In the XV - the first half of the XVI centuries. in the Russian state Agriculture remained the main occupation. There was three-field crop rotation . In the cities, the old craft professions lost during the period of the Tatar-Mongol invasion were quickly restored, and new ones arose.

feudal nobility The Russian state consisted of: servants (former appanage) princes; boyars; free servants - medium and small feudal landowners who were in the service of large feudal lords; boyar children (medium and small feudal lords who served the Grand Duke). Remains a big feudal lord church , whose possessions are expanding due to the seizure of undeveloped and even black-mowed (owned by the state) lands, and through donations from boyars and local princes. The Grand Dukes are increasingly beginning to seek support in the nobility entirely dependent on them, which was formed primarily from "servants under the court".

Peasantry divided into: black-mallowed - the rural population dependent on the state, bearing in-kind and monetary duties in favor of the state; privately owned - living on lands owned by landowners and votchinniks. By right of ownership, the master owned serfs (at the level of slaves). The top of the servility was the so-called. big serfs - princely and boyar servants. Kholops planted on the ground, as well as receiving working cattle, equipment, seeds from the landowner and obliged to work for the master, were called sufferers .

bonded people - one of the varieties of serfs that arose in Russia from the middle of the 15th century. in connection with the receipt of a loan under the obligation to work off interest in the creditor's economy, which created a temporary (until the payment of the debt) servile dependence of the debtor ( bondage - a form of personal dependence associated with a loan). At the end of the XV century. appeared beans - impoverished people (urban and rural), who did not bear the state tax, received housing from feudal lords, churches, or even from the peasant community.

In the XV century. a special class appears - Cossacks , protecting border regions on a par with the regular army.

Russian city

Urban population Russia was divided into city (fortress-detinets fenced with a wall) and a trade and craft shop adjoining the city walls Posad . Accordingly, in the peaceful years, the part of the population free from taxes and state duties lived in the fortress - representatives of the feudal nobility and their servants, as well as the garrison.

What new classes appeared in Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries? Fashion of the new time. Questions to consolidate previously studied material. The picture shows a representative of the peasantry. Men's fashion 15-16 centuries. On the streets of cities and in the homes of citizens. Numerous European cities differed little from the countryside. The clothes are comfortable for any job. Beef, veal, wild meat, poultry. In the summer there was a terrible stench in the cities.

"Early New Time" - On July 6, the parliament decided to recruit a 10,000-strong army. State and power in the era of transition to an industrial civilization. Absolutism. Parliament. Russia's participation in the Seven Years' War. Army of Ibrahim Pasha and the Crimean Khan. Magellan. wars of that time. Efficient control system. Suvorov, Saltykov, Rumyantsev. Royalists. Plan. Meaning of absolutism. 17th century map. The fate of class-representative institutions under absolutism.

"The era of the primitive accumulation of capital" - Holland - the leading country of commercial capitalism. Economic development of Western European countries. Consequences of VGO. Sources of primitive accumulation of capital. Economic reasons for the great geographical discoveries. England is a classic country of primitive accumulation of capital. Features of the socio-economic development of France. economic consequences. Methods for the implementation of the initial accumulation of capital.

"Europe in the 15th-17th centuries" - Representative of the bourgeoisie. In the palaces of the nobility. The appearance of a European city. House of a wealthy citizen. Travel plan. European at home. Learning tasks. Royal feast. Balls. In these pictures we see a representative of the upper class. Commoners' meal. "Breakfast" by Diego Velazquez. The whims of fashion. Self-test. In this picture we see representatives of the city. Most of all, the vagaries of fashion affected the costume.

"The Epoch of New Time" - Cars "Panard-Levassor". Founders of photography. Columbus Christopher. Madonna Conestabile. Antarctica. Automobile. Continent. Technical inventions of the New Age. Round the world expedition. Caravels of Christopher Columbus. Model of the first Russian steam locomotive. Magellan Fernan. Pleasure paddle steamer on the Neva. Summer. Rafael Santi. Christopher Columbus. Bellingshausen Faddey Faddeevich. Leonardo da Vinci.

"Japan 17-18 century" - Social structure. The political crisis of the Tokugawa regime. Tea ceremony. Peasant performances. Clothing. Japan in the 17th-18th centuries The feudal structure of the shogunate. Unifiers of Japan. Political system. Painting. Architecture. Culture of Japan in the Tokugawa era. Attempts to stabilize the crisis situation. social hierarchy.

At the beginning of the 16th century, according to S. M. Solovyov, there were 96 cities in the Muscovite state. By the middle of the century, the number of cities, according to A. A. Zimin, reached 160. In the list of cities of the 16th century, compiled by N. D. Chechulin, there are 220 cities. Thus, The number of cities grew during the 16th century. roughly doubled, and the urban population increased accordingly.

In the XVI century. cities in Russia:

• a) ancient Russians, formerly the centers of lands or specific principalities(Moscow, Veliky Novgorod, Vladimir, Rostov, Suzdal, Pskov, etc.). At the beginning of the 16th century, under Vasily III, as part of the struggle against the appanage system of power, the possessing cities (centers of the estates of appanage princes) were liquidated, and from that time on, cities in Russia became only state-owned. From the former administrative centers of the principalities, the cities are turning into trade and craft centers with a significant townsman population;
• b) small ancient Russian cities that were not specific centers(Torzhok, Velikiye Luki, Tula, etc.);
• in) ancient small fortress cities that stood on the borders of the country for their defense(for example, Ostrov, Oreshek, Konorye, Voronin in the North-West of Russia, etc.). They were often called "suburbs" and referred to the main city (for example, the above-mentioned cities belonged to Pskov);
• G) new ones, built as supporting fortresses to confirm the accession of these lands to the Russian state(cities of the South of Russia - Orel, Voronezh, Livny, Belgorod, etc.). Some of them were founded almost in the course of hostilities (for example, Vasilsursk, Sviyazhsk during the Kazan campaigns);
• e) foreign cities annexed to the Russian state. At the beginning of the XVI century. - Kazan and Astrakhan, in the second quarter of the century - the cities of Russian Livonia, as well as the former ancient Russian cities that belonged to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Seversky cities - Putivl, Novgorod-Seversky, etc., Smolensk, Polotsk, etc.).

Sizes of Russian cities in the 16th century

According to A. I. Kopansv, it is impossible to determine the exact figure of the population of Moscow, but it is likely that it reached in the first half of the 16th century. up to 100 thousand people Populous settlements in the first half of the XVI century. to the north-west of Moscow were Mozhaisk (1573 households - about 7860 people), Toroiets (402 courtyards - about 2010 people), Staraya Russa (1473 courtyards - about 7360 people) and, finally, Novgorod. According to foreigners, it was equal to Moscow: in 1546 it had 5357 households, i.e. approximately 26,780 people

The population for the end of the 15th century is known. in Ivangorod (about 970 people), Yama (about 1000 people), Koporye (about 60 people). Pskov reached a large size, in which only in Zastenye in 1510 there were 6,500 households (about 32 thousand people). Among the suburbs of Pskov, Gdov stood out for its size, where in the first half of the 16th century. there were 290 courtyards of "black" people, 12 courtyards of the clergy, etc., and the total population reached 1,500 people. According to N. D. Chechulin, in all Pskov suburbs in "peacetime" (before the start of the Livonian War) there were 1,700 households of "black" people, i.e. The population reached 8,000.

In its structure of the city of the XVI century. were divided into city(literally - "fenced settlement") and Posad. In large settlements, stone fortresses stood in the center - kremlin. Territory cities was fortified with a fortress wall, could have several districts formed according to the ring principle. For example, in the center of Moscow there was the Kremlin, and further from it were Kitay-Gorod, Bely Gorod, Zemlyanoy Gorod (from the end of the 16th century), each of which had its own line of fortifications - city walls.

The fortified city center (Kremlin) housed administrative offices, churches, garrison services and warehouses, as well as siege yards, where people hid in case of danger. In peacetime, the siege yards stood empty, and a janitor monitored their safety.

On the Posada the townspeople lived: merchants, various merchants, artisans, craftsmen, trade people, families of service people from the city garrison, the city poor. They could be owners of their yards and plots of land attached to them. In the North-West of Russia, in the Novgorod and Pskov lands, such people were called natives", they differed from service landowners in that they did not carry out service, but the sovereign's tax. But the bulk of the population lived either on the posad (communal) lands (rented them for an additional dues), or in other people's yards (they were called backbones, neighbors and suspects). A special category was represented by beanies - the poor so much that they were on half tax.

According to Art. 91 of the Sudebnik of 1550, the estate right of the townspeople is legislatively consolidated - a monopoly on trade and crafts in the city. Since the tax was determined on the city as a whole, both the state and the urban community were interested in restricting the movement of townspeople so that they would not leave the towns. Otherwise, the share of the tax allocated to the settlers had to be distributed among the remaining townspeople. In the middle of the XVI century. the authorities began to take measures to return to the settlement the taxpayers who moved in the cities to the lands of the white monastic settlements and thereby evaded state taxation. By decree of 1550, the settlers were ordered to return to the settlements, and the monasteries were forbidden to establish new white settlements (the old ones retained their "whitewashed" status).

The trend of attaching townspeople to suburbs developed in Russia in parallel with the trend of introducing serfdom for peasants. Unlike Western Europe, in Russia the air of the city did not make people free at all.

In the suburb there were numerous shops and workshops, the city market was located. Posadskys were divided according to their property status into people of the "best" (as a rule, natives), middle and "younger", "black". The population of the town carried the "black tax" in favor of the state. Separate areas in the settlement could be exempted from the tax - they were called white freedoms. Urban areas (sloboda) were also distinguished according to ethnic (Tatarskaya Sloboda) or professional sign (Kozhevennaya Sloboda, Potted Sloboda, etc.).

In the XVI century. in the cities a new social group is being formed - service people on the device. This is a special category of citizens who served in the local garrison as gunners, collars, pishchalniks, city Cossacks, etc. They received the sovereign's salary in bread or money. The salary was not enough, it was not paid regularly, so the service people integrated into the urban environment according to the device, kept the land, shops, workshops in the suburbs. On the one hand, this brought them closer to the serving noble "city", the urban noble corporation. On the other hand, they were not noble people, they did not have estates and estates, most often they rented land. On the social ladder, service people were ranked lower than the nobles, but higher than the townspeople.

It is worth emphasizing that in the economy of the Russian city of the XVI century. the agrarian element was very strong. The city contained large herds of livestock (both draft animals - horses, and used for food - cows, sheep, goats, pigs, etc.). For them, special pastures were assigned. Many townspeople had gardens, sowed grain plots under the city walls. Thus, in relation to the Russian XVI century. one cannot speak of the separation of the city from the countryside.

The population of cities was united in class corporations - hundreds, fifty etc. As a rule, they occupied special areas - streets, settlements, ends. They elected city governments. The functions of the latter were similar to those of rural communities: distribution of duties, organization of work for the payment of the sovereign's tax, and so on. The city was ruled governor(in large centers - the governor), who sat on the "feeding". In order to avoid abuses, the governor was appointed for a short term: from one ("one year") to several years.

Throughout the 16th century the development of elected bodies of city government and the growth of the powers of the urban township community are observed, which indicates the beginning of registration townspeople like estates. Since 1511, electives are mentioned city ​​clerks(distribution received from the 1530s). They acted as military commanders and were responsible for collecting taxes. In the middle - the second half of the century, the lip and zemstvo reforms spread to the cities, elected bodies of city government were established.

The main trends in the life of the Russian city in the XVI century. there was the development of the city as a trade and craft center, an increase in the number of cities, a general increase in the number of citizens, combined with a decrease in the population of specific cities due to the socio-economic crisis. Throughout the century, the taxation of the townspeople increased, from which they sought to evade in various ways - from leaving for white settlements to migration. In turn, the authorities gradually tried more and more to attach the townspeople to the settlements, like peasants to the owner. In the XVI century. the first steps were taken in this direction.

Russian city and townspeople in the 16th century .

3.1. General characteristics. At the beginning of the XVI century. On the vast territory of the Russian state, there were about 130 urban-type settlements. Of these, only Moscow (130 thousand) and Novgorod (32 thousand) can be attributed to fairly large cities, Tver, Yaroslavl, Vologda, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod and a number of others were significant urban centers, while the majority retained their rural appearance. The total urban population did not exceed 300 thousand people.

3.2. Economic development. Cities became centers of crafts and trade. Potters and tanners, shoemakers and jewelers, etc., produced their products for the market. The number and specialization of urban crafts as a whole met the needs of rural residents. Local markets are forming around the cities, but since For the bulk of the peasants, it was too far and inconvenient to get to them, then they produced a significant part of the handicraft products themselves.

Thus, the subsistence nature of the peasant economy, the general economic backwardness of the country stood in the way of the formation of market relations.

At the end of the XV century. in Moscow, a state manufactory for the manufacture of cannons and other firearms arose. But it could not fully cover the needs of the army in modern weapons. In addition, Russia did not have explored deposits of non-ferrous and noble metals, sulfur, iron was mined only from poor swampy ores. All this made necessary both the development of our own production and the expansion of economic ties with the countries of Western Europe. The volume of foreign trade of that era was directly dependent on the success of maritime trade.

3.3. Urban population. The population of cities ("townspeople") was quite diverse in composition and differentiated by occupation.

3.3.1. Craftsmen, small merchants, gardeners united on a territorial basis in hundreds and fifty. Russia did not know craft workshops in their pure form.

3.3.2. Merchants united in corporations of "guests", "cloth workers", etc., who had great privileges, and in a number of ways their status approached that of the boyars - they did not pay taxes, members of some of these corporations could own land with peasants. It was from them that the leaders of the city self-government were elected, in charge of collecting taxes and organizing the serving of various duties.

3.4. However, the general management of the cities was in the hands of the grand duke's power and was carried out through its governors. City land was considered the property of the state. On the whole, in Russian cities, an "urban system" similar to that in Western Europe did not take shape; the urban population became more and more dependent on the state.

By the end of the XVI century. There were about 220 cities in Russia. The largest city was Moscow, whose population was about 100 thousand people (in Paris and Naples at the end of the 16th century 200 thousand people lived, in London, Venice, Amsterdam, Rome - 100 thousand). The rest of the cities of Russia, as a rule, had 3-8 thousand people each. In Europe, the average size of the city of the XVI century. numbered 20-30 thousand inhabitants.

In the XVI century. the development of handicraft production in Russian cities continued. The specialization of production, which was closely connected with the availability of local raw materials, still had an exclusively natural-geographic character. The Tula-Serpukhov, Ustyuzhno-Zhelezopolsky, Novgorod-Tikhvinsky regions specialized in the production of metal, the Novgorod-Pskov land and the Smolensk region were the largest centers for the production of linen and canvas. Leather production was developed in Yaroslavl and Kazan. The Vologda Territory produced a huge amount of salt, etc. Throughout the country, large-scale stone construction was carried out at that time. The first large state-owned enterprises appeared in Moscow - the Armory Chamber, the Cannon Yard. Cloth yard.

A significant part of the territory of the cities was occupied by courtyards, gardens, vegetable gardens, meadows of boyars, churches and monasteries. In their hands were concentrated monetary wealth, which was given at interest, went to the purchase and accumulation of treasures, and was not invested in production.

Which developed along with world civilization. It was the time of the Great Geographical Discoveries (America was discovered in 1493), the beginning of the era of capitalism in European countries (the first European bourgeois revolution of 1566-1609 began in the Netherlands). But the development of the Russian state took place in rather peculiar conditions. There was a process of development of new territories in Siberia, the Volga region, the Wild Field (on the rivers Dnieper, Don, the Middle and Lower Volga, Yaik), the country had no access to the seas, the economy was in the nature of a subsistence economy based on the dominance of the feudal orders of the boyar patrimony. In the southern outskirts of Russia in the second half of the 16th century, Cossacks (from fugitive peasants) began to appear.
By the end of the 16th century, there were approximately 220. The largest of them was Moscow, and the most important and developed - and, Kazan and, and Tula, Astrakhan and. Production was closely connected with the availability of local raw materials and was of a natural geographical nature, for example, leather production was developed in Yaroslavl and Kazan, a large amount of salt was produced in Vologda, Tula and Novgorod specialized in metal production. Stone construction was carried out in Moscow, the Cannon Yard, the Cloth Yard, the Armory were built.
An outstanding event in the history of Russia in the 16th century was the emergence of Russian printing (in 1564 the book "Apostle" was published). The church had a great influence on the spiritual life of society. In painting, creativity was a model, the architecture of that time was characterized by the construction of tent churches (without pillars, holding only on the foundation) - St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow, the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye, the Church of John the Baptist in the village of Dyakovo.
The 16th century in the history of Russia is the century of the reign of the "talented villain" Ivan the Terrible.
At the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th century, he ruled, great-grandson (1462-1505). He called himself the "Sovereign of All Russia" or "Caesar". Took on a double-headed eagle. Two heads of an eagle said that Russia is turned to the East and to the West, and with one powerful paw the eagle stands in Europe, and the second in Asia.
believed that Moscow should become the third Rome, and all the Russian lands that were previously part of it should unite around it.
In 1497, he publishes the first Russian Sudebnik, a set of fundamental laws. The position of the peasantry was fixed in Sudebnik (peasants had the right to change their place of residence on St. George's Day (November 26), but in fact the peasants were attached to the land. For leaving the landowner, one had to pay "old" - a fee for the years lived. It was about a ruble, but t Since a ruble could buy 14 poods of honey in the 15-16th century, it was not easy to collect it. in the 16th century, almost all peasants become serfs.
Ivan III overthrew the Mongol-Tatar rule (1480) and did so as an experienced politician. He stopped civil strife on, creates a professional army. So, a forged army-infantry appears, dressed in metal armor; artillery (Russian guns "Unicorn" were the best for three hundred years); squeakers (they squeaked - a firearm, but it hit not far, a maximum of 100 m).
Ivan III overcame feudal fragmentation. The Novgorod Republic, together with the Moscow Principality, remained an independent entity, but in 1478 its independence was liquidated, in 1485 it was annexed to the Russian state, and in 1489 Vyatka.
In 1510, during the reign of the son of Ivan III, (1505-1533), the republic ceased to exist, and in 1521, the Ryazan principality. The unification of the Russian lands was basically completed. According to the German ambassador, none of the Western European monarchs could compare with the Moscow sovereign in the fullness of power over his subjects. Well, the grandson of Ivan III, more than anyone in the grand ducal family, deserved his nickname, Grozny.
When Ivan was three years old, in 1533 his father, Grand Duke Vasily III, died. Mother, Elena Glinskaya, the second wife of Vasily III, did not pay attention to her son. She decided to eliminate all pretenders to the Russian throne: the brothers Vasily III - Prince Yuri Ivanovich and Andrei Ivanovich, her uncle, Mikhail Glinsky. Prince Ivan Fedorovich Ovchina-Telepnev-Obolensky became the support of Elena. When Ivan was 8 years old, his mother was poisoned (April 3, 1538). Over the next eight years, the boyars (Shuisky, Glinsky, Belsky) ruled instead of him, they fought for influence over Ivan, but did not particularly burden themselves with caring for the child. As a result, Ivan falls ill with paranoia; from the age of 12 he takes part in torture, and at the age of 16 he becomes the best master of torture.
In 1546, Ivan, not satisfied with the grand ducal title, wished to become king. Tsars in Russia before called the emperors of Byzantium and Germany, as well as the khans of the Great Horde. Therefore, becoming king, Ivan rose above numerous princes; showed the independence of Russia from the Horde; stood on the same level with the German emperor.
At the age of 16, they decide to marry Ivan. For this, up to one and a half thousand girls were gathered in the tower. 12 beds were placed in each room, where they lived for about a month, and they reported to the king about their life. After a month, the tsar went around the chambers with gifts and chose Anastasia Romanova as his wife, who smiled at him.
In January 1547 Ivan was crowned king, and in March 1547 married to Anastasia. His wife replaced his parents, and he changed for the better.
In 1549, the tsar brought Alexei Fedorovich Adashev, Sylvester, the archpriest of the Annunciation Cathedral, who entered the so-called. They helped launch the reforms.
In 1556, Ivan IV abolished the feeding of the boyars at the expense of the funds from the management of the lands, which came to their personal disposal after paying taxes to the treasury. Ivan introduces local self-government, the whole state was divided into lips (districts), at the head of the lip was the headman. The labial headman could be elected from the peasants, nobles, he could be influenced.
replaces (duplicates) the boyar duma, orders obey it. The order-"instruction" turns into an order-institution. Military affairs were managed by the Discharge, Pushkarsky, Streltsy Order, the Armory. Foreign affairs were in charge of the Ambassadorial order, state finances - the order of the Great Parish, state lands - the Local Order, serfs - the Kholopy order.
Ivan begins an offensive against the boyars, limits the locality (he himself seated the boyars on the benches around him), creates a new army from the noble cavalry and archers (the nobles serve for a fee). This is almost 100 thousand people - the force on which Ivan IV relied.
In 1550, Ivan IV introduces a new Sudebnik. The nobles receive equal rights with the boyars, it confirmed the right of the peasants to change their place of residence on St. George's Day, but the payment for the "elderly" increased. For the first time, the Code of Law established punishment for bribery.
In 1560, Anastasia dies, the tsar becomes insane and he begins terror against his recent advisers - Adashev and Sylvester, because. it is them that the tsar blames for the sudden death of Anastasia. Sylvester was tonsured and exiled to. Alexei Adashev was sent as governor to (1558-1583), where he died. Repressions fell on other supporters of Adashev. And Ivan IV introduces.
Period - the second half of the reign of Ivan the Terrible. Oprichny terror was announced unexpectedly for both supporters and enemies of Ivan the Terrible.
In 1564, at night, with his retinue, children and treasury, the tsar disappeared from the Kremlin. He went to and declared that he no longer wanted to rule. A month after his disappearance from Moscow, the tsar sends two letters:

One Boyar Duma, Metropolitan, in which he accuses them of betrayal, unwillingness to serve him;
- the second to the townspeople, in which he announced that the boyars offend him, but he has no offense against ordinary people, and the boyars are to blame for everything.
Thus, he wants to show the people who is to blame for all their troubles.
By his sudden departure, he succeeded in making his opponents afraid of uncertainty, and the people went crying to ask the king to return. Ivan the Terrible agreed, but with conditions:
1) division of the country into two parts - zemshchina and oprichnina;
2) at the head of the zemshchina, Tsar Ivan the Terrible, and at the head of the oprichnina, Grand Duke Ivan the Terrible.
In the oprichnina lands, he singled out the most developed regions and boyar lands. Those nobles who were part of the oprichnina army settled on these lands. The population of the zemshchina was supposed to support this army. armed the army and for 7 years with this army destroys the boyars.
The meaning of the oprichnina was as follows:
- the establishment of autocracy through the destruction of the opposition (boyars);
- elimination of the remnants of feudal fragmentation (finally conquers Novgorod);
- forms a new social base of the autocracy - the nobility, i.e. these were people who were completely dependent on the king.
The destruction of the boyars was a means to achieve all these goals of Ivan the Terrible.
As a result of the oprichnina, Moscow weakened, the Crimean Khan burned the Moscow settlement in 1571, which showed the inability of the oprichnina army to fight external enemies. As a result, the tsar abolished the oprichnina, forbade even mentioning this word, and in 1572 transformed it into the "Tsar's Court". Before his death, he tried to re-introduce the oprichnina, but his guardsmen were unhappy with the tsar's policies and wanted stability. Ivan the Terrible exterminates his army, and dies at the age of 54, in 1584.
During the reign of Ivan IV, there were also merits. So, the red-brick Kremlin was built, but the builders were killed so that they could not build such beautiful buildings and temples anywhere else.
Results.
1. During the reign of Ivan IV, the country was destroyed, he actually staged a civil war. The central regions were depopulated, because. people were dying (about 7 million people died unnatural deaths).
2. Russia's loss of foreign policy influence, it has become vulnerable. Ivan IV lost the Livonian War, and Poland and Sweden launched extensive activities to seize Russian territories.
3. Ivan the Terrible condemned to death not only six wives, but also destroyed his children. He killed the heir, the son of Ivan, in a fit of rage in 1581. After the death of the prince, Ivan the Terrible thought of abdicating the throne and entering a monastery. He had something to whine about. The weak-minded Fyodor, the son of Anastasia Romanova, the first wife of the tsar, became the heir to the throne. In addition to him, there was still Tsarevich Dmitry, the son of the last, sixth wife, Maria Nagoya, who in 1584 was two years old.
Thus, after half a century of the reign of a tyrant, albeit a talented, but still a villain, power, unlimited by anyone and nothing, had to pass to a miserable person who was not capable of governing the state. After Ivan IV, a frightened, tormented, devastated country remained. Activity brought the country to the edge of the abyss, whose name is.