The concept of psychological parallelism in the literature. A.n

In this article we will consider such a literary concept as psychological parallelism. Often this term causes some problems with the interpretation of its meaning and functions. In this article, we will try to explain as clearly as possible what this concept is, how to apply it in the artistic analysis of the text, and what should be paid special attention to.

Definition

Psychological parallelism in literature is one of its essence lies in the fact that the plot of the work is based on a consistent comparison of motives, pictures of nature, relationships, situations, actions. Commonly used in poetic folk texts.

As a rule, it consists of 2 parts. The first depicts a picture of nature, conditional and metaphorical, creating an emotional and psychological background. And in the second, the image of the hero already appears, whose state is compared with the natural. For example: a falcon is a good fellow, a swan is a bride, a cuckoo is a yearning woman or a widow.

Story

However, it is necessary to delve a little into the past in order to fully understand what psychological parallelism is. The definition in the literature, by the way, usually begins with a little historical background.

So, if this technique came to literature from folklore, then it has rather deep roots. Why did it occur to people to compare themselves with animals, plants or natural phenomena? This phenomenon is based on naive syncretic ideas that the surrounding world has its own will. This is confirmed by pagan beliefs, which endowed all life phenomena with consciousness. For example, the sun is an eye, that is, the sun appears as an active living being.

These parallels are:

A complex similarity of characteristic features with life or action.
Correlations of these features with our understanding of reality, the laws of the surrounding world.
The adjacency of various objects that could be similar in terms of identified features.
The vital value and completeness of the described object or phenomenon in relation to humanity.

That is, initially psychological parallelism was built on the subjective idea of a person about the world.

Kinds

We continue to study psychological parallelism. We have already given the definition, now let's talk about its types. There are several different approaches to the study of this stylistic phenomenon and, accordingly, several classifications. We present here the most popular of them - the authorship of A. N. Veselovsky. According to her, psychological parallelism happens:

binomial;
formal;
polynomial;
monomial;
negative.

Parallelism binomial

It is characterized by the following construction method. First, there is an image of a picture of nature, then a description of a similar episode from a person's life. These two episodes seem to echo each other, although they differ in object content. It is possible to understand that they have something in common, according to certain consonances, motives. This feature is a distinguishing feature of psychological parallels from mere repetitions.

For example: “When they want to pick roses, they have to wait until spring, when they want to love girls, they need to be sixteen years old” (Spanish folk song).

However, it is worth noting that folklore parallelism, which most often happens to be binomial, is built mainly on the category of action. If it is removed, then all other elements will lose their value. The stability of this design is provided by 2 factors:

In addition to the basic similarity, bright similar details of the category of action are added, which are not recounted to him.
The comparison was liked by native speakers, became part of the cult and remained in it for a long time.

If both of these points are observed, then parallelism will turn into a symbol and become a household name. However, far from all two-term parallelisms, even those built according to all the rules, await such a fate.

Formal parallelism

There are cases when psychological parallelism is not immediately clear, and in order to comprehend it, it is necessary to hear the entire text. For example: one of the folk songs begins with the line “The river is flowing, it will not stir”, then there is a description of the bride, to whom many guests came to the wedding, but no one can bless her, since she is an orphan; thus, there is a similarity - the river does not stir, and the bride sits sad, silent.

Here we can talk about default, and not about the lack of similarity. The stylistic device becomes more complicated, the understanding of the work itself becomes more difficult, but the structure becomes more beautiful and poetic.

Polynomial parallelism

The concept of "psychological parallelism", despite the apparent complexity, is quite simple. Another thing is when we talk about varieties of this stylistic device. Although with respect to polynomial parallelism, there are usually no problems with its detection.

This subspecies is characterized by one-sided accumulation of several parallels that come from several objects simultaneously. That is, one character is taken and compared immediately with a number of images. For example: “Do not caress, dove, with a dove, do not twist, grass, with a blade of grass, do not get used to, well done, with a girl.” That is, there are already three objects for comparison in front of the reader.

Such a one-sided increase in images suggests that parallelism gradually evolved, which gave the poet greater freedom of writing and the opportunity to show his analytical abilities.

That is why polynomial parallelism is called a relatively late phenomenon of folk poetic style.

One-Term Parallelism

One-term psychological parallelism is aimed at developing figurativeness and strengthening its role in the work. This approach looks like this: Imagine the usual two-term construction, where the first part speaks of the stars and the moon, and in the second they are compared with the bride and groom. Now let's remove the second part, leaving only the images of the stars and the month. According to the content of the work, the reader will guess that we are talking about a girl and a young man, but there will be no mention of them in the text itself.

This reticence is similar to formal parallelism, but unlike it, no mention will be made here of the human characters that are meant. Therefore, here we can talk about the appearance of a symbol. Over the centuries, well-established allegorical images have appeared in folklore, which are identified with only one meaning. Such and such images are used in one-term parallelism.

For example, a falcon is identified with a young man, a groom. And often the works describe how a falcon fights with another bird, how he is kidnapped, how he leads a falcon down the aisle. There is no mention of people here, but we understand that we are talking about human relations between a boy and a girl.

Concurrency is negative

Let's proceed to the description of the last type, which can be psychological (given in the article). The negative constructions of our stylistic device are usually used to create riddles. For example: "Roars, not a bull, strong, not a rock."

Such a construction is constructed as follows. First, an ordinary two-term or polynomial parallelism is created, and then the characterized image is removed from it and negation is added. For example, instead of "roars like a bull" - "roars, not a bull."

In Slavic folklore, this technique was especially popular and loved. Therefore, it can be found not only in riddles, but also in songs, fairy tales, etc. Later, it also migrated to author's literature, being used mainly in fairy tales and stylistic attempts to recreate folk poetry.

From a conceptual point of view, negative parallelism, as it were, distorts the very formula of parallelism, which was created to bring images closer together, and not to separate them.

From folklore to author's literature

When did psychological parallelism migrate from folk poetry to classical literature?

It happened at the time of the vagants, itinerant musicians. Unlike their predecessors, they graduated from classical music and poetry schools, so they learned the basic image of a person, which was characterized by great abstractness. They had little specificity and connection with reality. At the same time, like all itinerant musicians, they were quite familiar with folklore. Therefore, they began to introduce its elements into their poetry. Comparisons with natural phenomena of the character's character appeared, for example, winter and autumn - with sadness, and summer and spring - with fun. Of course, their experiments were rather primitive and far from perfect, but they laid the foundation for a new style, which later migrated to medieval literature.

So, in the 12th century, folk song techniques gradually began to intertwine with the classical tradition.

What is the function of comparisons, epithets and metaphors of psychological parallelism?

To begin with, it is worth saying that without metaphors and epithets there would be no parallelism itself, since this technique relies entirely on them.

Both of these paths serve to transfer the sign of one object to another. Actually, already in this function it is clear that without them it is impossible to compare nature with man. Metaphorical language is the writer's main tool in creating parallelisms. And if we are talking about the function of these tropes, then it just consists in the transfer of signs.

Basic concepts (psychological parallelism) are associated with descriptions, so it is not surprising that metaphors and epithets occupy the main place among them. For example, let's take the epithet "the sun has set" and make a parallelism out of it. We will succeed: as the sun went down, so did the life of the clear falcon. That is, the fading of the sun is compared with the fading of the life of a young man.

Psychological Parallelism in The Tale of Igor's Campaign

An excellent example of folk stylistic devices is the "Word", since it is itself a part of folklore. For example, let's take the main character Yaroslavna, since her image is associated with nature and is often compared with her. Take the episode of the heroine's crying. One day, she “calls with a lonely tap dance at dawn” - a parallelism between Yaroslavna and a bird.

Then you can remember the image of the narrator himself. His fingers on the strings are compared to ten falcons attacking doves.

And one more example: the retreat of the Galichs to the Don is described as "not a storm, the falcons are brought across the wide fields." Here we see a pattern of negative parallelism.

Definition

Psychological parallelism in literature is one of the stylistic devices. Its essence lies in the fact that the plot of the work is based on a consistent comparison of motives, pictures of nature, relationships, situations, actions. Commonly used in poetic folk texts.

Story

These parallels are:

A complex similarity of characteristic features with life or action.
Correlations of these features with our understanding of reality, the laws of the surrounding world.
The adjacency of various objects that could be similar in terms of identified features.
The vital value and completeness of the described object or phenomenon in relation to humanity.

That is, initially psychological parallelism was built on the subjective idea of a person about the world.

Kinds

binomial;
formal;
polynomial;
monomial;
negative.

Parallelism binomial

For example: “When they want to pick roses, they have to wait until spring, when they want to love girls, they need to be sixteen years old” (Spanish folk song).

However, it is worth noting that folklore parallelism, which most often happens to be binomial, is built mainly on the category of action. If it is removed, then all other elements of the stylistic figure will lose their significance. The stability of this design is provided by 2 factors:

In addition to the basic similarity, bright similar details of the category of action are added, which are not recounted to him.
The comparison was liked by native speakers, became part of the cult and remained in it for a long time.

Formal parallelism

Polynomial parallelism

Such a one-sided increase in images suggests that parallelism gradually evolved, which gave the poet greater freedom of writing and the opportunity to show his analytical abilities.

That is why polynomial parallelism is called a relatively late phenomenon of folk poetic style.

One-Term Parallelism

Concurrency is negative

Let's proceed to the description of the last type, which can be psychological parallelism (examples are given in the article). The negative constructions of our stylistic device are usually used to create riddles. For example: "Roars, not a bull, strong, not a rock."

From a conceptual point of view, negative parallelism, as it were, distorts the very formula of parallelism, which was created to bring images closer together, and not to separate them.

From folklore to author's literature

When did psychological parallelism migrate from folk poetry to classical literature?

It happened at the time of the vagants, itinerant musicians. Unlike their predecessors, they graduated from classical music and poetry schools, so they mastered the basic literary techniques for portraying a person, which were characterized by great abstractness. They had little specificity and connection with reality. At the same time, like all itinerant musicians, they were quite familiar with folklore. Therefore, they began to introduce its elements into their poetry. Comparisons with natural phenomena of the character's character appeared, for example, winter and autumn - with sadness, and summer and spring - with fun. Of course, their experiments were rather primitive and far from perfect, but they laid the foundation for a new style, which later migrated to medieval literature.

So, in the 12th century, folk song techniques gradually began to intertwine with the classical tradition.

What is the function of comparisons, epithets and metaphors of psychological parallelism?

To begin with, it is worth saying that without metaphors and epithets there would be no parallelism itself, since this technique relies entirely on them.

Psychological Parallelism in The Tale of Igor's Campaign

Then you can remember the image of the narrator himself. His fingers on the strings are compared to ten falcons attacking doves.

And one more example: the retreat of the Galichs to the Don is described as "not a storm, the falcons are brought across the wide fields." Here we see a pattern of negative parallelism.

A. N. Veselovsky

PSYCHOLOGICAL PARALLELISM

AND ITS FORMS IN THE REFLECTION OF POETIC STYLE

Man assimilates the images of the external world in the forms of his self-consciousness; all the more so for primitive man, who has not yet developed the habit of abstract, non-imaginative thinking, although the latter cannot do without a certain imagery that accompanies it. We involuntarily transfer to nature our self-perception of life, which is expressed in movement, in the manifestation of force directed by the will; in those phenomena or objects in which movement was noticed, signs of energy, will, and life were once suspected. We call this world outlook animistic; in application to poetic style, and not to it alone, it would be more correct to speak of parallelism. The point is not about identifying human life with natural life and not about comparison, which implies the awareness of the separateness of the compared objects, but about comparison on the basis of action, movement: the tree heals, the girl bows, - so in the Little Russian song.

<...>And so parallelism rests on the comparison of subject and object according to the category of movement, action, as a sign of volitional activity. The objects, naturally, were animals; they were most reminiscent of a person: here are the distant psychological foundations of the animal apologist; but the plants also pointed to the same similarity: they were born and withered, turned green and bowed from the force of the wind. The sun also seemed to be moving, rising, setting, the wind drove the clouds, the lightning rushed, the fire embraced, devoured branches, etc. The inorganic, non-moving world was involuntarily drawn into this string of parallelisms: it also lived.

The next step in development consisted of a series of transfers, attached to the main feature - movement. The sun moves and looks at the earth; the Hindus have the sun, the moon-eye;<...>the earth is overgrown with grass, forest with hair;<...>when the wind-driven Agni (fire) spreads through the forest, it mows the hair of the earth.<...>

Such definitions, reflecting a naive, syncretic representation of nature, enslaved by language and belief, are based on the transfer of a feature characteristic of one member of the parallel to another. These are the metaphors of language; our vocabulary abounds with them, but we wield many of them already unconsciously, without feeling their once fresh imagery; when the "sun sets" we do not visualize the act itself, undoubtedly alive in the fantasy of ancient man: we need to renew it in order to feel it in relief. The language of poetry achieves this by definitions, or by a partial characterization of the general act, applied here and there to man and his psyche.<...>

The accumulation of transference in the composition of parallels depends 1) on the complex and nature of similar signs approaching the main sign of movement, life; 2) from the correspondence of these signs with our understanding of life, manifesting the will in action; 3) from adjacency with other objects that caused the same game of parallelism; 4) on the value and vitality of a phenomenon or object in relation to a person. Comparison, for example, the sun-eye (Ind., Greek) suggests the sun as a living, active being; on this basis, transference is possible, based on the external similarity of the sun and the eye: both shine, they see. The shape of the eye could give rise to other comparisons:<...>among the Malays the sun is the eye of the day, the source is the eye of the water; Hindus have a blind well - a well covered with vegetation.<...>

When the analogy between the object that caused its play and the living subject was especially pronounced, or several of them were established, causing a whole series of transfers, parallelism tended to the idea of an equation, if not an identity. The bird moves, rushes across the sky, descending headlong to the earth; lightning rushes, falls, moves, lives: this is parallelism. In beliefs about the theft of heavenly fire among the Hindus, in Australia, New Zealand, among North American savages, etc.), it is already heading towards identification: a bird brings fire to earth - lightning, lightning - a bird.

<...>The language of poetry continues the psychological process that began on prehistoric paths: it already uses the images of language and myth, their metaphors and symbols, but creates new ones in their likeness.

<...>I will review some of his poetic formulas.

S. I. Mints, E. V. Pomerantseva

I'll start with the simplest, folk-poetic, with 1) two-term parallelism. Its general type is as follows: a picture of nature, next to it is the same from human life; they echo each other with a difference in objective content, there are consonances between them, figuring out that they have much in common.<...>

<...>Oh, thin chick

Appeared on the ting

Young girl

I went into the Cossack.

<...>A garden is blooming near our house, grass grows in the garden there. A young man needs to mow the grass, a fair girl needs a fine fellow.

<...>A young, slender peach tree will bear many fruits; the young wife goes to her future homeland, everything is good to arrange in the house and chambers.

<...>The yellow lark perches on the swamp to drink cool water; a handsome fellow walks at night to kiss beautiful girls.

<...>In front of my door is a wide steppe,

Not to know the prince because of

There is no trace of the white hare;

My friends laughed and played with me,

And now there is none.

We know the general scheme of the psychological parallel: two motives are compared, one prompts the other, they clarify each other, “moreover, the advantage is on the side of the one filled with human content. Exactly interwoven variations of the same musical theme, mutually suggestive. It is worth getting used to this suggestiveness - and centuries will pass for this - and one topic will stand for another.

<...>The parallelism of a folk song rests vowelly on the category of action, all other subjective consonances are kept only in the composition of the formula and often lose their meaning outside of it. The stability of the entire parallel is achieved only in those cases.

1) when, according to the category of action, more or less striking similar features are selected to the main similarity, supporting it, or not translating it;

2) when you liked the parallel, it came into use as a custom or cult, it was determined and strengthened for a long time. Then the parallel becomes a symbol, appearing on its own in other combinations as an indicator of the common noun. At the time of the dominance of marriage through abduction, the groom was presented in the features of a rapist, a kidnapper who gets the bride with a sword, a siege of the city, or a hunter, a bird of prey. In Latvian folk poetry, the bride and groom appear in paired images: an ax and a pine tree, a sable and a sheep, a wind and a rose, a hunter and a partridge, etc. Our song performances also belong to this category: well done - a goat, a girl - cabbage, parsley , the groom is an archer, the bride is a kuni star, sable, matchmakers, merchants, catchers, the bride is goods, a white fish, or the groom is a falcon, the bride is a dove, a swan, a duck, a quail, Serbian. The groom is a man, the bride is a trickster, etc. In this way, through the selection and under the influence of everyday relationships that are difficult to keep track, parallels, symbols of our wedding songs were deposited: the sun is the father, the month is the mother, or: the month is master, the sun is the mistress, the stars are their children; either the month is the groom, the star is the bride; rue, as a symbol of virginity; in Western folk poetry - a rose not removed from the stem, etc.; the symbols are now fixed, now fluctuating, gradually passing from the real meaning underlying them to a more general formula. In Russian wedding songs, viburnum is a girl, but the main meaning concerned the signs of virginity; the defining moment was the red color of its berries.

Kalina painted the berezhki,

Alexandrinka amused all her relatives,

Relatives are dancing, mother is crying.

Yes, Kalinka is our Machine,

Walked under the Kalinka

I trampled viburnum on my feet,

I wiped my legs with padol,

There and Ivan fell.

The red color of viburnum evoked an image of heat: viburnum burns:

No frying to burn, viburnum,

Darychka is crying pitifully.

Kalina is the personified symbol of virginity ... Further: viburnum is a girl, they take a girl. Kalina is broken by the groom, which is in the spirit of the above symbolism of trampling or breaking. So in one version: viburnum. So in one version: viburnum boasts that no one will break it without a wind, without a storm, without fractional rain; girls broke her; Dunichka boasted that no one would take her without beer, without honey, without a bitter burner; Vanichka took her to ennos and. [i take;, a^ .

17 Quintilian Mark Fabius (c. 35 - c. 96) - Roman orator, theorist of eloquence. Veselovsky here refers to his work "Twelve Books of Rhetorical Instructions" (St. Petersburg, 1834. Ch. 1-2).

18 Huysmans Georges Carl (now, name - Charles Marie Georges; 1848-1907) is a French writer whose work is characterized by the desire for "spiritualistic naturalism". - See: Huysmans J.K. Poly. coll. op. M., 1912. T. 1-3.

19 See note. 20 to Art. 4.

20 Recognizing the need to carefully distinguish between “sequential parallelism used to build successive lines” from “single comparisons that convey the theme of lyric songs”, P.O. Jacobson saw in this delimitation in A.N. Veselovsky “a number of inconsistencies. Although for poetic models of sequential parallelism, figurative comparisons of pictures of nature and human life are quite familiar, Veselovsky considers each such parallel as a typical example of meaningful, i.e. psychological parallelism. - Cm.: Jacobson P.O. Grammatical parallelism and its Russian aspects. S. 122. See also note. 24.

21 Example from "Prophecies of the Völva" the most famous of the songs of the Elder Edda. In the modern Russian translation by A.I. Korsuna this place sounds like this:

The sun did not know

where is his home

the stars didn't know

where they shine

didn't know for a month

his might.

Elder Edda. P. 9. The quoted 5th stanza is interpreted as a description of the summer polar night: the sun rolls along the horizon, as if not knowing where to set it, and the stars and the moon do not shine at full strength. - Elder Edda. P. 216: Commentary.

22 "Callimachus and Chrysorrhea"- Byzantine poetic novel of the XIV century, the alleged author of which was Andronicus Komnenos, cousin of Emperor Andronicus II. The only surviving manuscript of the novel (in Leiden) dates from 1310-1340. Fragments of this novel in Russian translation by F.A. Petrovsky published in: Monuments of Byzantine Literature. M., 1969. S. 387-398.

23 The symbolism of the rose in antiquity, the Christian Middle Ages, in folk poetry A.N. Veselovsky devoted a separate work “From the Poetics of the Rose”, written in the same 1898 as “Psychological Parallelism ...” (published: Hello. Artistic and literary collection. SPb., 1898. P. 1-5; Veselovsky A.N. Selected articles. pp. 132-139). The fact that A.N. Veselovsky called the “capacity of the image”, ensured the international character of the literary symbol of the rose, which is known to both Greek and Roman literature, is the basis for the allegorical constructions of the famous medieval “Romance of the Rose” (XIII century) by Guillaume de Lorris and Jean Clopinel de Main, was used in Christian literature (“divine rose” - Christ). In modern fiction, dedicated to the reconstruction of the psychology of a person of the Middle Ages, the symbolism of the rose plays a key role in building the lyrical plot of the novel “The Name of the Rose” by the Italian writer and scientist Umberto Eco (Eco U. Il nome della rosa. Milano, 1980; Russian per. E.A. Kospokovich in: Foreign. literature. 1988. No. 8-10).

24 P.O. Jacobson objects to this assessment of the weakening of correspondences between

du details of parallels as the decline and decay of the originally meaningful parallelism, against the "preconceived idea of the genetic relationship of these two types of parallelism." - Cm.: Jacobson P.O. Grammatical parallelism and its Russian aspects. S. 122. See also note. 20.

25 Regarding this example, P.O. Yakobson notes that it could become a vivid illustration of metaphorical parallelism, and by no means “musical-rhythmic balancing”, as in A.N. Veselovsky, if the scientist applied here his "sightseeing criterion" of comparison on the basis of action. According to Yakobson, “parallelistic comparison is determined not so much by the participants in the process as by their syntactically expressed relations. The given Chuvash song serves as a warning against underestimation of latent correspondences; in the topology of parallelistic transformations, invariants hidden from view behind the variants lying on the surface occupy an important place” (See: Jacobson P.O. Grammatical parallelism and its Russian aspects. pp. 122-123).

26 Richet Edward(1792-1834) - French writer, follower of Swedenborg.

27 Musset Alfred de (1810-1857) - French writer, poet, playwright, See: Musse A. Selected Works / Intro. Art. M.S. Treskunov. M., 1957. T. 1-2.

28 A.N. Veselovsky points here to a problem that later became the focus of attention as artists of the word (cf., for example, the idea of V. Khlebnikov’s “abstruse language”, the search for futurists: Kruchenykh A., Khlebnikov V. The word as such. M., 1913, etc.), and researchers of verbal art (Shklovsky V.B. Resurrection word. Pg., 1914; Collections on the theory of poetic language. Pg., 1916. Issue. one; 1917. Issue. 2; Poetics: Collection on the theory of poetic language. Pg., 1919; works by R.O. Jacobson).

29 The idea of the primacy and dominance of the rhythmic-musical component in comparison with the verbal component at the early stages of the development of poetry raises objections in modern science. Among the weak links of the theory of A.N. Veselovsky today include “the idea of the absolute dominance of the rhythmic-melodic principle over the text in primitive syncretism”, the absolutization of the formal syncretism of art forms and the underestimation of the ideological syncretism of primitive culture, the dominant of which was myth. In modern science, it is recognized that primitive poetry was not a simple expression of personal impressions or emotions, or even spontaneous self-expression of "collective subjectivism", as Veselovsky believed. It was a purposeful activity based on belief in the magical power of the word, so the textual component of the rite, “even when it consisted of one word or was transmitted in a poorly understood archaic language,<...>had a huge magical, sacred and purely meaningful load, often due to symbolic associations. - Cm.: Meletinsky E.M. Introduction to the historical poetics of the epic and the novel. P. 6. At the same time, on the basis of modern neuropsychological data, a hypothesis is expressed that the earliest systems for transmitting information (not only artistic, but also mythological, legal and other texts) in ancient society were based on the combination of the musical side with the verbal, and for memory, music was originally more important. - Cm.: Ivanov Vyach. Sun. Even and odd. Asymmetry of the brain and

kovy systems. M., 1978; compare: his own. Essays on the history of semiotics in the USSR. pp. 33-34.

30 See note. 40 to Art. 4. Wed. See also: Epics / Entry. Art., preparation, note. B.N. Putilov. L., 1986. (BP); Skaftymov A.P. Poetics and genesis of epics. M.; Saratov, 1924.

31 For the relationship between the chorus and the main text of northern ballads, see: Steblin-Kamensky M.I. Ballad in Scandinavia // Scandinavian ballad / Ed. prepared G.V. Voronkova, Ign. Ivanovsky, M.I. Steblin-Kamensky. L., 1978. S. 222-223.

32 Snitch - an ancient rite of forced bride kidnapping, one of the earliest forms of marriage.

33 See note. 21 to art. 4.

34 Christina de Pizan(c. 1364-1430?) - French poetess, author of a large number of lyric works, rondos, ballads, didactic teachings, biographies of historical figures, a poem about Joan of Arc.

35 The complex problem of the origin of the new European lyrics, its origins is a constant subject of discussion in the scientific literature. Cf.: Dronke P. Medieval Latin and the rise of European love-lyric. Oxford, 1965. An important place in this discussion is occupied by the technique of parallelism: “Rhythmic-syntactic parallelism underlies the poetic form of many peoples (Finno-Ugric, Mongolian and Tungus-Manchurian, in ancient Semitic poetry, for example, parallelismus membrorum of the Old Testament psalms, etc. )”. Folk quatrains are ubiquitous - a universal genre built on the open A.N. Veselovsky "psychological parallelism" between the phenomena of nature and the spiritual experiences of a person or the events of his life. In a comparative typological and genetic perspective, this is the oldest genre of love lyrics in general. A.N. Veselovsky and his school (V.F. Shishmarev, A.A. Smirnov and others) searched in these quatrains for the folk origins of the medieval chivalrous love poetry of the Provençal troubadours and German minnesingers; the traditional "natural beginning" for both of them testified to these connections. - Cm.: Zhirmunsky V.M. Turkic heroic epic. L., 1974. S. 652.

36 Vagants(from Latin vagatio - wandering, wandering, wandering) - medieval Latin poets, wandering clerics or scholars of the 12th-13th centuries, who worked in satirical and lyrical genres, combining learning, gleaned from early European universities, and a comical, “carnival” beginning . The sources of their lyrics were ancient and Christian culture, as well as folk song. - Cm.: GasparovM. JI. Poetry of the Vagants // Poetry of the Vagants / Ed. prepared M.L. Gasparov. M., 1975. (LP). pp. 425-430.

37 Minnesang (Minnesang) - German courtly poetry of the XII-XIV centuries. About its creators - minnesingers, see note. 17 to Art. 2. There were two currents in minnesanga: the proper courtly and the folk. Here A.N. Veselovsky speaks of the early trend in German minnesang, which gravitated not to the tradition of the troubadours with its exquisite form, the cult of the beautiful lady, but to the poetics of the German folk song, often “female”, dating back to the ancient folklore tradition. - Cm.: Purishev B.N. Lyric poetry of the Middle Ages // Poetry of the Troubadours. The Poetry of the Minnesingers. Poetry of the Vagants. pp. 19-20.

38 This refers to the following passage from Wolfram von Eschenbach's song (see note 36 to v. 1):

drunk with dew,

Pure shine and sparkle

Flowers are updated.

The forest choir sings in the spring,

To lull with song

All chicks until dark.

Only the nightingale will not fall asleep:

I'm on guard again

At night with his song.

Poetry of the troubadours. The Poetry of the Minnesingers. Poetry of the Vagants. P. 314: Per. N. Grebelnaya.

39 "Parzival">(or “Perceval”) - probably refers to the novel of the French truver of the XII century. Chrétien de Troyes, written on the themes of the legend of the Grail. This novel, unfinished by Chrétien, was repeatedly written and rewritten in France by both anonymous authors and those known by name (for example, Robert de Boron). For the German version of the novel, see note. 36 to Art. 1. - See: Mikhailov A.D. French chivalric romance. M., 1976; Weston J.L. From ritual to romance. London, 1957.

40 A.N. Veselovsky found its embodiment and development in later scientific research. Wed the mentioned works of M. Parry and A. Lord (note 1 to article 4), E.R. Curtius (note 44 to v. 1); Lechner J.M. Renaissance concepts of common places, N.Y., 1962; Propp V.Ya. Morphology of a fairy tale. 2nd ed. M., 1969; Grintser P.A. Ancient Indian epic: Genesis and typology. M., 1974.

41 One of the genres of Sumerian literature that developed in Mesopotamia at the end of the GU - the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Sumerian spells were directed against evil demons that cause disease, and included spell formulas associated with the ritual of the god Enki. - See: Literature of Sumer and Babylonia / Entry. Art., comp. V. Afanasyeva; Per. V. Afanasyeva, I. Dyakonova, V. Shileiko // Poetry and prose of the Ancient East / Ed. and intro. Art. I. Braginsky. M., 1973. (BVL). pp. 115-165, 672-673; Shoots of eternity / Entry. Art. Vyach. Sun. Ivanova. M., 1987.

42 It is noteworthy that these observations, as well as other works by A.N. Veselovsky, addressed to A.A. Blok, preparing the article “Poetry of conspiracies and spells” (published in: History of Russian Literature / Edited by E. Anichkov and D. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovskiy. M., 1908. Vol. 1; Blok A.A. Sobr. cit.: In 8 vols. M.; L., 1962. T. 5. S. 36-65).

43 In the manuscript of the Merseburg Cathedral, two texts of the 10th century containing incantations have been preserved. Perhaps in the mentioned A.N. The Veselovsky conspiracy features not three, as he believes, but two pagan gods - Pfol, the god of spring, and Wodan (Odin) - the god of storm and battle, while Balder (Baldr) is one of the names of Pfol. - Wed: Meletinsky EM. Baldr // Myths of the peoples of the world. T. 1. S. 159-160; his own. One // Ibid. T. 2. S. 241-243; Dumézil J. The supreme gods of the Indo-Europeans / Per. T.V. Tsivyan. M., 1986. S. 137-152; Toporov V.N. On the reconstruction of the Indo-European ritual and ritual-poetic formulas (based on incantations) // Proceedings on sign systems. IV. Tartu, 1969; Gamkrelidze T.V., Ivanov Vyach. Sun. Indo-European language and Indo-Europeans. T. II. S. 833.

44 Longinus(or Loggan) - the centurion of the guard during the execution of Jesus Christ (Mat. 27:54; Luke 23:47), after the resurrection of Jesus, who believed in him, was baptized and martyred under the emperor Tiberius.

45 See note. 25 to art. 3.

46 See: Serbian folk songs and fairy tales from the collection of Vuk Stefanovich Karadzic / From Art., Preface. and note. Yu.I. Smirnova. M., 1987.

47 Anacreon(or Anacreon; c. 540 - 478 BC) - an ancient Greek poet who sang the joys of life, to whose tradition the “Anacreontic)” lyrics of the XVHI-XIX centuries go back. Here A.N., Veselovsky means the following text: Young mare, Honor of the Caucasian brand, Why are you rushing, daring? And your time has come; Do not squint with a timid eye, Do not kick your swords in the air, In a smooth and wide field Do not stubbornly jump ...

Ancient lyrics / Comp. and note. S. Apta, Y. Schultz. M., 1968. (BVL). pp. 73-74: Per. A.S. Pushkin.

48 “ minne- Fatkner”, (German; lit.: falcon love) is a 19th-century German allegorical poem depicting love in the form of falconry. Wed also the songs of Kurenberg “This falcon is clear ...”, “Only lure a woman and a falcon!” and Heinrich von Mugeln “The lady said: “The bright falcon ...” - See: Poetry of the troubadours. The Poetry of the Minnesingers. Poetry of the Vagants. pp. 186,187, 405.

49 Easter Rosantm (lat.) - Easter of Roses, a religious holiday celebrated by the Jews in honor of the giving of the law to them on Mount Sinai on the 50th day after Easter. Since the Holy Spirit descended on the apostles during Pentecost, this holiday passed into Christianity. Other names are the feast of the Holy Spirit, the Holy Trinity. According to custom, temples and houses of believers are decorated with flowers at this time.

50 See: Dante Alighieri. The Divine Comedy. S. 449 (Rai. XXX, 115-129). S. 141 51 Selam - flower greeting, allegorical “language of flowers” in the countries of the Muslim East.

52 See note. fourteen.

53 Compare: Vygotsky L.S. Psychology of art. pp. 115-186,515.

54 E.M. Meletinsky notes from A.N. Veselovsky’s underestimation of myth, pointing out: “Psychological parallelism was also undoubtedly not only formed according to the laws of mythological thinking, but to a large extent relied on already existing mythological ideas, perhaps already fixed by “tradition”. - Cm.: Meletinsky E.M.“Historical poetics” A.N. Veselovsky and the problem of the origin of narrative literature. S. 34. Compare: Golosovker Ya.E. myth logic. M., 1987.

55 Aristotle, Poetics. 1457b 30 - 32 // Aristotle and ancient literature. S. 148.

56 Aristotle. Rhetoric. 1412b 11 - 14 // Ibid. pp. 202-203.

57 See: Aristotle. Poetics. 1457b 19 - 25 // Ibid. pp. 147-148.

58 See note. 30 to Art. 3.

59 in the latest Russian translation by S.S. Averintsev, this place sounds like this: “From well-composed riddles, you can take excellent metaphors; for metaphors contain a riddle.” - Aristotle. Rhetoric. 1405b // Aristotle and ancient literature. S. 174.

60 “Comparison, as was said before, is the same metaphor, but differs in the addition<вводящего слова>; therefore it is not so pleasant, for it is longer; and she does not claim that "that is this", and<наш>the mind does not seek it.” - Aristotle. Rhetoric.1410 b 3 - 4 // Ibid. S. 194.

61 “And comparison (εικών) is a kind of metaphor; they differ slightly. After all, if someone says about Achilles (“Iliad”. XX, 164): Like a lion, he spoke ... - this is a comparison, and if “the lion spoke” - a metaphor; since both are brave, he would transfer the name of a lion to Achilles. - Aristotle. Rhetoric. 1406 b 1 - 2 // Ibid. S. 179.

62 Macpherson James (1736-1796) - Scottish writer whose interest in folklore epic resulted in the famous literary hoax - the publication of the "Works of Ossian" (1765), the legendary Celtic bard of the 3rd century, allegedly found and translated by Macpherson. To the features of MacPherson's style, which A.N. Veseloysky, is the lack of connection between the constituent parts of the whole, often united by thematic or structural parallelism, the abundance of stylistic clichés and their indispensable connection with nature. - Cm.: Levin Yu.D. The Poems of Ossian by James MacPherson // McPherson J. Poems of Ossian / Ed. prepared Yu.D. Levin. L., 1983. (LP) . pp. 470-471.

Chateaubriand Francois Rene de (1768-1848) - French writer, whose sentimental and romantic work was influenced by Macpherson's Ossian poetics.

63 Retardatio, retardation is a compositional technique based on the conscious retraction, distance, delay of the plot event due to the introduction of a description that slows down the action or situational complications. - Wed: Shklovsky V.B. On the theory of prose. pp. 28-35.

64 Song of Roland. P. 83: Per. Y. Korneeva.

65 It should be noted that some modern folklorists tend to study folklore works in their integrity, and, accordingly, “not the history of poetic techniques (cf. the classic works of A.N. Veselovsky “From the history of epithet”, “Psychological parallelism and its forms in the reflection of ”, etc.), but the aesthetic relation of the works of different stages to reality. In other words, the question is taken of a completely different scope and content.<...>. The traditional question about the properties of this or that poetic phenomenon is transformed into a question about the extent and intensity of its qualitative manifestations. The material studied by the group for the study of folk poetry (IMLI named after A.M. Gorky of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR) showed how complex the problem of parallelism is, which is extremely important for historical poetics: “It could be assumed that the juxtaposition of images (in particular, the parallel man - nature) will be original. In any case, such an idea was developed by A.N. Veselovsky, A.A. Potebney and others. However, the data of the materials involved make us think that this is not entirely true”; in stages

earlier texts present “not parallelism, but a sequence of actions and enumerations, a cumulative, descriptive way of depicting”, therefore, the stadial state, the materials of which Veselovsky used, seems to be a new, evolutionarily next quality. - Cm.: Alieva A.I., Astafieva L.A., Gatsak V.M., Kardan B.P., Pukhov I.V. The experience of a system-analytical study of the historical poetics of folk songs // Folklore: Poetic system. M., 1977. S. 42-43, 86-87.

In turn, B.M. Sokolov points out the need for a restrictive approach to assessing the dominance of psychological parallelism over other methods, because in Russian folk song lyrics, only a fifth of the songs are formed through it. - Cm.: Sokolov B.M. To the study of the poetics of folk songs // Folklore: Poetic system. S. 302.

66 Detritus(lat. detritus - worn out) - a set of elements of different origin, belonging to different eras, the rudiments of a once broken unity.

67 In the Russian free translation M.Yu. Lermontov is a poem from 1780. titled "From Goethe".

68 Verlaine Paul (1844-1896) - French poet, literary critic, one of the founders of symbolism. - Cm.: Verlaine P. Lyrics / Comp., foreword. and note. E. Etkinda. M., 1969.

69 Landu N. The sadness of heaven // From European poets of the 16th - 19th centuries / Per. B. Levik. M., 1956. S. 421.

70 "Pigeon Book" - a spiritual verse about a wise (“deep”) book containing information about the origin of the world, animals, etc. The spiritual verse about the Pigeon Book, preserved in several versions, arose on the basis of apocryphal legends. One of the options published. in: Collection of Kirsha Danilov. 2nd ed. / Ed. prepared A.P. Evgeniev, B.N. Putilov, M., 1977. (LP). pp. 208-213. At the same time, traces of a very ancient mythological heritage (Indo-European or reflecting ancient Indian-Old Slavic ties) are also found in the Pigeon Book. -Cm.: Toporov V.N. Introduction // Dhammapada / Per., Introduction. and comment. V.N. Toporova. M., 1960; Toporov V.N.“Pigeon Book” and “To the Flesh”: Composition of the World and Its Decay // Ethnolinguistics of the Text. Semiotics of small forms of folklore. 1. M., 1988. S. 169-172; Arkhipov A.A. On the interpretation of the name “Pigeon Book” // Ethnolinguistics of the text. pp. 174-177.

71 Wordsworth William (Wordsworth, 1770-1850) - English romantic poet, one of the masters of the sonnet. - See: Poetry of English romanticism of the 19th century. / Entry. Art. D. Urnova. M., 1975. S. 219-254.

72 Korolenko V.G. Sobr. cit.: V. 6v. M., 1971. T. 1. S. 59-60.

73 Ruckert Friedrich (Rikkert; 1788-1866) - German poet, author of the books "German Poems" (1814), "Songs about Dead Children" (1872); Gustav Mahler wrote music for some of them. - See: Poetry of the German Romantics. pp. 333-341.

Wolf Julius(1834 - 1910) - German writer, author of stories in verse on historical and fairy-tale themes ("Pied Piper from Hammeln", 1876, "Wild Hunter", 1877, etc.).

74 Garth Julius(Hart; 1859-1930) - German writer, critic, author of

four-volume epic "Songs of Humanity" (1887 - 1906), lyric collections, short stories, dramatic works.

75 “...Old age relates to life in the same way that evening relates to the day, so one can call the evening “the old age of the day”<...>, and old age - “evening of life”, or “sunset of life” (Aristotle. Poetics.1457 b 19 - b 25 // Aristotle and ancient literature. S. 148).

76 Rus. per. A. Geleskula see: Verlaine P. Lyrics. S. 44.

77 petrarch Francesco (1304-1374) - Italian poet, founder of the humanistic culture of the Renaissance, who influenced the new European poetry, brought to life a whole literary trend - Petrarchism - in the poetry of many European countries of the 15th-16th centuries. A.N. Veselovsky dedicated it to his work, especially the “Book of Songs” (“Canzoniere”), which for a long time became a model in the development of European lyrics, a separate work (1905) - “Petrarch in the poetic confession “Canzoniere”. 1304-1904". This repeatedly published work (see: the journal "Scientific Word". 1905. Books 3, 5, 6; Collected works. T. IV. Issue 1. S. 483-604; separate edition - St. Petersburg, 1912) refers to the late period of A.N. Veselovsky. As noted in the comments to her last publication (Veselovsky A.N. Selected articles. pp. 153-242) M.P. Alekseev, at that time the scientific method of Veselovsky leaned noticeably towards psychologism, the problem of “personal initiative”, an individual contribution to the history of poetic style, began to sound more acute. At the same time, Veselovsky has a long-standing interest in Petrarch, associated with his early work on the Italian Renaissance, with understanding the problem of the emancipation of the individual in this era (Ibid., pp. 538-539). A work dedicated to Petrarch by A.N. Veselovsky has not lost its scientific significance even today; modern researchers of the life and work of the Italian poet certainly turn to it. For the latest Russian translation of the Book of Songs, see: Petrarch F. Lyrics / Intro. Art., comp. and note. N. Tomashevsky. M., 1980.

Rousseau Jean Jacques (1712-1778) - French philosopher, writer, composer. An original thinker, he had a significant influence with his many-sided work on contemporary European thought, laying the foundation for “Rousseauism”. He was characterized by the "cult of nature" and the preaching of "natural man." - Cm.: Rousseau J.J. Fav. cit.: In 3 vols. M., 1961; Levi-Strauss K. Rousseau - the father of anthropology // UNESCO Courier. 1963. No. 3. S. 10-14.

78 Francis of Assisi(1181 or 1182-1226) - Italian religious figure and writer, founder of the monastic order, named after him Franciscan, canonized in the Catholic Church. Contrary to the medieval censure of nature, the understanding of Christianity as “asceticism of fear and contrition”, Francis preached “asceticism of joy”, which did not require the condemnation of nature, glorifying all its phenomena as the creations of God. The influence of the ideas of St. Francis is also found in the work of a number of representatives of art and literature of the 20th century. - See: Flowers of St. Francis of Assisi / Per. A.P. Pechkovsky; Intro. Art. S.N. Durylin. M., 1913, Boehmer H. Analecten zur Gesehichte des Franciscus von Assisi. Leipzig, 1904; Lambert M.D. Franciscan Poverty. Allenson, 1961.

79 Developing these ideas, A.N. Veselovsky, B.C. Baevsky significantly expands the scope of psychological parallelism in literature, considering it “a remarkably capacious form of manifestation of poetic consciousness associated with the past and

forward to the future.” The scientist refers psychological parallelism to the deep structures of the human psyche, explaining its universality by the stability of the genetic code. “The principle of psychological parallelism underlies the most important categories and means of the art of the word. This statement is true both genetically and structurally and typologically. Historically, psychological parallelism is the womb that gave rise to the main verbal artistic categories and means”, and therefore all of them can be ordered relative to psychological parallelism as the center of the system and a typology of artistic categories and means in the field of the art of the word can be built. - Cm.: BaevskyB. C. The problem of psychological parallelism. S. 63.

Portal for the student. Self-training

Definition

Story

Kinds

Parallelism binomial

Formal parallelism

Polynomial parallelism

One-Term Parallelism

Concurrency is negative

From folklore to author's literature

What is the function of comparisons, epithets and metaphors of psychological parallelism?

Psychological Parallelism in The Tale of Igor's Campaign

Definition

Kinds

Parallelism binomial

Formal parallelism

Polynomial parallelism

One-Term Parallelism

Concurrency is negative

From folklore to author's literature

What is the function of comparisons, epithets and metaphors of psychological parallelism?

Psychological Parallelism in The Tale of Igor's Campaign

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