Vadim Mikhailovich Masson (May 3, 1929 - February 19, 2010) - Soviet and Russian archaeologist, doctor of historical sciences, professor, head of the Institute of the History of Material Culture of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1982-1998).
Specialist in the archeology of Central Asia (Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan), the Middle and Near East of the Neolithic, Eneolithic, Bronze, Early Iron Age and Antique period.
In 1950 he graduated from the archaeological department of the historical faculty of the Central Asian State University with a degree in Central Asian archeology. The head of the department of Central Asian archeology at that time was his father, academician Mikhail Evgenievich Masson.
In 1954, he defended his Ph.D. thesis at the Leningrad Institute of the History of Material Culture of the USSR Academy of Sciences (IIMK) “Ancient culture of Dakhistan. (Historical and archaeological essays). After defending his dissertation, he was hired in the sector of Central Asia and the Caucasus of the IIMC.
In 1962 he defended his doctoral dissertation "The most ancient past of Central Asia (from the emergence of agriculture to the campaign of Alexander the Great)".
In 1968 he was appointed head of the sector of Central Asia and the Caucasus of IIMC, in 1982 - head of IIMC and chairman of the Academic Council.
Member of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences, the Academy of Sciences of Turkmenistan, corresponding member of the German Archaeological Institute (Germany), Institute of the Middle and Far East (Italy), honorary member of the Royal Society of Antiquities (Great Britain), member of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Literature. Cultural Advisor to the President of Turkmenistan, Chairman of the Scientific Council of the International Institute of Cultural Heritage of the Peoples of Turkmenistan, laureate of the Magtymguly Prize (Turkmenistan). In April 1999, he was awarded the Sharaf Order by the Government of the Republic of Tajikistan.
Books (5)
Karakum: Dawn of Civilization
Eight thousand years ago, on the outskirts of the Karakum desert, the first light of civilization dawned - settlements of settled farmers appeared.
In ancient times, the cheerful art of Greece and Eastern traditions met on the territory of Central Asia, illuminating the cultures of Bactria and Parthians with the brilliance of Hellenism. The civilization of the Central Asian peoples left to their descendants the manuscripts of great scientists and poets, the exquisite monuments of Samarkand and Bukhara.
In a book written by the doctor of historical science V.M. Masson and the candidate of historical science V. I. Sarianidi, tells about the events that took place in Central Asia over several centuries. Peru of these well-known specialists in history and archeology owns such books as "Central Asia and the Ancient East" (V.M. Masson. M.-L., 1964), "The Land of a Thousand Cities" (V.M. Masson. M. , 1966), "Secrets of the Disappeared Art of the Karakum" (V.I. Sarianidi. M., 1967), "Behind the dunes - the past" (V.I. Sarianidi, G.A. Koshelenko. M., 1966).
Cultural genesis of Ancient Central Asia.
// St. Petersburg: Philol. Faculty of St. Petersburg State University; Publishing House of St. Petersburg State University. 2006. 384 p. (Asian)
ISBN 5-8465-0104-4 (Philology Faculty of St. Petersburg State University) ISBN 5-288-04092-3 (Publishing House of St. Petersburg State University)
Introduction.
Petersburg School of Central Asian Archeology.
Historical geography of Central Asia. Archaeological materials and cultural reconstructions. The contribution of scientists from St. Petersburg - Leningrad to the formation of Central Asian archeology as a scientific discipline. - 3
Chapter 1.
Paleolithic and Neolithic: the origins of cultural genesis.
Monuments of the Lower Paleolithic. Bifaces and choppers - western and eastern connections. Mesolithic - the beginning of the wide development of deserts and semi-deserts. Neolithic era - the formation of two cultural and economic zones, settled farmers and pastoralists of the south (Jeytun) and hunters, fishermen and gatherers of the north (Kelteminar). - nineteen
Chapter 2
Early agricultural societies and their culture.
Neolithic revolution and a qualitatively new era in the development of culture and society. Three periods of development of early agricultural societies in the southwest of Central Asia. The addition of large centers (Namazga-depe, Altyn-depe). The flourishing of artistic culture during the Late Eneolithic and the intensification of interregional ties (Kara-depe, Geoksyur 1). - 42
Chapter 3
Ancient civilizations of the Bronze Age: the foundation of subsequent evolution.
The development of southern communities along the Mesopotamian path. Formation of proto-urban centers and urban lifestyle. Standardization of material culture. Organizational and managerial path of politogenesis: temple towns. Connections with the great civilizations of Hindustan and Mesopotamia. Relocation of centers of intensive development to the Murgab valley (Margiana) and to the Middle Amu Darya (Bactria). Temple complexes and the question of the priestly oligarchy. The first farmers and pastoralists in the Lower Zeravshan (Zaman-baba). - 61
Chapter 4
Monuments of steppe bronze cultures: cultural genesis in the situation of interaction of two cultural worlds.
Formation in the steppe zone of Eurasia of societies with an elite of armed charioteers. The advancement of these societies to the south in the Tien Shan (Arpa), to the lower reaches of the Amu Darya (Tazabagyab) and to the Zeravshan valley (Zardchakhalifa, Dashti-Kozy). The formation of syncretic cultures and complexes in Western Tajikistan (Vakhsh culture). Interaction with settled oases and the inclusion of steppe dwellers in the urban population of southern civilizations. - 86
Chapter 5
The Early Iron Age: A Cultural Transformation. Median and Achaemenid times.
The crisis of the southern civilizations of the Bronze Age and the difference in the process of cultural genesis. Complexes of the Yaz I type and the dominant of the military-aristocratic path of politogenesis. Counter assimilation in the traditional centers of the urban cultures of the south. The second cycle of urbanization and the formation of new standards of material culture. Cultural transformation of the settling steppe dwellers and the impact of southern standards and standards in Ancient Sogd. The formation of the urban culture of Ancient Khorezm. - 100
Chapter 6
Monuments and culture of Parthia and Margiana.
Old Nisa is the residence of the Elder Arshakids and the Hellenistic components of the cultural complex of the Parthian elite. Fortified estates of the rural nobility in Northern Parthia. Zoroastrianism in the mass folk tradition. Merv is an urban supercenter of the Ancient East. Margian-Bactrian cultural ties. Monuments of nomads in Northern Parthia. - 131
Chapter 7
Monuments and culture of Ancient Bactria.
Greco-Bactrian outpost of the Hellenized culture. Penetration of the Yuezhi, the beginning of the pre-Kushan cultural synthesis. Hellenistic impulses in popular culture. Kushan state as an urban civilization. The spread of Buddhism as one of the reflections of progress in the intellectual sphere. Urban decline and cultural stagnation followed by disintegration. - 149
Chapter 8
Monuments and culture of Ancient Sogd.
The function of the shelters of the most ancient fortified centers (Afrasiab, Yor-Kurgan). Hellenistic impulses in ceramic complexes. Infiltration of nomadic groups and their entry into the urban environment. Penetration of cultural standards of the Zasyrdarya culture of Kaunchi. - 171
Chapter 9
Monuments and culture of Ancient Khorezm.
The originality of culture III-I centuries. BC. and the desire to follow the Oriental heritage. Weakness of Hellenistic influences and connections with the nomadic world. Khorezmian standards of urban culture and the Toprak-kala palace complex. The beginning of cultural degradation in the IV-V centuries. AD - 182
Chapter 10
Ferghana and regions of the Middle Syrdarya: on the periphery of urban civilizations.
The dual nature of the cultural complexes of Ancient Fergana. The impact of the standards of urban cultures of the south and the traditions of the settled nomads. Kaunchi complexes in the Middle Syr Darya as a reflection of such processes. Intensive development of Kaunchi culture standards in settled oases. Promotion of carriers of Kaunchin complexes in a southerly direction. - 195
Chapter 11
Monuments and cultures of early nomads: the second cycle of interaction between two cultural worlds.
The transition to nomadism is, in terms of social and cultural consequences, an analogue of the urban revolution in the settled areas of the south. Nomadic empire as the highest form of politogenesis in a nomadic environment. Saka regional type of culture of early nomads. Monuments of the Saka circle in the Semirechye, the Aral Sea region, the Tien Shan and the Pamirs. Monuments of the Kenkol type and East Asian connections of the nomadic world of Central Asia. Promotion of nomadic groups to Sogd and Bactria and adaptation of material culture to the standards of urban lifestyle. - 210
Chapter 12
Monuments of the early medieval era and the Sogdian civilization.
Signs of stagnation and decline in the culture of Bactria and Khorezm. Spread of castle architecture. Kaunchinsky complex in Ancient Sogd and the formation of the Sogdian civilization of the early medieval era as the highest achievement of pre-Arab Central Asia. Artistic and intellectual wealth of urban culture. Penjikent is a reference monument of the Sogdian civilization. - 233
Chapter 13
Reflection of politogenesis and cultural genesis in the coin types of pre-Arab Central Asia.
Monarchical beginnings in monetary symbolism. Royal coinage of Parthia. Coinage and cultural assimilation in pre-Kushan Bactria. Imperial coinage of the Great Kushans. Monetary business of Khorezm and political self-assertion. Coinage of Ancient Sogd and political mosaicism. The role of local writing. Complete elimination of Hellenistic traditions by the era of the early Middle Ages. - 258
Chapter 14
Cultural standards of urban integration in the era of the developed Middle Ages.
The development of urban life in the pre-Mongolian period. Formation of new urban centers in Chach and Semirechye. Change of ideological guidelines in some areas of the urban lifestyle in connection with the establishment of the religious monopoly of Islam. The architectural appearance of large urban centers with a focus on religious architecture as a reflection of the integration processes in the Muslim East. Cultural upsurge in the Timurid era and the beginning of cultural stagnation. - 279
Conclusion.
Processes of cultural genesis and cultural heritage.
Types of cultural development. Spontaneous and stimulated transformation. cultural integration. Epochal, regional and local types of cultures. Rhythms of cultural genesis. Cultural heritage is the most important component in the study of the history of the people. - 292
Tables [ 1-38 ]. - 303
Literature. - 343
Abbreviations. - 352
Index of names of monuments and cultures. - 353
Appendix.
Outstanding scientists of St. Petersburg and the study of ancient cultures and civilizations of Central Asia and the Caucasus. - 360
AB - Archaeological news. SPb.
VDI - Bulletin of ancient history. M.
VORAO - Eastern Branch of the Russian Archaeological Society
GAIMK - State Academy of the History of Material Culture
GPB - State Public Library. L.
ZVORAO - Notes of the Eastern Branch of the Russian Archaeological Society. SPb.
IIAE - Institute of History, Archeology and Ethnography
IIMK - Institute of the History of Material Culture of the USSR Academy of Sciences (later Russian Academy of Sciences)
IMCU - History of material culture of Uzbekistan. Tashkent; Samarkand
- Added by user UlissSPB 16.10.2012 15:25
- Edited on 10/18/2012 19:45
New series. T.I (XXVI). St. Petersburg: Petersburg Oriental Studies, 2002. - 549 p.
ISBN 5-85803-235-9.
This volume is a continuation of the most authoritative fall of domestic oriental studies, the last volume of which, under the number XXV, was published back in 1921. study of the antiquities of the East, including archeology, history, numismatics, philology, epigraphy and sphragistics, as well as cultural heritage.
Articles and notes.
O.F. Akimushkin (St. Petersburg). "Hasanat al-Abrar" by Sheikh Muhammad-Murad Kashmiri is a rare hagiography of the late 17th century. Sheikhs of the Nakshbandiyya Mujaddidiya brotherhood.
N. Almeeva (St. Petersburg). "Cultural Layers" of Traditional Musical Consciousness (Islamic-Christian Borderlands in the Middle Volga Region and Tatar Song Folklore).
A.A. Ambartsumyan (St. Petersburg). The ethnonym "khyaona" in the Avesta.
Yu.A. Vinogradov (St. Petersburg). Saltovo-Mayatsky complexes of the Artyushchenko I settlement on the Taman Peninsula.
T. I. Vinogradova (St. Petersburg). Inscriptions and texts of Chinese Nianhua folk paintings.
[Yu.A. Zadneprovsky] (St. Petersburg). Controversial issues.
study of red-engobed ceramics of Fergana.
N.V. Ivochkina (St. Petersburg). Chinese copper coin as a model of the world.
J.Ya.Ilyasov, R.Imamberdiev (Tashkent, Uzbekistan). New Arabic inscriptions on the glazed pottery of Binket.
N.V. Kozyreva (St. Petersburg). Old Babylonian seals with the name of the god Amurru from the collection of the State Hermitage.
A.I. Kolesnikov (St. Petersburg). The study of Central Iranian numismatics in the XIX century.
[B. D. Kochnev] (Samarkand, Uzbekistan). Who was the winner of Buka-Budrach: from the history of the Karakhanids.
B.A. Litvinsky (Moscow). Bactrians on the hunt.
A.K. Nefedkin (St. Petersburg). Defense and siege among the reindeer Chukchi (second half of the 17th-18th centuries).
V.P.Nikonorov (St. Petersburg). Military affairs of the European Huns in the light of data from the Greco-Latin written tradition.
I.V. Pyankov (Veliky Novgorod). Galisons - Khalibs - Moskhi (On the issue of the Circumpontic caste of metallurgists at the end of the 2nd-1st millennium BC).
E.V.Rtveladze (Tashkent, Uzbekistan). On the periodization of the history of monetary circulation in the Central Asian Mesopotamia in antiquity.
N.F. Savvonidi (St. Petersburg). On the question of the spread of the ideas of Christianity in the Northern Black Sea region in Roman times.
B. Sveitoslavsky (Lodz, Poland). Combat gases in the military affairs of the Tatar-Mongols.
A. I. Torgoev (Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan). Rare bronze jug from the Chui valley.
S.A. Frantzuzov (St. Petersburg). Significance of the Materials of the Soviet-Yemen Complex Expedition (SOYKE) for the Study of South Arabia (Epigraphic Aspect).
N.A.Khan (Kirov). Scientometric measurement of the personnel potential of the archeology of Central Asia in the Soviet period.
Yu.S. Khudyakov (Novosibirsk). Archaeological collections in the museums of Northern China (According to the materials of the UNESCO Silk Road Expedition).
P.V.Shuvalov (St. Petersburg). Enemies of the Empire (according to the treatise of Pseudo-Mauritius).
A.Ya.Shchetenko (St. Petersburg). Cultural heritage of ancient Indian civilization (according to archeology).
Prominent domestic orientalists.
N.E. Vasilyeva (St. Petersburg). Victor Romanovich Rosen is the founder of the Russian school of oriental studies.
N.A. Lazarevskaya (St. Petersburg). Researcher of Central Asia Nikolai Ivanovich Veselovsky (based on the materials of the photo archive of the IIMK RAS).
B.M.Masson (St. Petersburg). Iosif Abgarovich Orbeli and.
archaeological science.
V.A.Yakobson (St. Petersburg). Igor Mikhailovich Dyakonov is a historian.
Scientific life.
D. Abdulloev (St. Petersburg). International conference dedicated to the 1100th anniversary of the formation of the Samanid state.
V.M.Masson, V.P.Nikonorov (St. Petersburg). International Conference "Cultural Heritage of the East".
Scientific space of the CIS.
A. Ashirov (Ashgabat, Turkmenistan). National Institute of Manuscripts of Turkmenistan named after. Turkmenbashi.
G.Ismashzade (Baku, Azerbaijan). Khazar University is a new higher educational institution in Azerbaijan.
personalia.
L.M. Vseviov, V.P. Nikonorov (St. Petersburg). In memory of Tatyana Nikolaevna Zadneprovskaya (1926-2001).
New books (reviews and annotations).
K.M. Baipakov (Almaty, Kazakhstan). New books on the archeology of Kazakhstan.
Yu.G.Kutimov (St. Petersburg). Series "Osh-3000 and cultural heritage of the peoples of Kyrgyzstan".
V.M.Masson (St. Petersburg). Rec. on the book: Prospections archeologiques en Bactriane Orientale. Vol. 2: Lyonnet B. Ceramique peuplent du chalcholithque a la conquete arabe. Paris, 1997; Vol. 3: Gardin J.-C. Description des sites et notes de syntheses. Paris, 1998.
V.A. Meshkeris (St. Petersburg). Eastern musical archeology in the German two-volume edition "Studien zur Musikarchaologie".
B.Ya.Stavisky (Moscow). New books about ancient Central Asia.
A.Ya.Shchetenko (St. Petersburg). Rec. on the book: Soviet archaeological literature: Bibliographic index. 1985- 1987 / Compiled by: R.Sh. Levina, L.M. Vseviov. SPb. 1999 539.
List of abbreviations.
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n1.doc
USSR ACADEMY OF SCIENCES INSTITUTE OF ARCHEOLOGY Leningrad BranchV.M.Masson
FIRST CIVILIZATIONS
LENINGRAD
LENINGRAD BRANCH
The book is dedicated to the ancient civilizations of the Old and New Worlds and is based on the results of new archaeological research in the Middle East, Central Asia, India and China. The formation of the first civilizations is regarded as a qualitative milestone in the cultural development of mankind, associated with the era of the formation of a class society and state. Particular attention is paid to the original layer of early agricultural cultures, on the basis of which the development of socio-cultural complexes of civilizations took place. Along with the characterization of the general patterns of historical development, individual ancient civilizations are considered as (specific phenomena with their inherent features of local specificity. The publication is intended for archaeologists and historians.
Managing editor I. N. Khlopin
Reviewers: V.I. KUZISCHIN, K. X. KUSHNAREVA
© Nauka Publishing House, 1989
ISBN 5-02-02724344
INTRODUCTION . 4
PART ONE. FIRST CIVILIZATIONS AND WORLD HISTORY .. 5
.. 6
Chapter 2 .. 10
Rice. 1. Types of cultures of the ancient era in Central Asia and the Middle East. 12
Rice. 2. The procedure of scientific analysis in archeology. 13
Rice. 3. Formation of innovations in the process of cultural genesis. 18
Rice. 4. The addition of a new type of traditional elements in an unconventional combination. On the example of materials from Southern Turkmenistan of the Eneolithic and Bronze Ages. 19
Rice. 5. Cultural traditions on the example of the seals of the Bronze Age of Margiana. 20
Table 1. Traditions and innovations in the Anau complexIA.. 21
Figure 6. Types of cultural transformation in Central Asia in antiquity. 22
Chapter 3. EARLY AGRICULTURAL AGE - THE ORIGINS OF CIVILIZATION .. 28
Rice. 7. Chatal Huyuk complex. 31
A rock. 31
painting. 33
Bone. 33
Ceramics. 33
figurines. 33
Sanctuary. 34
Wood. 34
Rice. 8. Complex Jarmo. 36
Terracotta. 36
Bone. 36
Flint. 37
A rock. 37
Ceramics. 38
House.. 38
Rice. 9. Jeytun complex. 40
Table 2. Economic types in the Ancient East inX- VIthousand BC e. 42
Table 3. House-building canon in the Ancient East inVIII- VIthousand BC e. 47
Chapter 4. THE AGE OF THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS .. 49
Rice. 10. Southern Mesopotamia. Pictographic inscriptions. 50
Rice. 11. Uruk. White Temple. Reconstruction. 54
Rice. 12. Pampa Grande, Peru Pyramid of Huaca Fortales. 55
Rice. 13. Prisoners of war of the era of the first civilizations. 57
PART 2. ARCHAEOLOGICAL COMPLEXES OF THE AGE OF FORMATION OF THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS .. 61
Chapter 1. ANCIENT CULTURES OF MESOPOTAMIA .. 61
Rice. 14. Hassun complex. 63
Rice. 15. Complex Samarra. 67
Rice. 16. Tell es-Sawvan. Settlement plan. 68
Rice. 17. Khalaf complex, 73
Ceramics. 73
painting. 73
Decorations. 74
House.. 74
Terracotta. 75
Rice. 18. Ubeid complex. 78
Rice. 19. Complex Uruk. 81
Rice. 20. Uruk style cylinder seal. 83
Rice. 21. Plan of Uruk. 83
Rice. 22. Southern Mesopotamia. Stone head.IIIthousand BC e. 85
Rice. 23. Uruk. Stone vase. 86
Chapter 2. ANCIENT CULTURES OF THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN AND ASIA MINOR .. 89
Rice. 24. Amuk. complexesA- F. 91
Rice. 25. Gassul complex. 95
Rice. 26. Hadjilar complex. 99
Rice. 27. Troy II. Settlement plan. 102
Rice. 28. Aladzha Huyuk. Complex of rich tombs. 105
Rice. 29. Aladzha Huyuk. Wand head. Bronze. 107
Rice. 30. Aladzha Huyuk. Wand head. Bronze. 107
Chapter 3. ANCIENT CULTURES OF IRAN .. 108
Rice. 31. Complex SialkI. 111
Ceramics. 111
A rock. 112
Flint. 112
Copper. 112
Clay. 113
Bone. 113
Rice. 32. Complex SialkIII. 115
Ceramics. 115
Metal. 116
Prints. 117
Rice. 33. Susa. 121
Impressions of cylinder seals. 121
Rice. 34. Gissar ComplexIII. 125
Chapter 4. ANCIENT CULTURES OF CENTRAL ASIA .. 133
Rice. 35. Ilgynly-depe. Statuette. 137
Rice. 36. Altyn-depe. Late Neolithic complex. EndIV-StartIIIthousand BC e. 140
Rice. 37. Altyn-depe. Complex of the Early Bronze Age (NamazgaIV). 147
Rice. 38. Altyn-depe. Complex of the developed Bronze Age (NamazgaV). 149
Rice. 39. Altyn-depe. Settlement plan.Numbers - excavation numbers. 151
Rice. 40. Altyn-depe. Prints. Silver, bronze(1-9). 153
Rice. 41. Altyn-depe. Female figurine. Terracotta. 154
Rice. 42. Altyn-depe. Cultural complex. Plan and reconstruction. 159
Rice. 43. Altyn-depe. bull head(1) and wolf(2). Gold. 160
Rice. 44. Northern Afghanistan. The figure of a seated woman. A rock. 162
Rice. 45. Types of Bronze Age cultures in Central Asia and the Middle East. 164
Chapter 5. ANCIENT CULTURES OF HINDOSTAN .. 165
Rice. 46. Neolithic complex Mergar. 166
Rice. 47. Mergar. Painted vessel. 171
Rice. 48. Harappan complex. 175
Rice. 49. Mohenjo-daro. City block planning. 177
Rice. 50. Mohenjo-daro. Citadel plan. 179
Rice. 51. Mohenjo-daro. Vessel print(a, b). A rock. 183
Rice. 52. Mohenjo-daro. Male torso. A rock. 185
Rice. 53. Mohenjo-daro. Priest statue. A rock. 185
Chapter 6. ANCIENT CULTURES OF CHINA .. 190
Rice. 54. Yangshao complex. 192
Rice. 55. Zhengzhou. Town plan. 198
Rice. 56. Complex of Yin civilization. 203
Rice. 57. Shan-Yin. Elephant vessel. 205
Rice. 58. Anyang. hieroglyphic text. Turtle shell. 205
Chapter 7. ANCIENT CULTURES OF PERU AND MESOAMERICA .. 209
Rice. 59. Huaca Prieta complex. 212
Rice. 60. Urine. Anthropomorphic vessel. Ceramics. 217
Rice. 61. Urine. Warrior head. Cultural vessel. Ceramics. 217
Rice. 62. Urine. Cultural vessel. Ceramics. 218
Rice. 63. Urine. Vessel in the form of a corn deity. Ceramics. 218
Rice. 64. Mochika Civilization Complex. 219
Rice. 65. Olmek complex. 226
Rice. 66. Olmecs. Stone head. 229
CONCLUSION. 234
SUMMARY.. 235
LITERATURE .. 236
Foreign publications. 242
ABBREVIATION LIST.. 249
INTRODUCTION
Two circumstances are increasingly returning historical science to the sources of social progress, primarily to qualitative milestones in the history of society. The first is more and more new archaeological discoveries in conditions where the romantic knife and shovel are increasingly supported by a variety of methods of technical and natural sciences. As a result, new facets of the creation of human genius in the legacy of past generations are revealed, previously unknown cultures and entire civilizations are discovered. The second is the search for general patterns in the history of society as the most complex form of the movement of matter. At the same time, naturally, when groping for general trends, the starting point becomes extremely important, be it the first manifestations of urbanism that radically change the material and psychological orientation of human groups, or the first environmental stresses of an anthropogenic nature.
One of such important milestones of socio-economic, cultural and intellectual progress is the era of the first civilizations, naturally associated with the first state formations and societies of a complex social structure. For all the uniqueness of the individual, a number of general trends can be traced here, allowing us to speak of a special phenomenon - the type of the first civilizations as a diachronic phenomenon that stands at the origins of antagonistic socio-economic formations. This position determined the subject of the present book.
Among the difficulties that stand in the way of research, first of all, is the specific nature of the archaeological materials characterizing these distant times. Questions of historical reconstructions based on archeological data invariably excite the scientific world of the second half of the 20th century. Work in this regard is being carried out in different directions. In the past two decades, archaeologists in the United States have focused on the formulation of general sociocultural concepts that are more likely to be superimposed on the material than directly flowing from it, which is only slightly camouflaged by the use, sometimes somewhat hasty, of computing technology. 1 In the French school, hopes are pinned on a refined development of the conceptual grid, streamlining the relationship between the main categories of the conceptual apparatus (Gardin, 1983; Galley, 1986), although, as practical experience in applying this approach shows, we are also still at the very beginning of the path here. Meanwhile, the practice of archaeological science leads to the emergence of works that widely address the issues of historical reconstructions in various aspects and taking into account
1 See, for example, the reports of many American scientists at the 2nd Soviet-American Symposium in Samarkand in 1983 (DTSV). When exchanging views with American colleagues at a round table in Leningrad, V.S. Bochkarev noted that “American scientists pay great attention to putting forward ideas as such. In Soviet archaeological science, great importance is attached to the argumentation of put forward ideas” (Alekshin, Buryakov, 1986, p. 222 ).
Volume to varying degrees of proposals developed by different areas of theoretical archeology. Sufficiently effective are the sociological reconstructions that have become noticeably widespread in practice, including paleoeconomic and paleodemographic developments using both traditional systems of analysis and the hypothetical-deductive approach (Masson, 1976b; Renfrew, 1984). In the USSR, a culturological direction of interpretation of archaeological data has recently been developed, proceeding from the specifics of the very nature of archaeological materials, representing a selection of ancient cultural complexes that once existed (Masson, 1981a, 1985, 1987). The theoretical studies of Soviet and foreign culturologists here can be widely used as a methodological analogue.
This work is largely written from these positions, in which general outlines of specific archaeological materials are built on the basis of their cultural interpretation, starting with the characterization of the archaeological complexes themselves as stable combinations of cultural components, expressed in types of objects, to an analysis of the fate of socio-cultural complexes of bygone eras. At the same time, it is precisely archaeological materials that make it possible to realistically reproduce, in a certain approximation, the diversity of a concrete historical process. The recurring stereotype of reproaches directed at Soviet historical science, including archeology, usually contains accusations of deterministic fatalism or straight-line evolutionism. 2 This outdated arsenal can hardly be justified by the language barrier, which cannot be a serious scientific argument. The concrete historical approach, developed by Soviet historical science at the present stage, implies an organic study of the dialectical unity of the general and the special, general laws-trends and the diversity of their specific form manifestations, the complexity of the real destinies of individual peoples and civilizations with backward movements, decline and disintegration while ascending the spiral world progress. Using concrete materials, the author tried to demonstrate these phenomena in this book as well. With a significant concentration of material on the chosen topic, this work is by no means a compendium-reference book on all civilizations of the Old and New Worlds. The original path of development of the ancient Egyptian civilization was left aside, where, however, the formative era is poorly studied at the level of modern developments, in particular, due to a certain depletion of specific materials, especially from settlements. The Crete-Mycenaean civilization is not affected either, the originality of which allows us to raise the question of the existence of a special, specific path of development within the framework of the general laws inherent in the era of the first civilizations (Masson, 1974; 1981a, pp. 127-128). For the main territory of Europe, with significant success of the agricultural and pastoral societies of the Paleometal period, which in some cases reached a significant concentration of power and the creation of prestigious buildings from Stonehenge to the Maltese temples, civilization as a stable multicomponent socio-cultural complex is formed almost at the time of the Iron Age with the widespread use of the cultural standards of the Greek the Roman world as the standards of the era of that time. Of course, the use of these and other data will make it possible to expand the limits of the specific uniqueness of the historical process, the general laws of which, it seems, stand out quite clearly already on the material used.
2 Thus, in one of the American summaries on the theory and methodology of archeology, it is precisely the reproach for adherence to unilinear evolution that contains the only two phrases devoted to Soviet archaeological science (Sharer, Ashmore, 1980, p. 509-510).
PART ONE.FIRST CIVILIZATIONS AND WORLD HISTORY
Chapter 1. THE CONCEPT OF "CIVILIZATION". ITS DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES
The concept of "civilization", which has recently been increasingly used, is connected in one of its aspects with the designation of a qualitative milestone in the history of mankind. To the realization of the existence of such a frontier, not to mention its designation, humanity itself also gradually approached. For mythological thinking, especially in the period lying at the crossroads of various socio-economic systems, when the laws of primitive democracy dear to the heart of the community member were collapsing, the desire to present the development of mankind as a kind of descent from better to worse was characteristic. The most striking in this respect is the construction of Hesiod, according to which the entire history of mankind is divided into five centuries - the most ancient, golden, then successively replaced by silver, copper, heroic and iron centuries. According to Hesiod, it was a kind of evolution with the opposite sign, when people gradually morally decomposed, corrupted and became worse and worse. With the development of the scientistic thinking of Hellas, this pessimistic retrospection is replaced by systems built on the principle of direct evolution. A similar view of the natural development of mankind was already set forth by Aeschylus in Chained Prometheus, although his concept was given a poetic and, to a certain extent, mythological form. In this case, the traditional concept of historical and cultural development is saturated with philosophical content, and at the same time, the cultural hero, divine in origin, is the creator of decisive changes. Here the path of development is traced from primitive primitivism to the crafts and sciences that Prometheus taught the human race (Witz, 1979, pp. 112 - 113). The same causal complex of human evolution is presented by Plato
The term "civilization" became widespread in the 60s and 70s. and was already included in the first edition of Dahl's dictionary (Budagov, 1971, p. 130). In general, in the XIX century. the concept of "civilization" was used to refer to the human community, in many respects interlocking with the term "culture". All human global culture was perceived as a single civilization. But with the success of historical science, it became more and more clear that civilization was formed only at a certain stage in the development of mankind, representing a qualitative milestone on the evolutionary path, reconstructed in general terms by the thinkers of the ancient era. A particularly important role was played by the study of the numerous tribes of America, Australia and Africa, who preserved archaic cultural complexes. As a result, the term "civilization" was used to divide the cultural-historical process, and in L. Morgan's scheme, civilization closes a long chain of stages in the development of primitive society (Morgan, 1877; Morgan, 1935). The deep socio-economic prerequisites for the formation of civilization were revealed by F. Engels in his work “The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State”, where he emphasizes that “civilization is a period of mastering the further processing of natural products, a period of industry in the proper sense of the word and art” (Marx, Engels, vol. 21, p. 33). F. Engels also noted such an important sign of civilization as writing. At the same time, in the course of analyzing the very process of the emergence of civilization, F. Engels reveals its close connection with the development of antagonistic classes, the formation of the state, the emergence of cities and merchants. These ideas of creative Marxism have had a profound effect on historical science, although many Western scholars who have experienced their beneficial influence directly or indirectly often do not think about the source of this theoretical impulse. Soviet scientists paid considerable attention to the analysis of the concept of "civilization" (Khalipov, 1972; Mchedlov, 1978; Markaryan, 1962). At the same time, civilization is understood as a certain stage of social history, a long period in the development of individual peoples and the world as a whole (Davidovich, Zhdanov, 1979, p. 53). In Soviet science, the prevailing point of view is that civilization should be understood as a socio-cultural complex or socio-cultural communities that are formed at a certain stage in the development of society and take specific forms in different historical epochs. The latter circumstance is of fundamental importance for a correct understanding of the general patterns of development of world history, which goes through a series of successive formational stages. The classics of Marxism-Leninism used the concepts of "ancient civilization", "bourgeois civilization", a number of works by Soviet authors are devoted to the problem of communist civilization (Mchedlov, 1976). Such a historical approach, singling out epochal types of civilizations (the slave-owning type of civilizations, etc.) is the fundamental position of Soviet researchers and is fundamentally different from the relativistic constructions of many Western scientists. The extreme manifestation of such constructions are the views of A. Toynbee, who considers civilizations as a special, supra-epochal phenomenon that develops according to its own internal laws and epistemologically based in this case on the hypertrophy of real phenomena and the denial of general laws (Mylnikov, 1979, p. 65). As a result, world history is characterized as a mosaic panel composed by the multi-linear development of sovereign cultures, located side by side and coexisting, and not perceived as a division of the world socio-cultural continuum (Davidovich, Zhdanov, 1979, p. 168).
At the same time, for the current state of historical science, the presence of a tendency towards an objective assessment of the nuclear essence is very indicative.
Civilizations in relation to the era of their occurrence. Thus, R. Adams in his works consistently connects civilization with a class society, with a system of political and social hierarchy, supplemented by administration and territorial division, with the organization of the state, as well as with the division of labor, leading to the allocation of crafts (Adams, 1966). In the book devoted to the Aegean civilization, K. Renfrew, while characterizing the very concept of "civilization", also emphasizes social stratification and division of labor (Renfrew, 1972, p. 7). K. Flannery speaks even more definitely on this score, according to whose formulation civilization is a complex of cultural phenomena associated with such a form of socio-political organization as the state (Flannery, 1972, p. 400). True, at the same time there is a tendency to use the concept of "civilization" for a number of diverse and diverse phenomena. As a result, “shepherd civilizations” appear in the literature, researchers of ancient Africa write about the “civilization of the bow”, about the “civilization of the forest”, about the “civilization of the spear”, and along with this about the “civilization of the cities” (Make, 1974). As D. A. Olderogge rightly noted, in this case the concept of “civilization” is almost unambiguous to the concept of “cultural and economic type” used by Soviet ethnography (Olderogge, 1974, p. 152). Often, common usage turns out to be a tribute to fashion, representing a more journalistic than scientific desire to use a bright and catchy term.
In this paper, civilization will be considered at the very first stage of its development, when its components were born in an archaic environment and, gradually crystallizing, gave a qualitatively new character to the entire system as a whole. Studied, especially at the formative stage, largely on the basis of archeological materials, the external appearance of civilizations is clearly characterized by the objective world of culture. Essentially, the main parameters of civilization as a socio-economic system are characterized in the aforementioned study by F. Engels. As Yu. V. Kachanovsky noted, from the description of F. Engels it is clear that for ancient civilizations we can talk about a number of indicators (Kachanovsky, 1971, p. 249). In the field of economics, this is the improvement of food production, the development of industry, the strengthening of the social division of labor up to the opposite of town and country, the emergence of professional merchants and money. In the socio-political sphere, we are talking about the presence of antagonistic classes, the state, the inheritance of land ownership, and, finally, in the cultural sphere, about writing and art. In essence, these signs were developed and supplemented by H. Child, who made extensive use of new archaeological discoveries unknown to the founders of Marxism-Leninism. This list is well known and is repeatedly repeated in the works of many researchers (Childe, 1950; Vasiliev, 1976, p. 3). The ten signs of civilization proposed by G. Child included cities, monumental public buildings, taxes or tribute, an intensive economy, including trade, the allocation of specialist artisans, writing and the beginnings of science, developed art, privileged classes and the state. It is easy to see that in this list the primary signs of a socio-economic nature go back directly to Engels' concept. At the same time, G. Child, on the basis of archaeological discoveries, correctly noted that the constant companions of the first civilizations were monumental structures - religious, secular or funerary. During a discussion on ancient cities that took place in Chicago in 1958, one of the speakers, K. Kluckholm, proposed reducing G. Child's list to three features - monumental architecture, cities and writing (City invisible, 1960, p. 397; Daniel, 1968, p. 25). These three features are combined
A whole system of cause-and-effect relationships with the social and political processes that took place in society form the visible tip of the huge iceberg of the culture of the first civilizations. This triad expressively characterizes civilization primarily as a cultural complex, while the socio-economic essence of this phenomenon is the emergence of a class society and the state.
Let us dwell briefly on the general characteristics of the triad. Monuments of monumental architecture are not only very impressive in appearance, but also very indicative from the point of view of the production potential of the societies that created them. They seem to realize the surplus product obtained by this economic system, reflecting the organized level of society, skillfully using simple cooperation. It is the amount of labor invested that separates the first temples from ordinary communal sanctuaries, for the construction of which the efforts of several, or even one small family, were enough. Researchers have made tentative estimates of the labor expended on the construction of monumental buildings of the first civilizations. Thus, the Olmec temple center of La Venta in Mesoamerica is located on an island, the territory of which could feed only 30 families under the then existing system of slash-and-burn agriculture. However, the labor costs for the construction of the entire complex are estimated by American researchers at 18,000 man-days. It is quite clear that La Venta is the cult center of a whole union of communities located on the surrounding, rather large territory (Drucker, Heizer, 1960, p. 36-45). At the same time, it should be borne in mind that the Olmec culture is still an early, formative period of the Mesoamerican civilization (see below, p. 247). Then the labor costs for monumental structures increase many times over. The construction of the White Temple in Sumerian Uruk, according to one estimate, required the continuous labor of 1,500 people for five years (Child, 1956, p. 206). According to Chinese researchers, the construction of a powerful fortress wall in Zhengzhou required the labor of at least 10,000 people for 18 years (Chang Kwang-Chin, 1971, p. 205). And Zhengzhou, like the Olmec complexes, is just a formative period of civilization, in this case, ancient Chinese (see below, p. 217). Such were the enormous production possibilities of the first civilizations, and it is not surprising that monumental structures are one of the bright, marking signs of their very existence.
The emergence of writing was of exceptional importance. Its creation was by no means the result of abstract speculative combinations, but an urgent need of a society entering a new phase of its development. For a hunting or even early agricultural community, the amount of information that had to be transmitted to maintain the stability of the economy and culture was relatively small. This amount of knowledge could be communicated by priests or shamans orally when getting acquainted with the spiritual heritage of their ancestors or when teaching young people during initiations. The complex social and economic system that the first civilizations represented led to an abrupt increase in the most diverse information. Accounting for production and the organization of systematic agricultural work already required clear regulation. The creation of a semblance of a unified system of religious beliefs, replacing and including local cults of various tribal centers, also needed codification and firm fixation. These factors are directly reflected in the content of the first written documents. The oldest proto-Sumerian tablets from Uruk are detailed accounting cards, where literally everything is recorded: the size of land plots, the tools issued, the composition of the herds, and much more. Close in content
Zhaniya the tablets of Knossos and Pylos palaces, where from year to year accounting records were kept on the number of people in the work teams, on the volume of products made by artisans. Yin divinatory inscriptions reflect the moment of cult actions, but in the end they are often aimed at real economic, political and social events. So, in one of the inscriptions we read: "To involve three thousand people in field work?" (History of the Ancient World, 1982, p. 158). It should be borne in mind that ritual actions, including requests to celestials, in full accordance with the traditions coming from the depths of the primitive era, were considered as an integral and necessary part of the labor process itself. Not without reason, among the same ancient Chinese texts, we also find this one: “Wang ordered many qiangs (community members) to perform a fertility rite in the fields” (History of the Ancient World, 1982, p. 159). Finally, Maya steles with calendar inscriptions, along with cult and prestige, were of great importance in planning the cycles of agricultural work.
In social terms, the introduction of writing was an important phenomenon, leading to another specific feature of the first civilizations of the era - the separation of mental labor from physical labor. This was the logical conclusion of industrial specialization, the growth of which marked the final stages of the primitive era. It was this separation that allowed society, taken as a whole, to focus the efforts of individual groups on the development of art and various forms of positive knowledge. Even Aristotle noted that mathematical knowledge developed primarily in the area of Egypt, because there the class of priests was given time for leisure.
The appearance of writing, which in its first manifestations was a very complex system, led to the emergence of a new profession - scribes, whose training in special schools also gave the beginnings of positive knowledge. In the course of their upbringing, the worldview and social psychology of this group were formed, in particular, by praising the chosen profession in every possible way. So, in one of the Sumerian texts, the following teaching is addressed to a negligent student:
The work of scribes, my brothers, you do not like!
But they bring nine gurs of grain!
Young people! Each of them brings ten gurs of grain to his father,
Grain, wool, oil, sheep brings him!
How we respect such a person!
Next to him you are not a man!
Poetry and prose. . ., 1973, with. 140.
In this case, both the form and the argument are very indicative of the pragmatic psychology of the Sumerian civilization - the emphasis is on the mercantile side of the matter, even on direct material benefits. From other positions, the importance of the profession of a scribe in ancient Egypt is affirmed:
Doors and houses were built, but they were destroyed,
The priests of the funeral services have disappeared,
Their monuments covered with mud,
Their tombs are forgotten.
But their names are pronounced while reading these books,
Written while they lived
And the memory of who wrote them,
Become a scribe, enclose it in your heart
So that your name becomes the same.
A book is better than a painted headstone
And stronger than walls.
Poetry and prose. . ., 1973, p. 103.
Here, to substantiate the importance of the profession of a scribe, an ethical and philosophical imperative is proposed, the conviction comes from the standpoint of spiritual values.
Both monumental architecture and writing did not exist in a vacuum. Temples and palaces usually decorated urban centers, and the educated cadres of the first civilizations were also concentrated in the cities. Almost the entire huge number of monuments of Yin writing, for example, comes from the capital Anyang, while in other, ordinary settlements, such finds are rare. Here we come to the third important sign of the first civilizations - the development of urban-type settlements. Not without reason, as we have seen, the very etymology of the concept of "civilization" goes back to the civil, urban community. It is in the cities that the process of accumulation of wealth and social differentiation proceeds especially intensively, centers of economic and ideological leadership are located here, specialized handicraft production is concentrated in cities, the role of exchange and trade increases, while small villages of rural communities, as a rule, remain closed in the system of self-sufficiency by forces. its members, which has developed in the depths of the primitive era. Recently, much attention has been paid to the study of ancient cities and urbanization processes in ancient societies (Adams and Nissen, 1972; MSU; Dyakonov, 1973; Ancient cities, 1977; Gulyaev, 1979). Repeatedly it was necessary to address this question and the author of these lines (Masson, 1979c, 1981a; Masson, 1981b).
The city was an institution that was born in the depths of primitive society and symbolized the advent of a new era. It was precisely this circumstance that F. Engels emphasized when he wrote: “It is not for nothing that formidable walls rise around new fortified cities: in their ditches the grave of the tribal system gapes, and their towers already reach civilization” (Marx, Engels, vol. 21, p. 164). Cities were large population centers that performed specific functions in the social system. The question of the quantitative parameters of urban-type settlements is closely related to the demographic indicators that have developed in various economic systems. In the conditions of irrigated agriculture of the Ancient East, the population concentration was very high, and here the criterion proposed by G. Child is quite applicable, according to which settlements with more than 5000 inhabitants can be considered cities. In other regions, these parameters look different. To a certain extent, this applies to such a feature of urban centers as building density. In particular, in the Novy Svet, along with urban centers with continuous development, there are dispersed settlements (Gulyaev, 1979, p. 108 et seq.). The significance of ancient cities was determined by their functions. First of all, they served as the center of the agricultural district, the center of crafts and trade, as well as the role of a kind of ideological leader. It was in the cities that the main temples of the country were located, and often the presence of a cultural center was one of the important incentives for the formation of an urban-type settlement in a given place. This function is associated with another feature of the external appearance of ancient cities - the presence of high-rise buildings. Monumental temple complexes determined the architectural silhouette of the ancient cities of Mesopotamia. Functionally similar to the ancient Eastern cities and palace centers of the Cretan-Mycenaean society. The dispersed development of many ancient centers of Mesoamerica cannot hide their purely urban functions.
The cultural complex of the first civilizations was a complex organism in which all the main elements actively interacted, including ideological ones. The significance of the ideology and social psychology of ancient societies is often underestimated both in general developments and in specific analysis, sometimes voluntarily or involuntarily leading to socio-economic determinism. Learning the real role
And the significance of such a powerful force as ideology is paid unjustifiably little attention. Meanwhile, ideology, being formed under the influence of economic and social factors, has a certain independence in relation to the basis that created it. As F. Engels noted, “. . We see that, once it has arisen, religion always retains a certain stock of ideas inherited from former times, since in all areas of ideology in general, tradition is a great conservative force” (Marx, Engels, vol. 21, p. 315). The transition to civilization was also associated with significant changes in the field of ideology, when new ideological canons were formed, clothed, as a rule, in religious forms. It was at the time of the first civilizations that the ideological sphere, systematized and centralized, became a truly enormous force. The means of ideological influence were aimed at substantiating and maintaining the new legal orders established on earth. So, magnificent funeral rites, grandiose royal burials were objectively a way of ideological influence on ordinary community members, affirmed in the minds and feelings the idea of the greatness of the power of the ruler, towering over his subjects. Corresponding changes are also taking place in traditional mythological schemes. Creation stories insistently emphasize that humans, who owe their existence to the creator gods, must work diligently in the name of these gods who brought order to the world.
The significance of ancient civilizations as cultural systems, an important feature of which is the above-mentioned triad, forces us to specifically address the issues of studying the process of cultural genesis on the basis of archeological materials, which form the main array of sources for studying this era.
(2010-02-19 ) (80 years old)Vadim Mikhailovich Masson(1929-2010) - Soviet and Russian archaeologist, doctor of historical sciences, professor, leader (1982-1998).
Scientific works [ | ]
Author and co-author of more than 32 monographs and 500 articles (published in Russia, Great Britain, Germany, Japan, Italy, etc.).
Main works- Ancient agricultural culture of Margiana / USSR Academy of Sciences. IIMK. M.; Leningrad: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1959-216 p.: ill. - (MIA. No. 73).
- History of Afghanistan: In 2 vols. T. 1. From ancient times to the beginning of the 16th century. / Academy of Sciences of the USSR. INA. - M.: Nauka, 1964-464 p.: ill., maps. - Bibliography: p. 383-406. (Together with V. A. Romodin)
- Central Asia and the Ancient East. / Academy of Sciences of the USSR. LOIA. - L .: Nauka, 1964-467 p.: ill., maps.
- History of Afghanistan: In 2 vols. T. 2. Afghanistan in modern times / USSR Academy of Sciences. INA. - M.: Nauka, 1965-552 p.: ill., maps. - Bibliography: p. 479-498.
- Country of a thousand cities. - M.: Nauka, 1966.
- Central Asia in the Age of Stone and Bronze / Academy of Sciences of the USSR IA. - M.; Leningrad: Nauka, 1966-290 p.: ill., maps. (Together with M. P. Gryaznov, Yu. A. Zadneprovsky, A. M. Mandelstam, A. P. Okladnikov, I. N. Khlopin)
- The emergence and development of agriculture / USSR Academy of Sciences. IA. - M.: Nauka, 1967-232 p.: silt, maps. - Bibliography: p. 228-231. (Together with A. V. Kiryanov, I. T. Kruglikova).
- Excavations at Altyn-Depe in 1969 / USSR Academy of Sciences. LOIA; Academy of Sciences of the Turkmen SSR. - Ashgabat: Ylym, 1970 - 24 p: ill. - (Materials of YUTAKE; Issue 3). - Res. English - Bibliography: p. 22.
- Settlement Jeytun: (The problem of the formation of a producing economy) / USSR Academy of Sciences. IA. - L.: Nauka, 1971-208 p.: ill. - (MIA; No. 180)
- Karakum: the dawn of civilization / USSR Academy of Sciences. - M.: Nauka, 1972-166 p.: ill., maps. - (Ser. "From the history of world culture"). (Together with V. I Sarianidi)
- Central Asian Terracotta of the Bronze Age: An Experience of Classification and Interpretation / USSR Academy of Sciences. Department of ist. IV. - M.: Nauka, 1973-209 p., 22 sheets. ill.: ill. - (Culture of the peoples of the East; Materials and research.). - Bibliography: p. 196-202. (Together with V. I Sarianidi)
- Economy and social structure of ancient societies: (In the light of archeological data) / USSR Academy of Sciences. IA.-L.: Nauka, 1976-192 p.: ill.
- Altyn-depe / Academy of Sciences of the Turkmen SSR. - L .: Nauka, 1981-176 p., 2 p. ill.: ill. - (CHUTAKE; T. 18). - Res. English - Bibliography: p. 166-172.
- Eneolithic of the USSR / Academy of Sciences of the USSR. IA. - M.: Nauka, 1982-360 p.: ill., maps. - (Archaeology of the USSR. [T. 4]). - Bibliography: p. 334-347. (Together with N. Ya Merpert, R. M. Munchaev. E. K. Chernysh)
- Old Nisa - the residence of the Parthian kings / USSR Academy of Sciences. IA; OOPIK Turkm. - L: Nauka, 1985 - 12 p.: ill.
- The first civilizations / USSR Academy of Sciences. LOIA. - L .: Nauka, 1989-276 s: ill., maps. - Res. English - Bibliography: p. 259-271.
- Historical reconstructions in archeology / AN KirgSSR. AI. - Frunze: Ilim, 1990 - 94 p.: ill., maps. - Bibliography: p. 90-93.
- Merv is the capital of Margiana. - Mary, 1991 - 73 p.
- Antiquities of Sayanogorsk / RAS. IIMK. - St. Petersburg, 1994 - 23 p., 2 sheets. ill. - Res. English (Together with M. N. Pshenitsyna).
- Bukhara in the history of Uzbekistan. - Bukhara, 1995 - 52 p. - Rus., Uzbek. - (B-ka from the series "Bukhara and world culture").
- Historical reconstructions in archeology: Ed. 2nd, add. / RAN. IIMK; SamarGPU. - Samara, 1996-101 p.: ill. - Bibliography: p. 98-101.
- Paleolithic society of Eastern Europe: (Issues of paleoeconomics, cultural genesis and sociogenesis) / RAS. IIMK. - St. Petersburg, 1996 - 72 p.: ill. - (Archeological research; Issue 35). - Bibliography: p. 64-68.
- Institute of the History of Material Culture: (Brief history of the institution, scientific achievements) / RAS. IIMK. - St. Petersburg, 1997 - 40 p.: 4 p. silt
- Cultural genesis of ancient Central Asia. - St. Petersburg: Publishing house of St. Petersburg State University, 2006. - ISBN 978-5-8465-0104-1
