The direct (in other words, the primary, main, main) meaning of a word is a reflection in the word of that phenomenon of reality with which the word has been associated for a long time and steadily; portable (or secondary) meaning is acquired by a word as a result of its conscious use to designate not the phenomenon that it traditionally designates, but another phenomenon that is close to the first in our view in some way. For example, iron in the literal sense - containing iron (iron ore) or made of iron (iron roof), and figuratively - strong, strong(iron muscles) or unshakable, adamant, not knowing deviations, retreats (iron will). Head in the literal sense - the upper part of the human body, the upper or front part of the body of the animal, containing the brain, and figuratively - mind, consciousness, intellect(clear head, bright head), a man of great intelligence (Ivan Ivanovich is a head!), a person as a carrier of some properties, qualities (smart head, hot head).

In Pushkin's line Dawn rises in a cold haze word dawn appears in the direct meaning (bright illumination of the horizon before sunrise or after sunset), and in its own lines And over the fatherland of enlightened freedom Will the beautiful dawn rise at last?- figuratively (beginning, origin, early time of something).

The use of words in a literary work in a direct, non-figurative sense is called autology (Greek autos - itself + logos), and the use of words in a figurative sense - metalogy (Greek meta - through, after, behind - + - logos). The field of metalogy includes all trails .

Trope(Greek tropos - turn; turnover, image) - a generalized name for stylistic devices consisting in the use of a word in a figurative sense in order to achieve a special figurativeness, figurativeness . Since the transfer of meaning (or, as it is sometimes said, the transfer of the name) can occur on the basis of the correlation of various signs, the paths can be of different types, each of which has its own name. The main trails are metaphor, metonymy, irony and hyperbole; the varieties of the main tropes include personification, synecdoche, litotes.

Metaphor(Greek metaphora - transfer) represents a value transfer by similarity. We can say that the metaphor is based on a comparison that is not formally indicated (for example, with the help of comparative conjunctions). They also say that a metaphor is a hidden comparison. For example, a metaphor Empty skies clear glass(Akhmatova) contains a comparison of the sky with transparent glass, a metaphor Red rowan bonfire burns in the garden(S. Yesenin) contains a comparison of rowan brushes with a fire flame.

Many metaphors have become commonplace in everyday use and therefore do not attract attention, have lost their imagery in our perception: go beyond, hot time, hot heart, dizzy, love faded, he lost his head, drill with his eyes, soul strings, the patient's temperature jumps, thin voice, heavy character, etc.

In artistic literature, metaphor achieves its pictorial purpose the more it is unexpected, original and, at the same time, accurate in the sense of correlating phenomena. The aesthetic evaluation of metaphors (as well as other means of artistic depiction) is a subjective thing.

And the diamond thrill of the stars fades In the painless cold of dawn.(Voloshin);

And bottomless blue eyes Blossom on the far shore.(Block);

Like similes, metaphors can be extended. Sometimes poems are constructed from beginning to end as extended metaphors.

Any familiar metaphor can be presented in the literal sense for artistic purposes, and then it “comes to life”, receives a new imagery. This approach is called realization of a metaphor . It can be used for humorous and satirical purposes (for example, Mayakovsky's well-known poem "The Sitting Ones" uses the metaphor break apart), but it can also be a technique of lyric poetry. In the same Mayakovsky, with great emotional power, a metaphor is realized wring your hands:

Loves? does not love?

I break my hands and fingers

scatter, break.

The proximity of metaphor to comparison is expressed, in particular, in the fact that these means of artistic representation are often combined: Russia entered Europe like a lowered ship - at the sound of an ax and at the thunder of cannons(Pushkin);

In that old year, when love was kindled, Like a throne cross in a doomed heart(Akhmatova);

Metonymy(Greek metonymia - renaming) is transfer of values ​​(renaming) according to the adjacency of phenomena . The cases of such transfers are diverse, the main ones are as follows.

From vessel, container to content: Ladles are circular, foaming, hissing(Pushkin). Common expressions also belong to this type of metonymy. ate a whole plate, drank two cups, etc..

From a person to his clothes or any external signs: And you, blue uniforms(Lermontov; meaning the gendarmes); Hey beard! and how to get from here to Plyushkin?(Gogol).

From a settlement to its inhabitants: The whole city was discussing this event; The village was delighted with this news, etc.

From the organization, institution, event to its employees, participants: The research institute was busy with an urgent task; The factory decided to go on strike etc.

The author's name can refer to his works: Eugene Onegin, as you know, Scolded Homer, Theocritus, But read Adam Smith(...) Expressions like Excellent Kustodiev! Magnificent Faberge! - to designate a picture of an artist or a product of a master.

Irony(Greek eironeia - literally: pretense) - the use of a word or statement in a sense opposite to the direct one. A textbook example is the Fox's appeal to the Donkey, whom she considers stupid, in Krylov's fable "The Fox and the Donkey": Where, smart, are you wandering, head? Words used in the opposite direct meaning can be taken in quotation marks for greater expressiveness, as, for example, in Severyanin's poems addressed to politicians on behalf of people of art:

Your hostile everyday life is dirty to us - We burn with eternal art. You are busy with “business”, and we are only “drones”, But we are proud of our title!

The opposite meaning can be given not only to a single word, but also to an extensive context or a whole work. An example is the famous poem by Lermontov

Gratitude

For everything, for everything, I thank you: For the secret torment of passions, For the bitterness of tears, the poison of a kiss, For the revenge of enemies and slander of friends; For the heat of the soul, wasted in the desert, For everything that I was deceived in life ... Arrange only so that from now on I will not thank you for long.

In this poem you can see the highest degree of irony – sarcasm (Greek sarkasmos, from sarkazo - literally: I tear meat).

Hyperbola(Greek hyperbole - exaggeration), in contrast to metaphor, metonymy and irony, which are renaming on a qualitative basis, consists in transferring value by quantitative attribute . More precisely, hyperbole consists in a quantitative strengthening of the signs of an object, phenomenon, action, which, for simplicity, is sometimes called "artistic exaggeration."

Hyperbole is often used in folk literature. For example, in the epic about Volga and Mikul:

We drove all day, from morning to evening,

We couldn't get to the oratay.

They rode, yes, and another day,

Another day, from morning to evening,

We couldn't get to the oratay.

As the oratay yells in the field, whistles,

The oratay's bipod creaks,

And the omeshiki scratch off the pebbles.

Here they rode for the third day,

And the third day before pabedya.

And they ran into an open field yelling.

And here is the hyperbole in the mischievous ditty:

The darling sits on the porch With an expression on his face, And the darling's face Occupies the whole porch.

Gogol was a great master of hyperbole; everyone remembers that a rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper that u Cossacks were bloomers as wide as the Black Sea, and Ivan Nikiforovich's trousers were in such wide folds that if they were inflated, then the whole yard with barns and buildings could be placed in them.

personification – a technique consisting in transferring the properties of a person (person) to inanimate objects, natural phenomena or animals. Personification is usually in folk literature and the genre of book literature closest to it - a fable; often used in lyric poetry. A few examples:

Luna laughed like a clown.(Yesenin) Midnight enters my city window with gifts of the night.(Twardowski)

Like simile and metaphor, personification can be extended. For example, in Lermontov's poem Utes

A golden cloud spent the night On the chest of a giant cliff, In the morning it rushed off on its way early, Playing merrily across the azure; But there was a damp trace in the wrinkle of the Old Cliff. He stands alone, deep in thought, And he weeps softly in the desert.

Synecdoche(Greek synekdoche - correlation) - a special case of metonymy: designation of the whole (or in general something more) through its part (or in general something smaller included in a larger one). For example: All flags will visit us(Pushkin), that is, ships under the flags of all countries. Synecdoche can become a familiar phraseological phrase: to have a roof over your head, there are not enough working hands, so many heads of cattle, etc. Synecdoche is the use of singular forms instead of plural: Swede, Russian stabs, cuts, cuts (Pushkin); And it was heard before dawn, How the Frenchman (Lermontov) rejoiced.

Litotes(Greek litotes - simplicity) - a technique opposite to hyperbole, i.e. consisting of quantitative underestimation of the signs of an object, phenomenon, action . Litota are the names of fairy-tale characters Boy-with-Thumb, Girl-Thumbelina. The litote is also used in the description of the hero of Nekrasov's famous poem:

And marching importantly in orderly calm A horse is led by the bridle by a peasant In large boots, in a sheepskin coat, In large mittens ... and he himself is from a fingernail.

Litota is also called the method of defining a phenomenon or concept through the denial of the opposite, which also leads to an underestimation of the objective qualities of the defined. For example, if we say: It's interesting, – then such an expression will not contain such a definite estimate as It is interesting. Two examples from Tvardovsky's poetry:

That hour was already knocking on the window Not without solemn undertakings(“Beyond the distance - distance”);

No, our days are not traceless in the world("Birch").

Figure(rhetorical figure, stylistic figure, figure of speech) - a generalized name for stylistic devices in which the word, unlike tropes, does not necessarily appear in a figurative sense. The figures are built on special combinations of words that go beyond the usual, "practical" use and are intended to enhance the expressiveness and descriptiveness of the text. Since the figures are formed by a combination of words, they use certain stylistic possibilities of syntax, but in all cases the meanings of the words forming the figure are very important. The figures are numerous, we will name here only the main ones.

Anaphora(Greek anaphora - moving up, repetition), or monogamy, - repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of sentences, lines of poetry or stanzas . Anaphora has already met us in the above poem by Lermontov "Gratitude", where six lines begin with the preposition for. Two more examples from the poetry of A. Fet:

Only in the world and there is that shady

Dormant maple tent. Only in the world is there something radiant

A childish thoughtful look. Only in the world is there something fragrant

Cute headdress. Only in the world is there anything pure

Left running parting.

Here, each sentence, forming two poetic lines, begins with the expression Only in the world there is... In the following example, each stanza, except the first, begins with the word tell, and in the first stanza, the second line begins with this word:

I came to you with greetings To tell you that the sun has risen, That it fluttered with hot light On the sheets; To tell that the forest woke up, The whole woke up, with each branch, Every bird started up And full of spring thirst; To tell that with the same passion, Like yesterday, I came again, That my soul is still happy And ready to serve you; To tell that from everywhere It blows fun on me, That I myself do not know what I will Sing, - but only the song is ripening.

Antithesis(Greek antithesis - opposition) - stylistic device of contrast, opposition of phenomena and concepts. The most clearly expressed and simple in structure antithesis is based on the use of antonyms:

I am a king - I am a slave, I am a worm - I am a god!(Derzhavin);

You are poor, You are plentiful, You are powerful, You are powerless, Mother Russia!

(Nekrasov)

Over the Black Sea, over the White Sea In black nights and white days (...)

But opposition can also be expressed descriptively: Once he served in the hussars, and even happily; no one knew the reason that prompted him to retire and settle in a poor place, where he lived both poorly and prodigally: he always walked, in a worn-out black frock coat, and kept an open table for all the officers of our regiment. True, his dinner consisted of two or three courses prepared by a retired soldier, but champagne flowed like a river.(Pushkin);

gradation(lat. gradatio - gradual elevation) - a stylistic device for the arrangement of words and expressions, as well as means of artistic representation in ascending or decreasing (descending) importance. The gradation of the first type is called climax (Greek klimax - stairs), the second - anticlimax (Greek anti - against + klimax). Increasing gradation in Russian literature is used more often than descending. An example of a clear gradation according to the increasing importance of a sign can be taken from the epic about Volga and Mikul:

The bipod of the bipod is maple, The omeshiki on the bipod are damask, The bipod is silver, And the horn of the bipod is red gold.

A detailed multifaceted gradation underlies the composition of Pushkin's "Tales of the Fisherman and the Fish". The old fisherman did not immediately catch a goldfish, a wonderful catch is described using gradation:

Once he threw a net into the sea, - A net came with one mud. Another time he threw a net, - A net came with sea grass. For the third time he threw a net, A net came with one fish, With a difficult fish, - gold.

"Up the stairs" the desires of the old woman rise: I don't want to be a black peasant woman, I want to be a pillar noblewoman - I don't want to be a pillar noblewoman, But I want to be a free queen - I don't want to be a free queen, I want to be the mistress of the sea. In place of a dilapidated dugout, first a hut with a light room appears, then a tall tower, and then the royal chambers. The more indefatigable and absurd demands of the old woman the old man is forced to convey to the goldfish, the more severely, more menacingly the sea meets him: the sea is slightly played out - the blue sea is clouded - the blue sea is not calm - the blue sea has turned black - there is a black storm on the sea.

Gradation (mainly ascending) is also widely used in non-stylized book literature. Examples:

I called you, but you did not look back, I shed tears, but you did not descend.

No, it would have been unbearably terrible, The lot of the earth, had it not always been with us Neither the childhood of days, nor our youth, Nor our whole life in its last hour.

(Twardowski)

Examples of descending gradation:

He brought mortal resin Yes, a branch with withered leaves.

Will I find my former embrace there? Is it an old-fashioned hello? Will the friends and brothers of the Sufferer, after many years, recognize him?

(Lermontov)

He promises half the world, And France only for himself.

(Lermontov)

Oxymoron, or oxymoron (Greek oxymoron - literally: witty-silly), - a stylistic device of combining words opposite in meaning with the aim of an unusual, impressive expression of a new concept, representation . An oxymoron is a figure common in Russian literature, it is used, for example, in such titles of literary works as Turgenev's "Living Relics", L. Tolstoy's "Living Corpse", V. Vishnevsky's "Optimistic Tragedy". Examples of oxymorons from poems by Russian poets:

And the impossible is possible.

The road is long and easy.

Parallelism(Greek parallelos - walking side by side, parallel) - a stylistic device of similar, parallel construction of adjacent phrases, poetic lines or stanzas. Examples of parallelism in the construction of poetic lines:

I look at the future with fear, I look at the past with longing.

(Lermontov)

Repetition. As the name itself shows, this stylistic device consists in repeating a word, expression, song or verse line in order to draw special attention to them. Repetition is a common technique in folk songs. For example:

We were in the field, Walking along the borders

They developed wreaths, Yes, life will give birth, -

Wreaths developed "Freak, God,

And they looked at life. Zhito thick,

And Saint Ilya Zhyto is thick,

Walks along the borders, spiked,

Vigorous!"

Poets often resort to repeating lines in texts that are stylistically close to folk songs:

"I see death me Bury me

Here, in the steppe, it will strike, Here, in the deaf steppe;

Do not remember, friend, Black horses

My evil insults. Take me home.

Take my evil grievances home,

Yes, and nonsense, Hand them over to the priest ... "

unreasonable words,

Former rudeness.

(I. Surikov)

Repeating a line or several lines at the end of a stanza called refrain (French refrain - chorus).

The repetition of a word or phrase can also be used in prose. For example, far from reality, the ideas of Olga Ivanovna, the heroine of Chekhov's story "The Jumper"! about her role in the life of the artist Ryabovsky are emphasized by the repetition in her improperly direct speech of the word influence: (...) But this, she thought, he created under her influence, and in general, thanks to her influence, he changed a lot for the better. Her influences are so beneficial and significant that if she leaves him, then he, perhaps, may perish. In Ryabovsky's characterization, a significant role is played by the words he repeats, I'm tired, how tired I am.

rhetorical question, rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical appeal(Greek rhetorike - oratory). The definition rhetorical, rhetorical, fixed in the names of these figures, indicates that they developed in oratory prose, and then in fiction. Here, rhetorical questions, exclamations and appeals increase the emotionality of the statement, draw the reader's attention to certain parts of the text. In grammar rhetorical question defined as a sentence that is interrogative in form, but contains not a question, but a message. In fiction, a rhetorical question can retain an interrogative meaning, but it is not asked to give (or receive) an answer to it, but to increase the emotional impact on the reader.

Rhetorical exclamations reinforce the expressed feelings in the message:

How beautiful, how fresh were the roses In what a garden! How they deceived my eyes! How I begged the spring frosts Not to touch them with a cold hand!

The rhetorical appeal is directed not to the real interlocutor, but to the subject of the artistic image. Of the two functions inherent in the appeal - invocative and evaluative-characterizing (expressive, expressive), - the latter prevails in the rhetorical appeal:

The earth is the ruler! I bowed my head to you.(V. Solovyov)

Put me to sleep, bell ringing! Carry me out, three tired horses!

(Polonsky)

Rhetorical questions, exclamations and appeals are also used in prose, mainly in lyrical digressions (for example, in the well-known lyrical digressions in Gogol's Dead Souls) and in cases where the author's narration passes into improperly direct speech (for example, in The White Guard » Bulgakov: But the days, both in peaceful and bloody years, fly like an arrow, and the young Turbins did not notice how white, shaggy December came in a hard frost. Oh, our Christmas tree grandfather, sparkling with snow and happiness! Mom, bright queen, where are you?)

Default – a figure that provides the listener or reader with the opportunity to guess and reflect on what could have been discussed in a suddenly interrupted statement. An excellent example of silence, awakening deep thoughts and strong feelings, is found in Bunin's poem:

In the forest, in the mountain, there is a spring, lively and sonorous, Above the spring there is an old cabbage roll With a blackened bast icon, And in the spring there is a birch bark.

I do not love, O Russia, your timid thousand-year, slavish poverty. But this cross, but this ladle is white. . . Humble, native traits!

More examples of defaults in direct speech are from Chekhov's "Lady with a Dog". Anna Sergeevna's words: - (...) When I married him, I was twenty years old, I was tormented by curiosity, I wanted something better, because there is, I said to myself, another life. I wanted to live! Live and live… Curiosity burned me. . . Gurov's words: - But understand, Anna, understand. . .- he said in an undertone, in a hurry. - I beg you, understand. . .

Ellipsis in fiction acts as figure, with the help of which a special expressiveness is achieved. At the same time, the connection between the artistic ellipsis and colloquial turns is clearly preserved. Most often, the verb is omitted, which gives the text a special dynamism:

Let ... But chu! no time to walk! To the horses, brother, and step in the stirrup, Saber out - and I'll cut! Here is another Feast God gives us.

(D. Davydov)

In prose, the ellipsis is used mainly in direct speech and in narration on behalf of the narrator. A few examples from Lermontov's Bela: (...) A little gape, just look - either a lasso around the neck, or a bullet in the back of the head; Grigory Alexandrovich teased him so much that even into the water; Kazbich shuddered, his face changed - and towards the window; Well, yes, that's aside; Grigory Alexandrovich squealed no worse than any Chechen; a gun from a case, and there - I follow him.

Epiphora(Greek epiphora - repetition) - a figure opposite to anaphora is the repetition of a word or phrase at the end of a poetic line. Epiphora in Russian poetry is much less common than anaphora. Examples:

Steppes and roads The count is not over; Stones and thresholds No account found.(E. Bagritsky).

The main means of giving imagery to a word is its use in a figurative sense. The play of direct and figurative meaning generates both aesthetic and expressive effects of a literary text, makes this text figurative and expressive.

On the basis of the nominative (naming) function of the word and its connection with the subject in the process of cognition of reality, direct (basic, main, primary, initial) and figurative (derivative, secondary, indirect) meanings are distinguished.

In the derived meaning, the main, direct meaning and the new, indirect meaning, which appeared as a result of the transfer of the name from one object to another, are combined, coexist. If the word in direct meaning directly (directly) indicates a particular object, action, property, etc., naming them, then the words in portable meaning, the object is no longer called directly, but through certain comparisons and associations that arise in the minds of native speakers.

AIR– 1) ‘adj. to air (air jet)’;

2) ‘light, weightless ( airy dress)’.

The appearance of figurative meanings in a word makes it possible to save the lexical means of the language without endlessly expanding the vocabulary to designate new phenomena, concepts. If there are some common features between two objects, the name from one, already known, is transferred to another object, newly created, invented or known, which did not have a name before:

DIM- 1) ‘opaque, cloudy ( dull glass)’;

2) ‘matte, not shiny ( dull polish, dull hair)’;

3) ‘weak, not bright ( dim light, dim color)’;

4) ‘lifeless, inexpressive ( dull look, dull style)’.

D.N. Shmelev believes that the direct, basic meaning is one that is not determined by the context (the most paradigmatically conditioned and the least syntagmatically conditioned):

ROAD– 1) ‘way of communication, a strip of land intended for movement’;

2) ‘journey, trip’;

3) ‘route’;

4) ‘means of achieving some sl. goals'.

All secondary, figurative meanings depend on the context, on compatibility with other words: to pack(‘trip’), direct road to success, road to Moscow.

Historically, the relationship between direct, primary and figurative, secondary meaning may change. So, in the modern Russian language, the primary meanings for the words devour(‘eat, eat’), dense('dormant'), vale('valley'). Word thirst in our time, it has the main direct meaning ‘need to drink’ and figurative ‘strong, passionate desire’, but Old Russian texts indicate the primacy of the second, more abstract meaning, since the adjective is often used next to it water.

Value transfer paths

The transfer of meanings can be carried out in two main ways: metaphorical and metonymic.

Metaphor- this is the transfer of names according to the similarity of signs, concepts (metaphor - unexpressed comparison): pin stars; what crest won't you comb your head?

Signs of metaphorical transfer:

1. by color similarity gold leaves);
2. similarity of form ( ring boulevards);
3. by the similarity of the location of the object ( nose boats, sleeve rivers);
4. by similarity of actions ( rain drumming, wrinkles furrow face);
5. by the similarity of sensations, emotional associations ( gold character, velvet voice);
6. by similarity of functions ( electric candle in the lamp turn off/ignite light, wipers in car).

This classification is rather conditional. Proof - transfer on several grounds: leg chair(form, place); ladle excavator(function, form).

There are other classifications as well. For example, prof. Galina Al-dr. Cherkasova considers metaphorical transfer in connection with the category of animateness / inanimateness:

1. the action of an inanimate object is transferred to another inanimate object ( fireplace– ‘room stove’ and ‘electric heater’; wing- ‘birds’, ‘aircraft blade, mills’, ‘side extension’);
2. animate - also on an animate object, but of a different group ( bear, snake);
3. inanimate - to animate ( she is blossomed );
4. animate to inanimate ( escort- 'patrol ship').

The main tendencies of metaphorical transfer: figurative meanings appear in words that are socially significant at a given time. During the Great Patriotic War, everyday words were used as metaphors to define military concepts: comb through forest, get into boiler . Subsequently, on the contrary, military terms were transferred to other concepts: front works, take on armament . Sports vocabulary gives a lot of figurative meanings: finish, start, move. With the development of astronautics, metaphors appeared high point, space velocity, dock. Currently, a large number of metaphors are associated with the computer sphere: mouse, archive, maternal pay etc.

There are models of metaphorical transfer in the language: certain groups of words form certain metaphors.

• professional characteristics of a person artist, craftsman, philosopher, shoemaker, clown, chemist);
• disease-related names ulcer, plague, cholera, delirium);
• names of natural phenomena when they are transferred to human life ( Spring life, hail tears);
• names of household items rag, mattress etc.);
• transferring the names of animal actions to humans ( bark, mumble).

Metonymy(Greek ‘renaming’) is such a name transfer, which is based on the adjacency of the features of two or more concepts: paper– ‘document’.

Types of metonymic transfer:

1. transfer by spatial adjacency ( audience- 'people', Class– ‘children’): (a) transferring the name of the containing to the content ( all village came out city worried, all embankment ate plate, read Pushkin ); (b) the name of the material from which the object is made is transferred to the object ( To go to silks, in gold; in scarlet and gold dressed forests; dancing gold );
2. adjacency transfer about d – transfer of the name of the action to the result ( dictation, essay, cookies, jam, embroidery);
3. synecdoche(a) transferring the name of a part of the whole to the whole ( hundred goals livestock; behind him eye Yes eye needed; he is seven mouths feeds; he is mine right hand; a heart heart the message) - often found in proverbs; (b) whole to part ( jasmine– ‘bush’ and ‘flowers’; plum- 'tree' and 'fruit'.

This classification does not cover the whole variety of metonymic transfers that exist in the language.

Sometimes when transferring, grammatical features of the word are used, for example, plural. number: workers arms, rest on south, To go to silks . It is believed that the basis of metonymic transfer is nouns.

In addition to common language portable values, in the language of fiction there are also figurative use words that are characteristic of the work of a particular writer and are one of the means of artistic representation. For example, in L. Tolstoy: fair and Kind sky("War and Peace"); at A.P. Chekhov: crumbly ("The Last Mohican") cozy lady(“From the Memoirs of an Idealist”), faded aunties("Hopeless"); in the works of K.G. Paustovsky: shy sky("Mikhailovskaya grove"), sleepy dawn("The Third Date") molten noon("The Romantics") sleepy day("Marine habit"), white-blooded bulb("The Book of Wanderings"); V. Nabokov: overcast tense day("Protection of Luzhin"), etc.

Like metaphor, metonymy can be individual-author's - contextual, i.e. conditioned by the contextual use of the word, it does not exist outside the given context: "You're so stupid, brother!" - said reproachfully handset (E. Meek); redheads trousers sigh and think(A.P. Chekhov); Short fur coats, sheepskin coats crowded...(M. Sholokhov).

Such figurative meanings, as a rule, are not reflected in dictionary interpretations. Dictionaries reflect only regular, productive, generally accepted transfers fixed by language practice, which continue to arise, playing a large role in enriching the vocabulary of the language.

With ambiguity, one of the meanings of the word is direct, and all the rest are figurative. The direct meaning of a word is its main lexical meaning. It is directly directed to the subject (immediately causes an idea of ​​the subject, phenomenon) and is least dependent on the context.

Words, denoting objects, actions, signs, quantity, most often appear in their direct meaning. The figurative meaning of a word is its secondary meaning, which arose on the basis of the direct one. For example: Toy, -i, f. 1. A thing that serves for the game. Kids toys. 2. trans. One who blindly acts according to someone else's will, an obedient instrument of someone else's will (disapproved). To be a toy in someone's hands. The essence of polysemy lies in the fact that some name of an object, phenomenon passes, is also transferred to another object, another phenomenon, and then one word is used as the name of several objects, phenomena at the same time. Depending on the basis of which sign the name is transferred, there are three main types of figurative meaning: 1) metaphor; 2) metonymy; 3) synecdoche. A metaphor (from the Greek metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name by similarity, for example: a ripe apple is an eyeball (in shape); the nose of a person is the bow of a ship (according to location); chocolate bar - chocolate tan (by color); bird wing - aircraft wing (by function); the dog howled - the wind howled (according to the nature of the sound), etc. Metonymy (then Greek metonymia - renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their adjacency *, for example: water boils - a kettle boils; a porcelain dish is a tasty dish; native gold - Scythian gold, etc. A variety of metonymy is synecdoche. Synecdoche (from the Greek "synekdoche - connotation) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part and vice versa, for example: thick currant - ripe currant; a beautiful mouth is an extra mouth (about an extra person in the family); a big head - a smart head, etc. In the process of developing figurative names, a word can be enriched with new meanings as a result of narrowing or expanding the main meaning. Over time, figurative meanings can become direct. In explanatory dictionaries, the direct meaning of the word is given first, and the figurative meanings are numbered 2, 3, 4, 5. The meaning recorded as a figurative recently is marked "trans".

Direct and figurative meaning of the word

Each word has a basic lexical meaning.

For example, desk- this is a school table, green- color of grass or foliage, there is- it means to eat.

The meaning of the word is called direct if the sound of a word accurately indicates an object, action or sign.

Sometimes the sound of one word is transferred to another object, action or feature based on similarity. The word has a new lexical meaning, which is called portable .

Consider examples of direct and figurative meanings of words. If a person says a word sea, he and his interlocutors have an image of a large body of water with salt water.

Rice. 1. Black Sea ()

This is the direct meaning of the word sea. And in combinations sea ​​of ​​lights, sea of ​​people, sea of ​​books we see the figurative meaning of the word sea, which means a lot of something or someone.

Rice. 2. City lights ()

Gold coins, earrings, goblet are items made of gold.

This is the direct meaning of the word gold. The phrases have a figurative meaning: goldenhair- hair with a brilliant yellow tint, skillful fingers- so they say about the ability to do something well, goldena heart- so they say about a person who does good.

Word heavy has a direct meaning - to have a significant mass. For example, heavy load, box, briefcase.

Rice. 6. Heavy load ()

The following phrases have a figurative meaning: heavy task- complex, which is not easy to solve; hard day- a hard day that requires effort; hard look- gloomy, severe.

girl jumping and temperature fluctuates.

In the first case - direct value, in the second - figurative (rapid change in temperature).

boy running- direct meaning. Time is running out- portable.

Frost bound the river- figurative meaning - means that the water in the river is frozen.

Rice. 11. River in winter ()

House wall- direct meaning. Heavy rain is: rain wall. This is a portable meaning.

Read the poem:

What is that wonder?

The sun is shining, the rain is falling

By the river is big beautiful

The rainbow bridge rises.

If the sun shines bright

The rain is pouring mischievously,

So this rain, children,

called mushroom!

Mushroom rain- figurative meaning.

As we already know, words with multiple meanings are polysemantic.

A figurative meaning is one of the meanings of a polysemantic word.

It is possible to determine in what meaning a word is used only from the context, i.e. in a sentence. For example:

Candles were burning on the table. direct meaning.

His eyes burned with happiness. Figurative meaning.

You can turn to the explanatory dictionary for help. The first is always given the direct meaning of the word, and then the figurative.

Consider an example.

Cold -

1. having a low temperature. Wash hands with cold water. A cold wind was blowing from the north.

2. Translated. About clothes. Cold coat.

3. Translated. About color. Cold shades of the picture.

4. Translated. About emotions. Cold look. Cold meeting.

Consolidation of knowledge in practice

Let's determine which of the highlighted words are used in a direct and which in a figurative sense.

At the table, the mother said:

- Enough chatting.

And son carefully:

- BUT dangle your feet can?

Rice. 16. Mom and son ()

Let's check: babble- figurative meaning; dangle your feet- direct.

Flocks of birds fly away

Away, beyond the blue sea,

All the trees are shining

in multicolored attire.

Rice. 17. Birds in autumn ()

Let's check: blue ocean- direct meaning; multi-colored tree decoration- portable.

The breeze asked as it flew by:

- Why are you rye, golden?

And in response, the spikelets rustle:

- Golden us arms are growing.

Let's check: golden rye- figurative meaning; golden hands- figurative meaning.

Let's write down the phrases and determine whether they are used in a direct or figurative sense.

Clean hands, an iron nail, a heavy suitcase, a wolf's appetite, a heavy character, Olympian calmness, an iron hand, a golden ring, a golden man, a wolf's skin.

Let's check: clean hands- direct, iron nail- direct, heavy bag- direct, wolfish appetite- portable, heavy character- portable, Olympian calm- portable, iron hand- portable, gold ring- direct, Golden man- portable, wolf skin- direct.

Let's make phrases, write down phrases in a figurative sense.

Evil (frost, wolf), black (paints, thoughts), runs (athlete, stream), hat (mother's, snow), tail (foxes, trains), hit (frost, with a hammer), drums (rain, musician).

Let's check: an evil frost, black thoughts, a stream runs, a cap of snow, a tail of a train, frost hit, rain drums.

In this lesson, we learned that words have a direct and figurative meaning. The figurative meaning makes our speech figurative, vivid. Therefore, writers and poets are very fond of using figurative meaning in their works.

In the next lesson, we will learn what part of the word is called the root, learn how to highlight it in the word, talk about the meaning and functions of this part of the word.

1. Klimanova L.F., Babushkina T.V. Russian language. 2. - M.: Enlightenment, 2012 (http://www.twirpx.com/file/1153023/)
2. Buneev R.N., Buneeva E.V., Pronina O.V. Russian language. 2. - M.: Balass.
3. Ramzaeva T.G. Russian language. 2. - M.: Bustard.

1. Openclass.ru ().
2. Festival of pedagogical ideas "Open Lesson" ().
3. sch15-apatity.ucoz.ru ().

• Klimanova L.F., Babushkina T.V. Russian language. 2. - M.: Enlightenment, 2012. Part 2. Do ex. 28 p. 21.
• Choose the correct answer to the following questions:

1. The vocabulary of the language is studied by science:

A) phonetics

B) syntax

C) lexicology

2. The word is used in a figurative sense in both phrases:

A) stone heart, build a bridge

B) the heat of the sun, stone edition

C) golden words, make plans

3. In which row are the words polysemantic:

A) star, artificial, stone

B) single, blinds, jockey

C) rocky, caftan, composer

• * Using the knowledge gained in the lesson, come up with 4-6 sentences with words field and to give, where these words are used in direct and figurative meanings.

Synopsis of the Russian language lesson in grade 6

(teacher: Nesvat L.N., teacher of Russian language and literature, MKOU OOSH s.

Ershovka, Vyatskopolyansky district, Kirov region)

TOPIC OF THE LESSON:

Direct and figurative meaning of words.

Goals: 1)

To acquaint students with the direct and figurative lexical meaning of the word

2)

To form the ability to find words with a figurative meaning in the text,

4)

Develop spelling and punctuation skills.

During the classes:

Motivation.

1) Teacher's word:

Friends, before announcing the topic of today's lesson, I want to ask you a question,

associated with literature, do you know who Ilya Muromets is?

(National hero, hero of many epics)

In one of the epics about Ilya Muromets there are these words: “The word is like an apple: from one

green on the side, ruddy on the other, you know how to turn it, girl .. "

Think about the meaning of this sentence: The word, when viewed from different angles,

Other - “green on one side”, “ruddy on the other”. And most importantly: "You know how, girl

turn over”, i.e. know how to master the word, since a word can have more than one meaning

It turns out that a word, in addition to its direct meaning, can also have another,

portable. Here is the topic of the lesson: "Direct and figurative meaning of the word"

(notebook entry).

2) Board writing:

iron nails, iron health.

Teacher's explanation: In the phrase iron nails, the adjective means

What is the meaning of the word green? (Unripe,

unripe)

11)

Information on the use of words with a figurative meaning in artistic

works. (Information from the textbook).

Vocabulary work: personification, metaphor

13) Run exercise 339

Teacher:

Words with a figurative meaning make bright, expressive not only

poetic speech, but also prose.

15) Let's turn to exercise 342.

a) Reading the text.

b) Determining the style of speech, type of speech.

c) Definition of the title of the text.

d) Dictionary work: azure, coral, sapphire.

16) Writing text, spelling explanation.

: I hope you can determine the direct and figurative meaning of the word. A

when you were very young, you probably didn’t understand a lot. Famous

children's writer K.I. Chukovsky recorded several sayings of kids who did not know

Reading by roles of the following statements and explanation of the words used in

figurative meaning:

I will not go to school, - said the fifth grader Seryozha. - There on exams

cut.

b) - Here snow will fall in winter, frost will hit

-And then I won't go outside.

- Why?

- And so that the frosts do not hit me.

in) The boy is asked about his sister

- What does your sister Irinka go to bed with the roosters?

She does not lie down with roosters - they peck: she lies alone in her bed.

Mom washed the shirt and asked Petya to hang it up to dry in the sun.

Petya left, but soon returned with a shirt.

Why didn't you hang it up to dry?

- I do not got to the sun, - answered Petya.

19)

Teacher:

Children, you have heard funny stories. No less cheerful, I think

it will seem to you ex. 340.

20) Exercise: In each pair of sentences, indicate the words used in direct

figurative meaning.

The wind in the chimney howls and whistles. The dog howls.

The tired day turned to night. The tired boy bowed his head to

mother's shoulder.

Dad came home from work. The long-awaited day of departure has finally arrived.

The hostess warmed up the water. A cheerful song warmed us on the way.

21) Let's summarize the lesson.

a) How is a figurative meaning different from a direct one?

b) Why are words with a figurative meaning used in speech?

) Homework:

Theoretical information on pages 132-133, exercise 338