leader in the east and north of the continent. Most of Peter's innovations have demonstrated amazing vitality. State institutions created by Peter I functioned throughout the 18th century, and some even further. Recruitment kits introduced under Peter the Great existed in Russia until 1874, and the Senate, the Synod, the prosecutor's office, the Table of Ranks, like the Russian Empire itself, until 1917.

The Russian Empire was created:

1) with the further strengthening of serfdom, which suspended the formation of capitalist relations;

2) with the strongest tax pressure on the population. On October 22, 1721, during the celebration of the Peace of Nystadt (the celebrations lasted several weeks), the Senate presented Peter I with the titles of the Great Emperor of All Russia and "Father of the Fatherland." Together with the adoption of the title of Emperor by Peter I, Russia becomes an empire. The increased international authority of the state was reflected in the fact that European countries recognized it as an empire: Prussia, Holland, Sweden, Denmark in 1722–1724, England and Austria in 1742, France in 1744. And Poland recognized the Russian Empire later than all - in 1764

The reforms of Peter I marked the formation of an absolute monarchy: 1) the tsar got the opportunity to unlimitedly and uncontrollably rule the country with the help of officials completely dependent on him; 2) the unlimited power of the monarch found legislative expression in the 20th article of the Military Regulations and the Spiritual Regulations, namely, “the power of the monarchs is autocratic, which God himself commands to obey”; 3) the external expression of the absolutism that had established itself in Russia is the adoption in 1721 by Peter I of the title of emperor and the name "Great"; 4) there was a bureaucratization of the administrative apparatus and its centralization; 5) the reforms of central and local government created an outwardly orderly hierarchy of institutions from the Senate in the center to the voivodship office in the counties.

17. Transformations of Peter I in the field of culture and life.

The most important stage in the implementation of the reforms was the visit of Peter as part of the Great Embassy of a number of European countries. Upon his return, Peter sent many young nobles to Europe to study various specialties, mainly to master the marine sciences. The tsar also took care of the development of education in Russia. In 1701, in Moscow, in the Sukharev Tower, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was opened, headed by the Scotsman Forvarson, professor at the University of Aberdeen. One of the teachers of this school was Leonty Magnitsky - the author of "Arithmetic ...". In 1711 an engineering school appeared in Moscow.

Peter sought to overcome as soon as possible the disunity between Russia and Europe that had arisen since the time of the Tatar-Mongol yoke. One of its manifestations was a different chronology, and in 1700 Peter transferred Russia to a new calendar - the year 7208 becomes 1700, and the celebration of the New Year is transferred from September 1 to January 1. In 1703, the first issue of the Vedomosti newspaper, the first Russian newspaper, was published in Moscow; in 1702, the Kunsht troupe was invited to Moscow to create a theater. Important changes took place in the life of the Russian nobility, which remade the Russian nobility "in the image and likeness" of the European one. In 1717, the book "An Honest Mirror of Youth" was published - a kind of etiquette textbook, and since 1718 there were Assemblies - noble assemblies modeled on European ones. However, we must not forget that all these transformations came exclusively from above, and therefore were quite painful for both the upper and lower strata of society. The violent nature of some of these transformations inspired disgust and led to a sharp rejection of the rest, even the most progressive ones, undertakings. Peter aspired to make Russia a European country in every sense of the word and attached great importance to even the smallest details of the process.

18. "Enlightened absolutism" of Catherine 2. Russia's foreign policy at the end of the 18th century.

The enlightened absolutism of CatherineII. This is the reign of Catherine. The meaning is in the policy of following the ideals of enlightenment, expressed in the implementation of reforms that destroyed some of the most outdated feudal institutions. This acquired in Russia the character of a holistic, state-political reform, during which a new state and legal image of an absolute monarchy was formed. The class division was characteristic: the nobility, the bourgeoisie, the peasantry. Catherine's policy in its class orientation was noble. Catherine imagined her tasks as follows: 1. It is necessary to enlighten the nation, which she must rule. 2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, to support society and force it to comply with the laws. 3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state. 4. It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant. 5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and respectful of its neighbors. In real life, the declarations of the empress often disagreed with deeds.

The time of Catherine II (1762-1796) is the "golden age" of the nobility. His privileges and influence reach their climax - the queen, who came to power illegally, needed his support. The inner circle, helping the queen in solving state affairs, are her favorites G. G. Orlov, G. A. Potemkin and others. In 1767, the Legislative Commission was convened to develop a new code of laws. Various reform projects arose, including easing the position of the peasants (for the first time in Russian history). Since 1768, the commission has hardly been convened in order to avoid excessive free-thinking. In 1764, the secularization (transfer to the state) of church lands began and the autonomy of Ukraine was liquidated. In 1775, a provincial reform was carried out, streamlining local government (dividing into provinces and counties). The Letter of Complaint to the Nobility (1785) guaranteed its exclusive right to own land and peasants, the freedom of the nobles from corporal punishment, and established meetings of the nobility with the right to intercede with the monarch. The letter to the cities determined the order of self-government in the cities. In the economy, as under Elizabeth, a policy of further abolition of petty regulation of production and trade is being pursued. The number of serfs who went to work is growing, some are starting their own enterprises. However, the dissatisfaction of the people with the arbitrariness of officials and landowners is great. In 1771, a "plague riot" broke out in Moscow, in 1772 - an uprising of Cossacks in the Yaik town. In 1773, a peasant war began, led by the impostor "Peter III" - Emelyan Pugachev. It covers the Urals and the Volga region, but in 1774 Pugachev was defeated and extradited by accomplices, and in 1775 he was executed. In 1796-1801. Paul I ruled. He tried to alleviate the situation of the people (addition of arrears, prohibition of corvée on weekends), but infringed on the nobles - he reduced the rights of noble assemblies, increased censorship, and carried out repressions. In 1801 Pavel was killed by conspirators.

2. For the beginning of the XVIII century. it is very difficult to separate domestic and foreign policy, economic development and Russia's entry into the broad arena of international relations. Many measures in the field of economy were inspired by the war, but the war itself was necessary for the further economic development of the state. Initially, the foreign policy of the Petrine government had the same direction as in the previous period. It was the movement of Russia to the south, the desire to eliminate the Wild Field, which arose in very ancient times as a result of the onset of the nomadic world. It blocked Russia's road to trade in the Black and Mediterranean Seas, hindered the economic development of the country. A manifestation of this "southern" foreign policy line was the campaigns of Vasily Golitsyn in the Crimea "Azov" campaigns of Peter. The second campaign was successful: on July 19, 1696, the Turkish fortress of Azov fell. To search for allies in the West, Peter organized a "great embassy" of 250 people headed by "land admiral" Lefort and General Golovin. Under the name of the "sergeant" of the Preobrazhensky regiment, Pyotr Mikhailov, the sovereign himself rode in the embassy. The departure of the embassy almost fell through due to the Streltsy rebellion, but in March 1697 the "great embassy" set off. It turned out that it was impossible to interest anyone in the war with Turkey during this period, but allies were found to fight Sweden. The sharp reorientation of the foreign policy of the Russian government after the "great embassy" does not at all seem like such, if we remember that the struggle for access to the Baltic Sea has long been one of the most important directions of Russian foreign policy. The Baltic "window to Europe" was supposed to serve as a solution to many urgent economic and political tasks facing Russia.

The war with Sweden, which lasted 21 years and was called "Northern", began in 1700 with a sad defeat for Russia near Narva. The commander of the Swedish army, a talented commander, the Swedish king Charles XII, by that time had managed to disable one of Russia's allies - the Danes. The queue was for another ally - the Commonwealth. Soon this happened. A protege of Sweden was elevated to the throne in Poland. The main theater of military operations is transferred to the south, to the territory of Ukraine. It was here that the famous battle took place near the village of Lesnoy, not far from the town of Propoisk (September 1708). And already in 1709, the famous Poltava battle took place, which became a turning point in the course of the Northern War. The hope of Charles XII to receive support from the Hetman of the Left-Bank Ukraine Mazepa, who had changed Russia, did not come true. Near Poltava, the army of Charles XII was defeated, the king himself fled. He managed to raise Turkey against Russia. The Prut campaign of the Russian army took place. The campaign was unsuccessful, but Russian diplomacy managed to make peace with Turkey. The theater of operations is transferred to the Baltic. In 1713, Peter defeated the Swedes at the Battle of Tammerfors and captured almost all of Finland. On July 27, 1714, the Russian fleet won a brilliant victory over the Swedes at Cape Gangut. The Aland Islands were occupied. In 1720, at Grengam, the Swedish fleet was again defeated. In 1721, peace was concluded in the city of Nystadt in Finland. Under the terms of this peace, part of Finland (Vyborg and Kexholm), Ingria, Estonia and Livonia with Riga were annexed to Russia, the country finally got access to the Baltic Sea.

19. Attempts to reform the political system of Russia under Alexander I.

liberal initiatives. Alexander I began to rule with the abolition of the decrees of Paul I regarding the nobility. 10 thousand officers and officials dismissed by Pavel for bribes were reinstated in the service, the validity of the "Charters of Letters" to the nobility and cities was confirmed, the Secret Expedition (the center of political investigation) was abolished, the free travel of Russians abroad was allowed, the import of any books, torture was prohibited. In the first years of his reign, the young emperor relied on a small circle of friends that had developed even before the beginning of his reign, which included P.A. Stroganov, A.A. Czartoryski, N.N. Novosiltsev, V.P. Kochubey. This entourage of Alexander I began to be called the "Secret Committee". Its members were young, tried to keep up with the spirit of the times, but had no experience in those state affairs that they discussed and decided to reform. The new emperor began to carry out reforms in the field of central administration, the peasant question and education. Public administration reforms. In 1802-1811. ministerial reform. Instead of boards, 11 ministries were introduced. In contrast to the collegiums in the ministry, affairs were decided solely by the minister, responsible only to the emperor. A Committee of Ministers was established for the joint discussion of general matters by the Ministers. The Senate was given the right to control the created ministries and became the country's highest judicial body. (See Supplementary Illustrative Material) The ministerial reform has contributed to the improvement of the central administrative apparatus. Alexander I considered the introduction of a constitution in the country, i.e. limiting their absolute power, good. But he realized that it was impossible to introduce a constitution in Russia while maintaining serfdom. It is necessary to prepare society for the introduction of the constitution. To this end, he decided to reorganize the entire system of power and administration in Russia according to Western European models.

20. Patriotic War of 1812: the feat of the army and the people.

21. Movement of the Decembrists and its significance.

Causes. A very clearly growing backlog of Russia from the West began to be noted after the war of 1812 and foreign campaigns of the Russian army, visits by military officers to the countries of Western Europe. Many young officers of the Russian army wanted to quickly bridge the gap between Russian and European orders.

The changes that took place in Europe after the French Revolution, namely the collapse of monarchies, the establishment of parliamentary institutions, the bourgeois principles of a market economy, could not but affect the development of socio-political thought in Russia.

After the return of Russian troops from foreign campaigns, the first signs of political discontent began to appear among the young noble officers. Gradually, this discontent grew into a socio-political movement, which was called the Decembrist movement.

social composition. The Decembrist movement touched the top of the noble youth. This can be explained by the fact that the bourgeoisie, due to economic weakness and political underdevelopment, began to form only towards the end of the 18th century. and during this period in the life of the country did not play an independent role.

Decembrist societies, their activities. In 1816–1818 the first Decembrist organizations arose - the Union of Salvation and the Union of Welfare. On the basis of the latter, two revolutionary organizations were organized: the Northern Society (under the leadership of N.M. Muravyov, S.P. Trubetskoy, K.F. Ryleev, the center was in St. Petersburg) and the Southern Society (under the leadership of P.I. Pestel, was in Ukraine). Decembrists in their activities:

1) pursued the goal of implementing plans for political changes in the country through a military coup;

2) advocated the introduction of a constitutional order and democratic freedoms, the elimination of serfdom and class distinctions;

3) developed the main policy documents, which became the “Constitution” of N.M. Muravyov and Russkaya Pravda by P.I. Pestel. "Constitution" N.M. Muravyova was more moderate (she recognized the need to preserve the constitutional monarchy).

Program P.I. Pestel was more radical. She ruled out the preservation of the monarchy and advocated the establishment of a republican system in Russia.

Uprising on the Senate Square. On December 14, 1825, the day when the issue of succession to the throne in the country was to be resolved, the Decembrists, having gathered on Senate Square, wanted to disrupt the oath to Nicholas and force the Senate to publish the “Manifesto to the Russian people”, which included the main demands of the Decembrists.

Unfortunately, the Decembrists were late. Senators already before their speech managed to swear allegiance to Nicholas. The Decembrist uprising was brutally suppressed. But their work was not in vain. Many ideas of the Decembrists were implemented in the course of subsequent reforms.

22. Socio-political thought in Russia in the 30s-50s. 19th century: conservatives, liberals, radicals.

1. Petrashevites: Members of the circle professed various views: from liberal to radical revolutionary. Despite the significant number, the Petrashevite society remained precisely a circle where literary and philosophical issues were discussed. No program or charter was created. Petrashevsky himself and his associates professed socialist views in the spirit of Fourier and Saint-Simon, dreamed of the elimination of serfdom and autocracy, of the establishment of a republic. Some members of the society, led by N.A., were more radical. Speshnev, who believed that socialism could only be achieved through a peasant revolution. In the early 1930s, the ideological substantiation of the reactionary policy of the autocracy took shape - the theory of "official nationality" was born. Its principles were formulated by the Minister of Education S. S. Uvarov in the famous triad expressing the age-old foundations of Russian life: "Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality." Autocracy was interpreted as a guarantor of the inviolability of the Russian state. It is in autocratic Russia, according to the supporters of this ideology, that the best order of things prevails, consistent with the requirements of religion and political wisdom. Orthodoxy was proclaimed the basis of the spiritual life of the people. By “nationality” was meant the “unity” of the tsar with the people, which implies the absence in Russian society of a basis for social conflicts. It should be noted that representatives of all areas of the social movement in Russia spoke for nationality, but they invested completely different content in this concept. The official ideology strove to present the autocratic-serf regime as corresponding to the “people's spirit”, and in this case the nationality was interpreted as the adherence of the masses to the “primordial Russian principles” - autocracy and Orthodoxy. Theorists of official ideology were professors of Moscow University S.P. Shevyrev and M.P. Pogodin, publishers N.I. Grech, F.V. Bulgarin. In the late 30s - early 40s. Disputes about the historical fate of Russia came to the fore in the development of social thought. There were two camps: Slavophiles and Westerners. The most prominent ideologists of Slavophilism were I.S. and K.S. Aksakovs, I.V. and P.V. Kireevsky, A.I. Koshelev, A.S. Khomyakov and Yu.F. Samarin. The leaders of Westernism were the outstanding historian of the Middle Ages T.N. Granovsky, M.A. Bakunin, V.P. Botkin, K.D. Kavelin, M.N. Katkov. V.G. is usually called the left Westerners. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen, N.P. Ogareva. A common feature of Westernism and Slavophilism was the rejection of the existing order in Russia. Both understood the fatality of serfdom, censorship and police arbitrariness. But the Westerners believed that Russia should follow the same path as Western Europe, eventually becoming a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. For the left Westernizers, development along the European path should have led to the establishment of socialism in Russia, understood in the spirit of the ideas of Saint-Simon. Unlike the Westernizers, the Slavophiles considered the European path unacceptable and disastrous for Russia. They associated all the troubles that befell Russia precisely with the fact that, starting from the time of Peter I, Russia abandoned its characteristic original development and began to adopt alien European orders. Already nineteenth-century thinkers noted the ideological duality of Slavophilism. V.S. Solovyov believed that Slavophilism was characterized by "a contradiction between the universal ideal of Christianity and the pagan tendency to "separateness." The ideal of the Slavophiles was pre-Petrine Russia with the Zemsky Sobor. The Slavophils considered the Russian people to be alien to politics, sincerely devoted to the legitimate monarch. revolution. The Slavophils denied the constitution, the separation of powers and parliamentarism. Their slogan was: "The power of power - to the king, the power of opinion - to the people." They represented the royal power as unlimited, but listening to the people, expressing their opinion through the free press and the Zemsky Sobor. ", however, the question arose of what could guarantee against the transformation of unlimited tsarist power into despotic power. In this respect, the Slavophiles were forced to place their hopes on the church and moral development. Considering that the original Russian beginnings were preserved only in the thickness of the people, untouched by the superficial Peter's " Europeanization", the Slavophiles devoted much e attention to the study of folk customs, life, folklore.

23. Reforms of Alexander II

Emperor Alexander II (1855-1881). The eldest son of Nicholas I ascended the Russian throne on February 19, 1855. Unlike his father, he was quite well prepared to govern the state. By October 1860, the projects summarized by the editorial commissions were received by the Main Committee. He further reduced the size of peasant land plots, and increased duties. On February 17, 1861, the draft reform was approved by the State Council. On February 19 it was signed by Alexander II. The abolition of serfdom was announced by the Manifesto On the most merciful granting to serfs of the rights of the state of free rural inhabitants ...? The practical conditions for release were defined in 17 acts -?Regulations? about peasants emerging from serfdom. Manifesto and? Provisions? concerned three main issues: the personal liberation of the peasants, the allocation of land to them and the redemption deal. Personal liberation. From now on, the peasant could own movable and immovable property, conclude transactions, and act as a legal entity. He was freed from the personal guardianship of the landowner, could, without his permission, marry, enter the service and educational institutions, change his place of residence, move into the class of philistines and merchants. Allotments. ?Regulations? regulated the allocation of land to peasants. The size of the plots depended on the fertility of the soil. The territory of Russia was conditionally divided into three zones: black earth, non-black earth and steppe. Each of them established the highest and lowest sizes of the peasant field allotment (the highest? more than which the peasant could not demand from the landowner, the lowest? less than which the landowner should not have offered the peasant). Within these limits, a voluntary deal was concluded between the peasant community and the landowner. Their relationship was finally fixed by charters. If the landowner and the peasants did not come to an agreement, then mediators were involved to resolve the dispute. Ransom. When receiving land, the peasants were obliged to pay its cost. The peasants did not have the money needed to buy the land. In order for the landlords to receive the redemption sums at a time, the state provided the peasants with a loan in the amount of 80% of the value of the allotments. The remaining 20% ​​was paid by the peasant community itself to the landowner. Within 49 years, the peasants had to return the loan to the state in the form of redemption payments with an accrual of 6% per annum. By 1906, when the peasants stubbornly achieved the abolition of redemption payments, they had already paid the state about 2 billion rubles, i.e., almost 4 times more than the real market value of the land in 1861. Contemporaries called the reform of 1861 great. It brought freedom to more than 30 million serfs, cleared the way for the formation of bourgeois relations, the economic modernization of the country. Zemstvo, urban, judicial, military and other reforms were a natural continuation of the abolition of serfdom in Russia. Their main goal? to bring the state system and administrative management in line with the new social structure, in which the multi-million peasantry received personal freedom. Reorganization of local government. After the abolition of serfdom, it became necessary to change local government. E 1864 Zemstvo reform was carried out. Zemstvo institutions (zemstvos) were created in provinces and districts. These were elected bodies from representatives of all estates. A high property qualification and a multi-stage estate (according to curia) elective system ensured the predominance of landowners in them. Zemstvos were deprived of any political functions. The scope of their activities was limited exclusively to economic issues of local importance: the arrangement and maintenance of communication lines, zemstvo schools and hospitals, care for trade and industry. The zemstvos were under the control of the central and local authorities, who had the right to suspend any decision of the zemstvo assembly. The next step was urban reform. ?Urban position? 1870 created all-class bodies in the cities? city ​​councils. They dealt with the improvement of the city, took care of trade, provided educational and medical needs. In city dumas, in connection with the high property electoral qualification, the leading role belonged to the big bourgeoisie. Like the zemstvos, they were under the strict control of the government administration. Judicial reform. ?New judicial statutes? In 1864, a fundamentally new system of legal proceedings was introduced in Russia. They provided for the all-estate court, its independence from the administration, the irremovability of judges, the publicity and competitiveness of the trial. It was attended by a prosecutor (accuser) and a lawyer (defender). The question of the guilt of the accused was decided by the jury. The competence of different judicial instances was strictly delineated. Minor civil cases were dealt with in the magistrate's court, criminal and serious? in the district. Particularly important state and political crimes were considered in the judicial chamber. The Senate became the highest court. The created system reflected the most progressive tendencies in the world judicial practice. However, in carrying out the reform, the government left many loopholes for interference in the judiciary. Some principles were only declared. For example, the peasants were subject to their class court. For political processes, a Special Presence of the Senate was created, whose meetings were closed, which violated the principle of publicity. military reform. The key element of the reform was the law of 1874 on all-class military service for men over the age of 20. The term of active service was set in the ground forces to 6, in the navy? up to 7 years old. The terms of active service were significantly reduced depending on the educational qualification. Persons who had a higher education served only six months. In the 60s, the rearmament of the army began: the replacement of smooth-bore weapons with rifled ones, the introduction of a system of steel artillery pieces, and the improvement of the horse fleet. Of particular importance was the accelerated development of the military steam fleet. For the training of officers, military gymnasiums, specialized cadet schools and academies were created? General Staff, Artillery, Engineering, etc. The command and control system of the armed forces has improved. Reforms in education and the press. The main thing was that an accessible all-class education was actually introduced. Along with the state schools, zemstvo, parochial, Sunday and private schools arose. Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real ones. They accepted children of all classes capable of paying tuition fees. In 1863, the new Charter returned autonomy to the universities, which was abolished by Nicholas I in 1835. In 1865, were introduced? Provisional rules? about printing. They abolished preliminary censorship for a number of printed publications: books designed for the wealthy and educated part of society, as well as central periodicals. The value of the reforms. The reforms carried out were progressive. They began to lay the foundation for the evolutionary path of the country's development. Russia, to a certain extent, approached the advanced for that time European socio-political model. The first step was taken to expand the role of the public in the life of the country and turn Russia into a bourgeois monarchy.

24. Revolutionary populists: ideology, currents, organization.

Populism is the main direction of the Russian revolutionary movement in the second half of the 19th century. Its ideological foundation was the theory of "communal socialism", developed by A.I. Herzen and N.G. Chernyshevsky. The ideological formation of populism takes place at the turn of the 1860s - 1870s. The period of his greatest influence fell on the 1870s - early 1880s. IN AND. Lenin (an ardent opponent of populism) described its essential features as follows:

recognition of capitalism in Russia as a decline, a regression;

recognition of the originality of the Russian economic system in general and the peasant with his community, artel, etc. in particular;

ignoring the connection between the "intelligentsia" and the legal and political institutions of the country with the material interests of certain classes.

The Narodniks believed that the most powerful political force was the working people (primarily the peasantry), which must carry out a socialist revolution. They saw their mission in organizing the masses and rousing them to a struggle that would enable Russia to bypass the stage of capitalism and establish a new system based on the principles of equality and social justice. Despite the fact that revolutionary populism was a unified trend of socio-political thought, in it at the turn of the 1860s - 1870s. three main trends emerged.

Propaganda. Its creator and main ideologist was Professor of Mathematics P.L. Lavrov (1823 - 1900). He outlined his views in Historical Letters. The main idea of ​​P.L. Lavrov lies in the fact that an "educated society" is indebted to the common people, since the latter, living in poverty and ignorance, with their work for centuries provides a decent life for the privileged classes. "Critically thinking individuals" must be imbued with a sense of responsibility to the people. There is only one way they can repay the debt, by preparing the people for the revolution. However, for this, the revolutionary youth themselves must be ready to fight. It needs to acquire the appropriate knowledge and develop its character, and only then "go to the people" in order to propagate socialist ideas and a new way of life, in order to awaken the "revolutionary consciousness of the masses" in this way.

Rebellious. Its creator was the founder of scientific anarchism M.A. Bakunin (1814 - 1876) - a comrade-in-arms of K. Marx in the First International and ... a staunch opponent of Marxism. In the work "Statehood and anarchy" M.A. Bakunin develops the idea that any state (even a socialist one) is based on violence. He categorically rejected the Marxist idea of ​​a proletarian dictatorship and declared that any "top-down" management of society is detrimental to the people. M.A. Bakunin proposed to create instead of the state a free federation (“from the bottom up”) of peasant communities, workers' unions, professional associations, regions and peoples. In such a society, private property is unacceptable, and it is based on collective labor. It is possible to go to this social structure only as a result of a spontaneous popular revolt. Russia is a country traditionally rebellious and therefore ideally suited to start a world revolution. Only the lumpen (beggars, vagabonds, etc.) can become the hegemon of the revolt, and not the working class, as K. Marx believed. It is the outcasts who truly have "nothing to lose" in public life and are always ready to rebel. The main task of the revolutionaries is to coordinate the actions of the people, and after the revolution, to prevent a return to the old state order.

Conspiratorial (Blanquist - named after the French revolutionary O. Blanqui). Its ideology was developed by the lawyer and talented publicist P.N. Tkachev (1844 - 1885). Unlike P.L. Lavrov, he did not want to deal only with the "preparation" of the revolution, but worked out ways to implement it. P.N. Tkachev also opposed the anarchism of M.A. Bakunin, believing that the state should play a crucial role in the renewal of society. P.N. Tkachev declared that a "social revolution" could only be carried out by a small but well-trained and cohesive party of conspirators. They will seize power, carry out the transformations necessary for the people, after which they will retire, transferring the reins of government into the hands of society itself. According to P.N. Tkachev, a revolutionary conspiracy is quite feasible, since the Russian state has not enjoyed the support of the general population for a long time. However, to be completely sure of success, power should be weakened. One of the most effective means of "loosening" the old regime of P.N. Tkachev considered political terror.

25. The labor movement in the 70s-80s of the 19th century. The emergence of social democracy.

The labor movement is gradually gaining strength, and already in the late 90s. economic strikes are widespread. Becoming more and more mass and organized, the working-class movement simultaneously changes its character: under the influence of social democracy, its participants more and more often put forward political demands along with economic ones. Created in 1895, the St. Petersburg Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class (leaders A. A. Vaneev, P.-K. Zaporozhets, V. I. Ulyanov, Yu. O. Martov, and others) sought to make the transition to new tactics - mass economic and political agitation among the workers and organized a number of major strikes. Similar organizations also arose in Moscow (1894 - the Moscow "Workers' Union", since 1898 - the Moscow "Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class", then - the committee of the RSDLP), in Tula, Yaroslavl, Rostov-on-Don, on Ukraine, in the Caucasus. Since the beginning of the 20th century, the labor movement has been moving from a predominantly economic struggle to mass political actions: 1900 - May demonstration in Kharkov; May 1901 - strike at the Obukhov steel plant: in St. Petersburg (“Obukhov defense”); 1902 - mass demonstrations and rallies in Kharkov, Batum, Baku, Sormov, Saratov, etc., and in November of the same year - a powerful Rostov strike; 1903 - a general strike of the workers of the South of Russia, in which about 200 thousand people took part. Social Democrats. On March 1-3, 1898, the first congress of social democratic organizations took place in Minsk. At the congress, a decision was made to form the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP). Rabochaya Gazeta was declared the official organ of the party. The Central Committee (together with P. B. Struve) prepared the Manifesto of the RSDLP. The II Congress of the RSDLP was held in July - August 1903. The Congress adopted a program prepared by Iskra, which contained tasks at the stage of the bourgeois-democratic revolution (the overthrow of the autocracy, the establishment of a democratic republic, the proclamation of political freedoms, etc.) and at the stage of the socialist revolution (establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat). The charter of the party was approved. At the congress, the Social Democrats split into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks. Yu. O. Martov was Lenin's main opponent. After the split in the party, Lenin set a course for the isolation of the Bolsheviks. In November 1905, he illegally returned to St. Petersburg and headed the Bolsheviks, but in December 1907 he emigrated again. Over the next ten years, V. I. Lenin carried out party work abroad, becoming the undisputed leader of Bolshevism. charismatic, a leader who knows the true path to victory. It was in this capacity that he arrived in Petrograd on April 3, 1917. The self-determination of the Menshevik faction took place in April - May 1905 at the All-Russian Conference of Party Workers in Geneva; almost simultaneously, in April 1905, the Third Congress of the RSDLP, convened by supporters of Lenin, took place in London. However, in the summer of 1905 a strong unification movement began, at the same time a united Central Committee of the RSDLP was created.

26. Socio-economic development of Russia at the turn of the 19th-20th century. S.K Witte.