Industrial and trade policy of Peter 1 briefly. History of trade in Russia

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"The development of industry, finance and the state under PeterI»

Introduction

The era of Peter I is the culmination of the process of decomposition of feudalism and the genesis of capitalist relations, which began in the 17th century. Peter I correctly understood and realized the complexity of the tasks that faced the country, and began to purposefully implement them.

Under Peter 1, absolutism was finally established in Russia, Peter was proclaimed emperor, which meant strengthening the power of the king himself, he became an autocratic and unlimited monarch. transformations in state and public life carried out during the reign of Peter I in Russia. All state activity of Peter I can be conditionally divided into two periods: 1696-1715 and 1715-1725. The peculiarity of the first stage was the haste and not always thoughtful nature, which was explained by the conduct of the Northern War. The reforms were aimed primarily at raising funds for warfare, were carried out by force and often did not lead to the desired result. In addition to state reforms, extensive reforms were carried out at the first stage in order to modernize the way of life. In the second period, the reforms were more systematic.

Rindustrial development

The legacy of Peter the Great from the Muscovite state inherited the underdeveloped rudiments of industry, planted and supported by the government, poorly developed trade associated with the poor organization of the state economy. Were inherited from the Muscovite state and its tasks - to win access to the sea and return the state to its natural borders. Peter quickly set about solving these problems, starting a war with Sweden and deciding to wage it in a new way and with new means. There is a new regular army, a fleet is being built. All this, of course, required huge financial outlays. The Muscovite state, with the growth of state needs, covered them with new taxes. Peter also did not shy away from this old technique, but next to it he put one innovation that Muscovite Russia did not know: Peter cared not only about taking everything that could be taken from the people, but also thought about the payer himself - the people, about where he can get the money to pay heavy taxes.

Peter saw the path to raising the people's well-being in the development of trade and industry. At the same time, the desire to reduce the cost of maintaining the army and navy naturally led to the idea that it would be cheaper to produce everything that was needed to equip and arm the army and navy. And since there were no factories and plants that could fulfill this task, the thought arose that they should be built. These thoughts were not new and have been known since the time of Tsar Michael, but only a person with an iron will and indestructible energy, such as Tsar Peter, could carry it out.

During the Great Embassy, the tsar studied all aspects of European life, including technical ones. Abroad, Peter learned the basics of the economic thought of that time - mercantilism. Mercantilism based its economic doctrine on two propositions: first, each people, in order not to become impoverished, must produce everything that it needs, without turning to the help of other people's labor, the labor of other peoples; second, every nation, in order to grow rich, must export as much as possible the manufactured products from its country and import foreign products as little as possible.

Realizing that Russia was not only not inferior, but even superior to other countries in the abundance of natural resources, Peter decided that the state should take over the development of the country's industry and trade. "Our Russian state, Peter said, before other lands it abounds and the necessary metals and minerals are most blessedly, which until now have been searched for without any diligence ".

Thus, realizing the importance of trade and industry and having assimilated the ideas of mercantilism in the West, Peter set about reforming these areas, forcing his subjects to do so, even if by force.

During the reign of Peter I, two stages can be traced in the industrial policy of Russia:

· 1700-1717 - the main founder of manufactories - the treasury;

· Since 1717, private individuals began to establish manufactories. At the same time, the owners of manufactories were exempted from the state service.

On the first stage, priority was given to the production of products for military needs. On the second stage industry began to produce products for the population.

By a decree of 1722, urban artisans were united in workshops, but unlike Western Europe, they were organized by the state, and not by the artisans themselves, to manufacture products needed by the army and navy. "

A higher form of industrial production was manufactory. As a result of the transformations of Peter I in the first quarter of the XVIII century. in the development of the manufacturing industry there was a sharp leap. Compared with the end of the XVII century. the number of manufactories increased by about five times and in 1725 amounted to 205 enterprises.

Particularly great successes were achieved in the metallurgical industry, which was caused by the need to arm the army and build a navy. Along with factories in the old regions (Tula, Kashira, Kaluga), factories arose in Karelia, and then in the Urals. It was during this period that the widespread development of iron and copper ores of the Urals began, which soon became the main metallurgical base of the country. Iron smelting reached 815,000 poods per year, according to this indicator, Rorsia took third place in the world, second only to England and Sweden. Large-scale copper production was organized. In second place were textile manufactories, which were developed in the center of the country. Leather enterprises also worked here, providing products primarily to the army.

Under Peter 1, new industries arose in Russia: shipbuilding, silk spinning, glass and earthenware, and paper production.

The state played an important role in the development of large-scale industry. It built factories, helped private entrepreneurs, and provided manufactories with labor.

The manufactories used both civilian and forced labor of peasants who worked at the patrimonial enterprises of their landlords, as well as ascribed peasants from the state and palace villages. By a decree of 1721, merchants were allowed to purchase serfs for their factories, who later became known as sessional. Thus, in the first quarter of the XVIII century. there was a leap in the development of large-scale production and in the use of free hired labor. This can be considered the second stage in the initial period of the genesis of capitalist relations in the industry of Russia (the first stage - the 17th century).

Thus, under Peter the foundation of Russian industry was laid. Many new industries entered the circulation of people's labor, that is, the sources of people's well-being increased quantitatively and improved qualitatively. This improvement was achieved by a terrible strain on the people's forces, but only thanks to this strain was the country able to endure the burden of the twenty-year uninterrupted war. In the future, the intensive development of national wealth, which began under Peter, led to the enrichment and economic development of Russia.

Domestic trade under Peter also revived significantly, but, in general, continued to have the same caravan and fair character. But even this side of the economic life of Russia was stirred up by Peter and brought out of that calmness of inertia and lack of enterprise, which was different in the 17th century and earlier. The spread of commercial knowledge, the emergence of factories and factories, communication with foreigners - all this gave a new meaning and direction to Russian trade, forcing it to revive inside and, thereby, becoming an increasingly active participant in world trade, to assimilate its principles and rules.

Development of the state under Peter I

At first, Peter I did not have a clear program of reforms in the sphere of public administration. The emergence of a new state institution or a change in the administrative-territorial administration of the country was dictated by the conduct of wars, which required significant financial resources and the mobilization of the population. The system of power inherited by Peter I did not allow collecting enough funds to reorganize and increase the army, build a fleet, build fortresses and St. Petersburg.

Public Administration Reform

(1699-1721)

The strengthening of the absolutist monarchy required the restructuring and ultimate centralization of the entire system of state administration, its higher, central and local bodies.

The Boyar Duma was replaced by the Governing Senate - the highest government institution with judicial, administrative, and sometimes legislative functions. It was created in 1711 as a part of 9 senators personally appointed by Peter from representatives of the nobility, former members of the Boyar Duma and nobles.

The functions of the Senate in the first years of its existence were wide and varied. In particular, he took care of state revenues and expenditures, was in charge of the attendance of the nobles for service, and was the oversight body for an extensive bureaucratic apparatus.

In 1922, a new regulation on the Senate was issued. With this provision, the Senate was declared the highest state institution of the empire. In the hands of Peter the Senate became an obedient instrument of the monarch in governing the country.

Instead of the complex and clumsy apparatus of the Orders (more than 50) and the offices with their fuzzy functions and parallelism in work, a project was developed to create new central departments. Reform 1717-1720 abolished orders and offices and introduced colleges created on the basis of studying foreign experience. In total, 11 boards were created with a strict distribution of functions. The College of Foreign (Foreign) Affairs - replaced the Ambassadorial Order, that is, it was in charge of foreign policy.

· Military Collegium (Military) - staffing, weapons, equipment and training of the land army.

· Admiralty Board - naval affairs, fleet.

· The patrimonial collegium - replaced the Local Order, that is, it was in charge of noble land ownership (land litigation, transactions for the purchase and sale of land and peasants, and the investigation of fugitives were considered). Founded in 1721.

· Board of Chambers - collection of state revenues.

The state-offices-collegium - was in charge of the state's expenses,

· Revision Board - control of the collection and spending of public funds.

· Commerce Board - issues of shipping, customs and foreign trade.

· Berg College - mining and metallurgical business (mining and plant industry).

Manufactory College - light industry (manufactories, that is, enterprises based on the division of manual labor).

· The College of Justice - was in charge of civil proceedings (the Serf Office operated under it: it registered various acts - bills of sale, on the sale of estates, spiritual wills, debt obligations). Worked in civil and criminal litigation.

· The Spiritual College or the Most Holy Governing Synod - managed (a) church affairs, replaced (a) the patriarch. Founded in 1721. This collegium/Synod included representatives of the higher clergy. Since their appointment was carried out by the tsar, and the decisions were approved by him, we can say that the Russian emperor became the de facto head of the Russian Orthodox Church. The actions of the Synod on behalf of the highest secular power were controlled by the chief prosecutor - a civil official appointed by the tsar. By a special decree, Peter I (Peter I) ordered the priests to carry out an enlightening mission among the peasants: to read sermons and instructions to them, to teach children prayers, to instill in them reverence for the tsar and the church.

· The Little Russian Collegium - exercised control over the actions of the hetman, who owned power in Ukraine, because there was a special regime of local government. After the death in 1722 of Hetman I.I. Skoropadsky, new elections of the hetman were prohibited, and the hetman was appointed for the first time by royal decree. The collegium was headed by a tsarist officer.

At first, each collegium was guided by its regulations, but in 1720 an extensive (of 56 chapters) “General Regulations” was published, which determined their uniform organizational structure and procedure for activity. The subsequent development of the principle of seniority was reflected in Peter's "Table of Ranks" of 1722. The new law divided the service into civil and military. It defined 14 classes or ranks of officials. Anyone who received the rank of 8th class became a hereditary nobleman.

The new system of state bureaucratization has qualitatively changed the service estates, including people from other social groups in the nobility. All of them received land and peasants. In the Petrine era, hundreds of thousands of peasants from among the state and palace went into private ownership, that is, they became serfs.

As a result of the reform, the public administration system has become more perfect. The activities of most state bodies became regulated, the collegiums had a clearly defined area of activity. Supervisory bodies were created.

Regional (provincial) reform

(1708-1715 and 1719-1720)

The reform was carried out in 2 stages. At the first, in 1708-1715, a regional reform was carried out in order to strengthen the vertical of power in the field and better provide the army with supplies and recruits. In 1708, the country was divided into 8 provinces headed by governors endowed with full judicial and administrative power: Moscow, Ingermanland (later St. Petersburg), Kiev, Smolensk, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk and Siberia. The Moscow province gave more than a third of the proceeds to the treasury, followed by the Kazan province.

The governors were also in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province. In 1710, new administrative units appeared - shares, uniting 5536 households. The first regional reform did not solve the set tasks, but only significantly increased the number of civil servants and the cost of their maintenance.

In 1719-1720, the second regional reform was carried out, which eliminated the shares. The provinces began to be divided into 50 provinces headed by governors, and the provinces into districts headed by zemstvo commissars appointed by the Chamber Collegium. The governors were deprived of administrative power, only military and judicial affairs remained in their jurisdiction.

As a result of this reform, there was a centralization of power. Local governments have almost completely lost influence.

Judicial reform

(1697, 1719, 1722)

Peter 1 formed new judicial bodies: the Senate, the Justic College, the Hofgerichts, and the lower courts. Judicial functions were also performed by all colleagues, except for Foreign. The judges were separated from the administration. The court of kissers (an analogue of the jury trial) was canceled, the principle of the inviolability of an unconvicted person was lost.

Under Peter, the judicial system underwent radical changes. The functions of the Supreme Court were given to the Senate and the College of Justice. Below them were: provinces - gofgerichty or court courts of appeal in large cities, and provincial collegiate lower courts. The provincial courts conducted civil and criminal cases of all categories of peasants except for the monastic ones, as well as townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, the magistrate conducted the court cases of the townspeople included in the settlement. In other cases, the so-called one-man court acted (cases were decided solely by a zemstvo or city judge). However, in 1722 the lower courts were replaced by provincial courts headed by a voivode.

A large number of judicial bodies and persons who carried out judicial activities (the emperor himself, governors, governors, etc.) brought confusion and confusion to the proceedings, the introduction of the possibility of "knocking out" testimony under torture created grounds for abuse and bias. At the same time, the adversarial nature of the process was established and the need for the verdict to be based on specific articles of the law corresponding to the case under consideration.

Military reforms

The introduction of recruitment, the creation of the navy, the establishment of the Military Collegium, which was in charge of all military affairs. Introduction with the help of the "Table of Ranks" of military ranks, uniform for all of Russia. Creation of military-industrial enterprises, as well as military educational institutions. Introduction of army discipline and military regulations.

With his reforms, Peter 1 created a formidable regular army, numbering up to 212 thousand people by 1725, and a strong navy. Subdivisions were created in the army: regiments, brigades and divisions, in the navy - squadrons. Many military victories were won. These reforms (although ambiguously assessed by different historians) created a springboard for the further success of Russian weapons.

The reform of the army: in particular, the introduction of regiments of a new order, reformed according to a foreign model, was begun long before Peter I, even under Alexei I. However, the combat effectiveness of this army was low. The reform of the army and the creation of the navy became necessary conditions for victory in the Northern War of 1700-1721. Preparing for the war with Sweden, Peter ordered in 1699 to make a general recruitment and start training soldiers according to the model established by the Preobrazhenians and Semyonovites. This first recruitment gave 29 infantry regiments and two dragoons. In 1705, every 20 yards had to put up one recruit for life service. Subsequently, recruits began to be taken from a certain number of male souls among the peasants. Recruitment to the fleet, as well as to the army, was carried out from recruits.

If at first among the officers there were mainly foreign specialists, then after the start of the navigation, artillery, engineering schools, the growth of the army was satisfied by Russian officers from the nobility. In 1715, the Naval Academy was opened in St. Petersburg. In 1716, the Military Charter was issued, which strictly defined the service, rights and duties of the military. - As a result of the transformations, a strong regular army and a powerful navy were created, which Russia simply did not have before. By the end of Peter's reign, the number of regular ground troops reached 210 thousand (of which there were 2600 in the guard, 41 560 in the cavalry, 75 thousand in the infantry, 14 thousand in the garrisons) and up to 110 thousand irregular troops. The fleet consisted of 48 battleships; 787 galleys and other vessels; there were almost 30 thousand people on all the ships.

Church reform

(1700-1701; 1721)

After the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, the institution of the patriarchate was actually liquidated. In 1701, the management of church and monastery lands was reformed. Peter 1 restored the Monastic order, which controlled church revenues and the trial of the monastery peasants. In 1721, the Spiritual Regulations were adopted, which actually deprived the church of independence. To replace the patriarchate, the Holy Synod was created, whose members were subordinate to Peter 1, by whom they were appointed. Church property was often taken away and spent on the needs of the emperor. The church reforms of Peter 1 led to the almost complete subordination of the clergy to secular power. In addition to the elimination of the patriarchate, many bishops and ordinary clergy were persecuted. The church could no longer pursue an independent spiritual policy and partly lost its authority in society.

Development of finance

A significant improvement in finances was the ultimate goal of the reform activities of Peter I. His financial policy was characterized by an unprecedented tax oppression before his reign. The growth of the state budget was achieved by expanding indirect and increasing direct taxes. More and more new, additional sources of taxes were sought: bath, fish, honey, horse and other taxes, up to a tax on beards (the king demanded that beards be shaved, and those who did not comply with this requirement were obliged to pay a tax) and on oak coffins, the sale of which was declared state monopoly, as well as drinking and tobacco. In total, there were up to 40 types of indirect collections.

financial reform

The search for new sources of income led to a radical reform of the entire tax system - the introduction of a poll tax. From the end of 1718 to 1724, a population census was conducted in Russia and 5.4 million male souls were taken into account, subject to a single tax: from landlord peasants - 74 kopecks. per year, from state peasants - 1 rub. 14 kopecks, from artisans and merchants - 1 rub. 20 kop.

By the end of Petrovsky's rule (1725), state revenues increased almost 4 times compared to 1701 and amounted to 8.5 million rubles. of which more than half (4.6 million rubles) accounted for the poll tax. The poll tax was much heavier than the former household and land taxes and gave the government a much larger amount of money compared to the collections of the 17th century.

The huge deficits of the first years of the 18th century decreased towards the end of Peter's reign, although even in his declining years he still did not cease to need money for the maintenance of the army and navy, for the needs of the national economy.

Monetary reform of Peter I

The state of monetary circulation at the end of the 17th century was characterized by a deep crisis. As a result of a steady decrease in the weight norm (from 0.63 g to 0.39 g), the circulating silver kopeck turned into a tiny coin the size of a watermelon seed and was unable to serve the all-Russian market. There were no coins in circulation needed to serve petty trade. The silver kopeck could not fulfill this role, since its denomination was still large. The minting of small fractions with the manual method was unprofitable for the treasury, bringing losses to it.

Thus, by the end of the 17th century, there was a need to implement fundamental changes in monetary circulation through a monetary reform, because the further development of the Russian economy and the success of a number of transformations in other areas of society depended on this.

The idea was to introduce a large silver coin into circulation, replacing small silver money with copper coins; in practice, it was necessary to solve the same tasks that Alexei Mikhailovich, the father of Peter I, set in 1654. However, as history shows, he then suffered a failure, which led to strong popular unrest. Peter I, taking into account the failed attempts of the government of Alexei Mikhailovich, acted tactically differently, as evidenced by the initial stage of the reform.

The beginning of the next stage of the reform (1704-1711) was marked by the fact that in 1704 two denominations were immediately put into circulation: a copper kopeck and a ruble, which were assigned the role of the main monetary units in the new monetary system. The basis of the monetary system was the decimal principle of the ratio of denominations: 1 ruble was equated to 100 kopecks. The parallel issue of identically dated silver and copper money taught the population to the equivalence of both coins, which helped to strengthen confidence in the copper coin 26 .

The essence of the next stage (1711-1717) was to abandon the minting of small silver money of the taler standard and lower it to the 70th, that is, to reduce the content of pure silver in them and, consequently, their real value.

The period from 1718 to 1724 can be defined as the final stage of the reform. At this stage, the minting of silver wire kopecks completely stops, which characterizes the completion of the functioning of the old Russian monetary system. At the same time, the issue of copper kopecks was also stopped, in order to mask the “overthrow” of the silver kopeck and prevent unrest among the people. Only in 1724 was the minting of the copper kopeck resumed.

Bringing together all the innovations introduced by Peter I into the monetary system of Russia, we get a rather impressive list:

· Firstly, a large silver coin appeared in circulation - the ruble, capable of effectively serving industry and trade, including foreign trade. It accounted for 88.5% of the total coinage. The average annual issue of a silver coin from 1698 to 1724 amounted to 1.1 million rubles.

· Secondly, as a small, token coin, instead of the silver coin that ceased to exist, a copper coin began to be used. As a result of the measures taken, the share of copper coins in the total amount of minting amounted to 9.2%. Copper money served mainly small transactions, they were mainly used by the population.

· Thirdly, a gold coin was introduced into circulation, which was no longer used for award purposes in connection with the establishment of the issuance of special award medals. The gold coin was designed to serve the foreign trade turnover. It accounted for 2.3% of the total coinage.

· Fourthly, the monetary system introduced by Peter I was fundamentally different in its decimal system and remained the only decimal system in the world until the end of the 18th century.

· Fifthly, in the course of the reform, for the first time the standard of silver and gold coins was established by the state and enshrined in law.

· Sixth, the technique of minting coins was improved. Instead of hand minting, mints began to use "hammer shells" and then screw presses. Thanks to machine minting, Russian coins acquired a round shape and a standard stable weight. And finally, starting from 1696, the dating of Russian coins was introduced for the first time. From 1696 to 1700, the year from the creation of the world was indicated on the coins, and then, due to the change in the year from the birth of Christ, the chronology from 1700.

Fformation of the state budget

The main source of state budget revenues were direct taxes from the population - up to 55.5% in 1724. In addition, as in the 17th century, indirect taxes and a system of ransoms for the sale of monopoly goods, as well as ransoms for the construction of mills, bridges, etc., played an important role. Various in-kind duties became widespread, such as recruiting, stationing (apartment) and underwater, according to which the peasants had to provide the military units that stood up with food and fodder grain. State peasants were also obliged to perform various kinds of work in favor of the state: to transport mail and allocate carts for carts, to take part in the construction of canals, harbors, roads.

A special role in replenishing the revenues of the treasury was played by manipulations with small copper coins. So, for example, the market price of one pood of copper was 7 rubles, but at the beginning of the 18th century copper money was minted from this mass for 12 rubles, and by 1718 - for 40 rubles. The huge difference between the market price of copper and the face value of a copper coin led to their endless illegal fakes - "thieves' money", rising prices and depreciation of money, impoverishment of the population.
The main item in the budget was military spending. . The size of military spending can be judged by the following fact: at the very beginning of the 18th century, when an anti-Swedish coalition was formed in Europe consisting of Russia, Poland, Denmark and a number of German principalities, Peter I undertook to pay 150 thousand rubles. as an annual subsidy to the Polish king August II, only for him to continue to support the union and participate in hostilities against Sweden. For example, the military campaigns of Peter I absorbed approximately 80-85% of all Russian income, and in 1705 they cost 96%. During the period of Peter the Great's reforms, expenditures on the state apparatus, on the construction of St. Petersburg and the palaces around it, on various ceremonial events on the occasion of military victories - “victory”, magnificent festivities, etc., were systematically increased. due to inflation, as well as government loans, especially after the death of Peter I.

Conclusion

reform peter state budget

Late 17th - first quarter of the 18th century - a turning point in the history of Russia, marked by dramatic shifts in the economy, state building and culture. The coming to power of Peter I at the end of the XVII century. had a decisive influence on the fate of the Russian state, which continued to exist and take any action in the field of foreign policy rather by inertia or as a result of pressure from other European powers than in order to protect its interests and pursue its own foreign policy line.

Thanks to a number of brilliant victories due to the transformations carried out by Peter I in the Russian army, as well as skillful diplomacy, Russia's authority in the international arena is growing. The assertion of Russia on the shores of the Baltic Sea created favorable conditions for the development of permanent economic, cultural and political ties with the leading countries of Western Europe, which led to significant shifts in the socio-economic development of Russia. In fact, Russia became one of the leading European powers of its time.

Peter I was a great reformer of his time. The main result of the totality of Peter's reforms was the establishment of an absolutist regime in Russia, the crowning achievement of which was the change in 1721 of the title of the Russian monarch - Peter declared himself emperor, and the country began to be called the Russian Empire. Thus, a state was created with a harmonious system of government, a strong army and navy, a powerful economy that has an impact on international politics. As a result of the Petrine reforms, the state was not bound by anything and could use any means to achieve its goals.

Russia became an autocratic, military-bureaucratic state, the central role in which belonged to the nobility.

The role of Peter the Great in the history of Russia can hardly be overestimated. No matter how one relates to the methods and style of carrying out transformations, one cannot but admit that Peter the Great is one of the most prominent figures in world history.

Bibliography

1. History of Russia http://rhistory.ucoz.ru/publ/reformy_petra_1_tablica/15-1-0-145

2. Wikipedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0% E5% F4% EE % F0% EC % FB_%CF % E5% F2% F0% E0_I

3. Timoshina T.M. Economic History of Russia: Textbook / Ed. About M.N. Chepurin. - 11th ed. M.: CJSC Yustitsinform, 2004

4. Semenkova T.G. Monetary reform 1535-1538 - the result of the development of the economy of the Russian state in the first third of the sixteenth century // Monetary reforms in Russia: History and modernity. Digest of articles. M.: Ancient storage, 2004

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The essence and content of the industrial reform of Peter I

Reasons and goals:

The backwardness of the economy of the Russian kingdom was caused by a serious lag in the development of industry
The modernization of the armament of the army, and ensuring the construction of a modernly equipped navy was impossible without the appropriate production within the country
New administrative institutions were required for the organization and development of industry.

Peter I was personally convinced of the technological and personnel lag of Russian industry in front of European countries. His first step towards the development of industrial production was to attract foreign engineers. In 1698, when during his return from the Grand Embassy, thousands of different craftsmen arrived with the king. In 1702, Peter I issued a decree inviting foreign specialists to serve in Russia, and Russian ambassadors who were in European countries were ordered to hire the best possible designers.

Adopting Western industrial traditions and economic principles, the king focused on two main points

Mercantilism

Active state intervention in economic life with the aim of accumulating capital within the country to improve its welfare, as well as ensuring the maximum amount of goods produced for domestic needs with a reduction in primary resources sold to other countries.

Protectionism

Support for the national economy, carried out mainly with the help of trade and political barriers - the introduction of prohibitive (excessively high) duties on competing goods, the monopolization of mining or production by the state.

The king had to solve the following tasks:

Eliminate the lack of engineers and skilled craftsmen,
Organize the search, extraction and processing of primary ores, as well as the production of end products,
Provide factories and plants with labor
Protect nascent domestic production from competition with high-tech foreign products

Even before the first trip abroad, Peter ordered to explore all sorts of ores in the Urals. Returning with hired mining engineers and foremen, he, encouraged by favorable searches and experiments that showed that iron ore gave pure good iron almost half of its weight, built in 1699 on the Nevye River, in the Verkhotursk district, iron factories, on which the treasury spent 1,541 rubles, and 10,347 rubles were collected from the peasants for hiring workers.

Invited foreign experts not only organized production and designed factories, but also took apprentices among people selected from all free classes, as well as serfs who received vacation papers from the landowners. There were not enough volunteers for training (work in factories and factories was too hard), so from the 1720s they began to train fugitive peasants, but not soldiers. In addition, Peter I himself recruited students by decrees, and also sent noble children abroad for education.

Ascribed peasants

In 1703 the tsar signed a decree on assigned peasants- a new type of serfs, instead of paying a poll tax, was obliged to work in factories and factories. Usually, assigned peasants were attached to manufactories without a specific time frame, that is, forever. Formally, these peasants remained the property of the state, but in practice, the factory owners used and punished them as their serfs. The economy of the mining and metallurgical industries, in particular, the Altai mining district, was based on the exploitation of bonded peasants. The difficult situation caused escapes, unrest and uprisings of bonded peasants.

State subsidies

The practice of building production facilities at public expense with their subsequent transfer to private hands has become widespread. At the same time, the tsar and the people appointed by him followed the development of enterprises, and in case of unsatisfactory results, the guilty manufacturer could be deprived of his property, exiled to hard labor, or even executed.

There are two stages in industrial policy:

1700-1717 - the main founder of manufactories - the treasury;
since 1717, private individuals began to establish manufactories.

In the Olonets region, on the shores of Lake Onega, in 1703 an iron foundry and an ironworks were built, which became the foundation of the city of Petrozavodsk. Following this, several iron and copper factories, state-owned and private, arose in Povenets and other places in the region. Mining has developed especially widely in the current Perm province; in this respect, the Urals can be called the discovery of Peter.

Understanding the need to organize the supply of new equipment and weapons to the army as soon as possible, Peter I gave various privileges to the manufacturers - their families were exempted from public service, were only subject to the court of the Manufactory Collegium, did not pay personal taxes, were exempted from the obligation to house troops and received the right to bring from abroad any goods needed for production.

Berg privilege

By decree of 1712, Peter the Great founded an arms production in the city of Tula. But in the next few years, the shortage of primary metalworking products, which the industry badly needed, became apparent. Therefore, the “Berg Privilege” published in 1719 gave any free person the right to seek, mine and process metals and minerals, with the obligatory payment of a “mining tax” of 10% of the cost of mining and 32 shares to the owner of the land on which mining and processing was carried out. resources.

Introduction of the category of possessive peasants

In 1721, Peter I allowed the factory owners, who complained about the mass flight of peasants from factories and the lack of workers, to buy out entire villages to service the factories, on the condition that later these peasants could only be sold together with production. Thus, another category of peasants was formed - sessional. This free labor power was, in fact, the living inventory of the manufacture to which it was assigned.

Serf factory workers received only food and clothing instead of payment. Free people were paid money, usually on a monthly basis in state-owned factories, and on a piece-rate basis in private ones.

Until 1724, Peter I pursued a policy of protectionism in relation to industry, prohibiting or restricting the import of foreign goods, analogues of which began to be produced in the Russian Empire. Even within the country, monopolies were introduced in the production and sale of certain products in order to accelerate the development of a single newly opened factory.

By the end of the reign of Peter I, iron smelting reached 7 million pounds, copper - 200 thousand pounds. The development of silver and gold began.

New administrative bodies for the development of industry

Established by Peter I, among other collegiums, the Berg-, Manufaktura-, Commerce Collegia and the Chief Magistrate were institutions of state regulation of the national economy, bodies for the implementation of the commercial and industrial policy of the autocracy.

Berg College - Development of the Mining Industry
Manufactory College - the development of textile, woodworking and other visible light industries
Commerce Collegium - responsible for organizing trade relations
Chief Magistrate - combined the functions of industrial and commercial administration at the city level

By a decree of 1722, urban artisans were united in workshops, but unlike Western Europe, they were organized by the state, and not by the artisans themselves. Each workshop was headed by a master approved by the magistrate, who evaluated the products manufactured by artisans and could destroy the goods if they were of insufficient quality. It was also forbidden to sell goods that did not have the personal brand of a particular artisan.

Product quality

However, with the exception of products intended to equip the army and navy (for the poor quality of which the manufacturer who supplied them was deprived of production and could be exiled to hard labor or executed), most of the goods produced in the country were of poor quality and significantly inferior to foreign counterparts.

Outcomes and results of reforms in the field of industry

It is possible that the industrial reform of Peter the Great did not create production facilities that were qualitatively superior to Western counterparts, but it definitely laid the foundation for the subsequent development of the country and made it possible to provide the troops with modern weapons.

Peter left behind 233 factories and plants in the most diverse industries. Most of all, he was concerned about the production related to the supply of the army, linen, canvas, cloth: in 1712 he set the main task of the light industry to meet the needs of the army in order to “not buy overseas uniforms”, but they did not manage to do this until the end of his life. Also, new industries emerged in Russia: shipbuilding, silk spinning, glass and faience business, and paper production.

Carrying out the reform of the Russian economy, Peter I makes a lot of efforts for the development of Russian industry. As in other areas of life, Peter saw this work as a state duty, and therefore considered himself entitled to impose it on the population and demand its fulfillment, no matter how hard the work itself was.

To stimulate industrial production, interest-free loans are issued, payment by installments is granted, duty-free or at a reduced tariff is allowed to import the necessary material from abroad. Privileges are granted, and at first even monopolies for production are granted. A high duty is imposed on imported goods to eliminate competition. Consulates are established abroad to protect the trade interests of Russian merchants.

Peter I was especially concerned about the development of mining in Russia and the planting of a large factory industry, and in this area he achieved the greatest success. The Tula arms factory with an extensive arsenal and surrounding settlements of gunsmiths and blacksmiths supplied the large Russian army with weapons. In the Olonets region, on the shores of Lake Onega, in 1703. an iron foundry and ironworks was built, which became the foundation of the city of Petrozavodsk. But mining developed especially widely and successfully in the Urals, rich in ore deposits. The Urals had huge tracts of forest, necessary for obtaining charcoal, on which metal was smelted, fast and full-flowing rivers, which ensured the construction of factory dams. The Urals turned into one of the main centers for the production of weapons, the smelting of copper, which is necessary in shipbuilding and for minting coins. Other centers of metallurgy were Karelia and the Lipetsk region. Although the ores here were poor and metal production was expensive, both of these areas of production were close to the centers of consumption - St. Petersburg and Voronezh. In the XVIII century. the government could already equip the army and navy with weapons from Russian material and Russian manufacture, and iron and copper were even exported abroad.

A feature of the metallurgical industry was that, unlike the capitalist manufacture of the West, it was based on forced labor. The introduction of the poll tax and its extension to new categories of the population, the establishment of a passport system that made it extremely difficult for peasants to leave the countryside, reduced to a minimum the opportunities for the formation of a civilian labor market in the country. Therefore, in order to provide the plants and factories with the necessary number of workers, the manufacturers and factory owners were allowed to buy villages for the factories, with the limitation, however, that “those villages were always inseparable from those factories,” in other words, without land and without a factory, the peasants could not be sold. This is how the sessional peasants arose.

Most of the metallurgical enterprises were originally built at the expense of the treasury, but later on the share of private capital in the construction of factories increased. During the first decade of the eighteenth century the treasury built 14 metallurgical enterprises, and private individuals only 2. In the next 15 years, 5 factories were built with state funds, and 10 by private industrialists. Some of the state-owned factories were subsequently transferred to private hands on preferential terms. So, for example, the first large metallurgical plant in the Urals - Nevyanovsky - was transferred by Peter I to the factory owner Demidov, on its basis a huge complex of factories grew, producing in the middle of the 18th century. more than a third of the metal smelted in Russia.

At the end of the reign of Peter in Russia there were up to 240 factories and factories. Along with metallurgical plants, there were cloth, linen, paper, silk, carpet, and hair factories; cannon, weapons, gunpowder factories.

However, despite the spread of manufactories, urban craft and peasant crafts retained their paramount importance. A huge mass of rural residents continued to be content with simple household items made in their own households. However, the patriarchal isolation of domestic crafts was gradually broken. Millions of arshins of peasant linen and other products through buyers got not only to the markets of large cities, but also abroad.

All industrial business in Russia was strictly regulated. Peter did not limit himself to general instructions: government guardianship often intruded into the smallest details. The canvas that went abroad was ordered to be made necessarily 1.5 arshins wide, not wider, not narrower; sell hemp, having previously cut off its ends or roots. Craftsmen were ordered to organize themselves into craft workshops. In the early 30s of the XVIII century. in Russia there were up to 15 thousand guild artisans, of which more than half (8.5 thousand) were in Moscow.

The rapid development of the manufacturing industry in Russia at that time was largely ensured by the protectionist policy of the Russian government. In order to protect Russian manufactory from the competition of foreign goods, it was in 1724. adopted the Customs Charter, which established high duties on goods imported from abroad, which were also produced by Russian manufactories, and vice versa, exempted the import of necessary raw materials from duties. In addition, the government provided the owners of manufactories with a number of benefits: freed them from permanent conscription and state services, subordinated them directly to colleges, reduced interference in their affairs by the local administration, and most importantly, granted them the right to exploit the forced labor of peasants at their enterprises.

The growth of manufactories, small commodity production, its specialization in certain regions of the country contributed to the expansion of domestic trade. Fairs of all-Russian significance continued to play a large role in internal exchange - Makarievskaya, Irbitskaya, Svenskaya, Arkhangelsk and others. Goods from all over the country were brought to these centers.

The construction of canals contributed to the expansion of domestic trade: in 1703. construction of the Vyshnevolotsk canal began, connecting the Volga basin with the Baltic Sea. The cheap water route opened up wide opportunities for the delivery of goods to St. Petersburg and from there abroad. Around the turbulent Lake Ladoga, the construction of a bypass canal began, which was completed already in the second quarter of the 18th century.

The center of foreign trade moved from the White Sea to the Baltic. So, in 1725. more than 900 foreign ships arrived in St. Petersburg. Other Baltic ports also actively participated in foreign trade: Vyborg, Riga, Narva, Revel (Tallinn), and only about 5% of Russia's foreign trade turnover remained on the share of Arkhangelsk.

Russia exported both traditional goods - flax, hemp, resin, wood, leather, canvas, and new ones - linen and iron.

In imports, expensive cloth, silk fabrics, grape wines, coffee, spices, confectionery, porcelain, crystal and other luxury items occupied a prominent place. What was new was the expansion of the import of raw materials for the developing industry. In particular, dyes for textile manufactories were imported.

Russia has succeeded in its mercantilist policy by increasing its trade surplus. Export of goods through St. Petersburg, Arkhangelsk and Riga in 1726. amounted to 4.2 million rubles, and import - 2.1 million. This was largely facilitated by the customs tariff imbued with protectionist principles. Moreover, duties from foreigners were levied by Efimkas, i.e. in foreign currency, accepted at a reduced rate. This doubled the amount of the duty and helped attract precious metals to the country.

3 Peter's "revolution" in the field of culture

and life. The problem of civilizational split

in the Petrine era and its influence

on the historical fate of Russia

The foundation of manufactories, the construction of canals, the creation of the navy required the training of specialists in various fields of science and technology. For the regular army and navy and the new bureaucratic institutions, trained officers and officials were needed. The scholastic school, which was in the hands of the church, could not meet the country's new needs for educated people.

In Russia, the secular school was created in two forms: in the form of elementary "digital" schools (of which there were about 50 by the end of the reign of Peter I) and in the form of a number of special educational institutions. Such were the navigation school in Moscow and the naval academy in St. Petersburg, the engineering school in Moscow and the artillery school in St. Petersburg, several "mathematical schools", a medical school at the Moscow military hospital.

Educational literature was produced for schools - primers, manuals on mathematics and mechanics, manuals on military engineering. Navigation school teacher L. Magnitsky in 1703. published the famous "Arithmetic", which taught more than one generation of Russian people.

However, the Petrine school did not produce lasting results. Many digital schools existed only on paper and later gradually closed completely. The nobility avoided these schools, and the merchant class directly petitioned for permission not to send their children there at all, referring to the damage to commercial affairs. The percentage of those who avoid attending digital schools has always been significant. Primary schools at the bishops' houses, which were run by the clergy, turned out to be more vital. They survived even after the death of Peter I.

Under Peter, the printing of secular books on a large scale began, ranging from alphabets, textbooks and calendars to historical writings and political treatises. From January 1703 in Moscow, the first printed newspaper, Vedomosti about military and other affairs worthy of knowledge and memory, that happened in the Moscow state and in other surrounding countries, began to appear.

The introduction of printed literature in 1710 contributed to the spread of printed literature. a new civil font, more simplified compared to the complex style of the old Church Slavonic letters. The works of Western European scientists began to be systematically translated into Russian. It was a process of enriching the country with the achievements of foreign science and technology.

The Kunstkamera, created by Peter I, laid the foundation for collecting collections of historical and memorial items and rarities, weapons, materials on the natural sciences, etc. At the same time, they began to collect ancient written sources, make copies of chronicles, letters, decrees and other acts. This was the beginning of the museum business in Russia.

An important milestone in Peter's transformations in the field of culture was the "great embassy". Having glimpsed Western culture in passing, Peter I came to the conclusion, dangerous for the national Russian culture, that it was lagging far behind Western culture. And that is why Peter I is making gigantic efforts and violence in order to push Russia into Western civilization.

First of all, Peter I tried to change the national traditions and everyday habits that had developed in the country. The old habitual long-sleeved clothes with long sleeves were forbidden and replaced with new ones. It was prescribed to wear camisoles, ties and frills, wide-brimmed hats, stockings, shoes, wigs. It was forbidden to wear beards. Sellers of long dresses and boots and those who wore beards were threatened with exile to hard labor and confiscation of property. The king cut his beards with his own hands and cut off long caftans. He left long beards only to priests and peasants, the rest paid huge duties for wearing a beard. Citizens were also required to drink tea and coffee, smoke tobacco.

In 1718 Peter I introduced assemblies in St. Petersburg - solemn receptions of guests in noble houses. They were supposed to appear with their wives and daughters. The assemblies were schools of secular education, where young people had to learn good manners, rules of conduct in society, and communication. The code of conduct of the young generation was “An honest mirror of youth, or an indication for everyday behavior”, compiled by an unknown author, which set out the rules for the behavior of young people in the family, at a party, in public places, in the service. The establishment of the assemblies marked the beginning of the establishment among the Russian nobility of "rules of good manners" and "noble behavior in society", the use of a foreign, mainly French language. Thanks to the efforts of Peter I himself, many assemblies turned into drunkenness, and often the participants in the assemblies, both men and women, are forcibly introduced to drunkenness.

Changes in everyday life and culture that occurred in the first quarter of the XVIII century. were of progressive importance, but they mainly affected high society. They further emphasized the allocation of the nobility to the privileged class, turned the use of the benefits and achievements of culture into one of the noble class privileges. Among the nobility, a contemptuous attitude towards the Russian language and Russian culture is being established. Two subcultures are being formed in Russian society: the culture of the “people” and the culture of “society”. So, within the framework of a single religion and statehood, there are two civilizationally different cultures. Berdyaev N.A. wrote: “Russian people of that time lived on different floors and even in different centuries ... There was almost nothing in common between the upper and lower floors of Russian culture, a complete split. They lived on different planets.

The wise man avoids all extremes.
Lao Tzu

The Russian economy in the 17th century lagged far behind European countries. Therefore, the economic policy of Peter 1 was aimed at creating conditions for the economic development of the country in the present and future. Separately, it should be noted that the main direction of the development of the economy of that era was the development, first of all, of the military industry. It is important to understand this, since the entire reign of Peter 1 took place during the period of wars, the main one of which was the Northern War.

The economy of the era of Peter and should be considered from the point of view of the following components:

The state of the economy at the beginning of the era

The Russian economy before Peter 1 came to power had a huge number of problems. Suffice it to say that in a country with a huge amount of natural resources, there was no necessary material for their own provision, even for the needs of the army. For example, metal for cannons and artillery was purchased in Sweden. The industry was in decline. Throughout Russia there were only 25 manufactories. For comparison, in England during the same period there were more than 100 manufactories. As for agriculture and trade, the old rules were in effect and these industries practically did not develop.

Features of economic development

Peter's great embassy to Europe opened up to the tsar the problems that were in the Russian economy. These problems were exacerbated with the start of the Northern War, when Sweden cut off the supply of iron (metal). As a result, Peter I was forced to melt church bells into cannons, for which the church called him almost the Antichrist.

The economic development of Russia during the reign of Peter the Great was aimed primarily at the development of the army and navy. It was around these two components that the development of industry and other objects took place. It is important to note that since 1715, individual entrepreneurship has been encouraged in Russia. Moreover, part of the manufactories and factories were transferred to private hands.

The basic principles of the economic policy of Peter 1 developed in two directions:

Protectionism. This is support for domestic producers and encouragement of the export of goods abroad.
Mercantilism. Predominance of exports of goods over imports. In economic terms, exports prevail over imports. This is done to concentrate funds within the country.

Industry development

By the beginning of the reign of Peter I, there were only 25 manufactories in Russia. This is extremely small. The country could not provide itself even with the most necessary. That is why the beginning of the Northern War was so sad for Russia, since the lack of supplies of the same iron from Sweden made it impossible to wage war.

The main directions of the economic policy of Peter 1 fluttered in 3 main areas: the metallurgical industry, the mining industry, and shipbuilding. In total, by the end of Peter's reign in Russia, there were already 200 manufactories. The best indicator that the economic management system worked is the fact that before Peter came to power, Russia was one of the largest importers of iron, and after Peter 1, Russia took the 3rd place in the world in iron production and became an exporting country.

Under Peter the Great, the first industrial centers in the country began to form. Rather, there were such industrial centers, but their significance was insignificant. It was under Peter that the formation and rise of industry in the Urals and Donbass took place. The reverse side of industrial growth is the attraction of private capital and difficult conditions for workers. During this period, ascribed and sessional peasants appeared.

Posession peasants appeared by decree of Peter 1 in 1721. They became the property of the manufactory and were obliged to work there all their lives. Posession peasants replaced the assigned peasants, who were recruited from among the urban peasants and assigned to a specific factory.
History reference

The problem of the peasants, expressed in the creation of a possessive peasantry, was associated with the lack of a skilled workforce in Russia.

The development of industry in the Petrine era was distinguished by the following features:

The rapid development of the metallurgical industry.
Active participation of the state in economic life. The state acted as the customer of all industrial facilities.
Employment of forced labor. From 1721 factories were allowed to buy peasants.
Lack of competition. As a result, large entrepreneurs had no desire to develop their industry, which is why there was a long stagnation in Russia.

In the development of industry, Peter had 2 problems: the weak efficiency of public administration, as well as the lack of interests of large entrepreneurs for development. All this was solved simply - the tsar began to transfer, including large enterprises, to the management of private owners. Suffice it to say that by the end of the 17th century, the well-known Demidov family controlled 1/3 of all Russian iron.

The figure shows a map of the economic development of Russia under Peter 1, as well as the development of industry in the European part of the country.

Agriculture

Consider what changes took place in Russian agriculture during the reign of Peter. The Russian economy under Peter I in the field of agriculture developed along an extensive path. The extensive path, in contrast to the intensive one, did not imply an improvement in working conditions, but an expansion of opportunities. Therefore, under Peter, active development of new arable land began. The most quickly developed lands were in the Volga region, in the Urals, in Siberia. At the same time, Russia continued to be an agrarian country. Approximately 90% of the population lived in villages and was engaged in agriculture.

The orientation of the country's economy towards the army and navy was also reflected in the agriculture of Russia in the 17th century. In particular, it was precisely because of this direction in the development of the country that the development of sheep and horse breeding began. Sheep were needed to supply the fleet, and horses to form the cavalry.

It was during the Petrine era that new tools of labor began to be used in agriculture: a scythe and a rake. These tools were purchased from abroad and imposed on the local economy. Since 1715, what year did Peter I issue a decree to expand the sowing of tobacco and hemp.

As a result, an agricultural system was created in which Russia could feed itself on its own, and also, for the first time in history, began to sell grain abroad.

Trade

The economic policy of Peter 1 in the field of trade generally corresponds to the general development of the country. Trade also developed along a protectionist path of development.

Until the Petrine era, all major trade was conducted through the port in Astrakhan. But Peter the Great, who loved St. Petersburg terribly, by his own decree forbade trading through Astrakhan (the Decree was signed in 1713), and demanded a complete transfer of trade to St. Petersburg. This did not bring any special effect for Russia, but it was an important factor in strengthening the position of St. Petersburg as a city and capital of the Empire. Suffice it to say that as a result of these changes, Astrakhan reduced its trade turnover by about 15 times, and the city gradually began to lose its rich status. Simultaneously with the development of the port in st. petersburg, ports in Riga, Vyborg, Narva and Revel were actively developing. At the same time, St. Petersburg accounted for approximately 2/3 of the foreign trade turnover.

Support for domestic production was achieved through the introduction of high customs duties. So, if the goods were produced in Russia, then its customs duty was 75%. If the imported goods were not produced in Russia, then its duty varied in the range from 20% to 30%. At the same time, the payment of the duty was made exclusively in foreign currency at a favorable exchange rate for Russia. This was necessary to obtain foreign capital and to be able to purchase the necessary equipment. Already in 1726, the volume of exports of products from Russia was 2 times higher than the volume of imports.

The main countries with which Russia traded at that time were England and Holland.

In many respects, the development of transport went on for the development of trade. In particular, 2 large canals were built:

Vyshnevolotsky Canal (1709). This canal connected the Tvertsa River (a tributary of the Volga) with the Msta River. From there, through Lake Ilmen, a path to the Baltic Sea opened.
Ladoga Bypass Canal (1718). Went around Lake Ladoga. This detour was necessary because the lake was turbulent and ships could not move on it.

Development of finance

Peter 1 had one oddity - he loved taxes very much and in every possible way encouraged people who came up with new taxes. It was during this era that taxes were introduced on almost everything: on stoves, on salt, on government forms, and even on beards. In those days, they even joked that there were no taxes only on air, but such taxes would soon appear. The increase in taxes and their expansion led to popular unrest. For example, the Astrakhan uprising and the uprising of Kondraty Bulavin were the main major discontents of the masses of that era, but there were also dozens of minor uprisings.

In 1718, the tsar carried out his well-known reform, introducing a poll tax in the country. If earlier taxes were paid from the yard, now from every male soul.

Also, one of the main undertakings was the financial reform of 1700-1704. The main attention in this reform was paid to the minting of new coins, equating the amount of silver in the ruble with silver. The very weight of the Russian ruble was equated to the Dutch guilder.

As a result of financial changes, the growth of revenues to the treasury was increased by about 3 times. This was a great help for the development of the state, but made it almost impossible to live in the country. Suffice it to say that during the Petrine era, the population of Russia decreased by 25%, taking into account all the new territories that this tsar conquered.

Consequences of economic development

The main results of the economic development of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century, during the reign of Peter 1, which can be considered the main ones:

Growth in the number of manufactories by 7 times.
Expansion of the volume of manufactured products within the country.
Russia has taken the 3rd place in the world in metal smelting.
In agriculture, new tools began to be used, which later proved their effectiveness.
The founding of St. Petersburg and the conquest of the Baltic states expanded trade and economic ties with European countries.
St. Petersburg has become the main commercial and financial center of Russia.
Due to the state's attention to trade, the importance of the merchant class has grown. It was during this period that they established themselves as a strong and influential class.

If we consider these points, then a positive reaction to the economic reforms of Peter 1 suggests itself, but here it is important to understand at what cost all this was achieved. The tax burden on the population increased greatly, which automatically caused the impoverishment of most peasant farms. In addition, the need to develop the economy at a rapid pace actually contributed to the strengthening of serfdom.

New and old in the Petrine economy

Consider a table that presents the main aspects of the economic development of Russia in the era of the reign of Peter 1, indicating which aspects were before Peter and which appeared under him.

Table: features of the socio-economic life of Russia: what appeared and what was preserved under Peter 1.

Factor	Appeared or survived
Agriculture as the basis of the country's economy	Preserved
Specialization of economic regions	Appeared. Prior to Peter, specialization was insignificant.
Active industrial development of the Urals	Appeared
Development of local land tenure	Preserved
Formation of a single all-Russian market	Appeared
Manufactory production	Preserved, but greatly expanded
Protectionist policy	Appeared
Registration of peasants to factories	Appeared
Excess of exports of goods over imports	Appeared
Canal construction	Appeared
Growth in the number of entrepreneurs	Appeared

Regarding the growth in the number of entrepreneurs, it should be noted that Peter 1 actively contributed to this. In particular, he allowed any person, regardless of his origin, to conduct research on the discovery of minerals and establish their own factories at the location.

Domestic activities of Peter since 1700

(continuation)

Measures of Peter I for the development of the national economy

Concerns about the national economy in the activities of Peter the Great always occupied a very prominent place. We notice signs of such concerns in the 17th century. And the predecessors of Peter I were preoccupied with raising the economic well-being of Russia, shattered by turmoil. But before Peter no results had been achieved in this regard. State finances, which for the Moscow government were a sure indicator of the people's well-being, were in an unsatisfactory position both before Peter and during the first period of his reign. Peter needed money and had to find new sources of government revenue. Concern about replenishing the state treasury was a constant burden on him and led Peter to the idea that it was possible to raise the country's finances only through fundamental improvements in the national economy. Peter I saw the way to such improvements in the development of national industry and trade. It was to the development of trade and industry that he directed his entire economic policy. In this respect, he paid tribute to the ideas of his age, which created the well-known mercantile-protective system in the West. The novelty of the economic measures of Peter I was in Peter's desire to create trade and industry in Russia and thereby show the people a new source of wealth. only a few individuals (Krizhanich, Ordin-Nashchokin) dreamed of economic reforms in Russia under the influence of Western European life. The government itself, issuing the New Trade Charter of 1667, expressed the idea of the importance of trade in public life. But the conscious need did not lead to almost no practical measures to satisfy it until the time of transformation.

It is difficult to say exactly when Peter had the idea of the need to develop industrial and commercial activities in Russia. It is most likely that he learned it already on his first trip abroad. Already in 1699, he took care of the commercial and industrial class (Burmister chambers), and in the remarkable manifesto of 1702, by which Peter summoned foreigners to Russia, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe enormous importance of trade and industry in state life was already clearly expressed. With the passage of time, Peter I went more and more energetically towards his goal, making it one of the main tasks of his internal activity. We see a number of diverse measures of the reformer aimed at the development of economic life. Their presentation would take too much time, and we will limit ourselves to listing the most important of them:

a) Peter I constantly undertook reconnaissance in order to get to know better those natural resources that Russia possessed. Under him, many such riches were found: silver and other ores, which caused the development of the mining industry; saltpeter, peat, coal, etc. So Peter created new types of industrial and commercial labor.

b) Peter I strongly encouraged the development of industry. He called in foreign technicians, put them in an excellent position in Russia, gave them a lot of benefits with one indispensable condition: to teach the Russians their production. He sent Russians abroad to study various branches of Western industry. And at home, in the workshops, the masters had to properly train their students. The benefits of technical education and industry itself, Peter I, strenuously proved in his decrees. He gave entrepreneurs all sorts of benefits; among other things, the right to own land and peasants. Sometimes the government itself was the initiator in this or that kind of production and, having founded an industrial business, handed it over to a private person. But, creating a privileged position for industrialists, Peter I established strict supervision over the entire industry and monitored both the conscientiousness of production and the fact that it was consistent with the types of government. Such supervision often turned into petty regulation of production (for example, the obligatory width of linen and cloth was precisely determined), but tended in general to the benefit of industry. The results of Peter's measures in relation to industry were expressed in the fact that in Russia under Peter more than 200 factories and plants were founded and many branches of production that exist today (mining, etc.) were laid.

c) Peter I encouraged Russian trade by all means. Both in relation to industry and in relation to trade, Peter kept a patronizing system, striving to develop trade to such an extent that the export of goods from Russia exceeded their import from other countries. Just as Peter tried to explain to his subjects the benefits of the development of crafts by means of decrees, so he tried to arouse in them commercial enterprise. According to one researcher; under Peter, "the throne often turned into a pulpit," with which the monarch explained to the people the beginnings of social progress. The same regulation that was applied to the industrial business, Peter applied to the business of trade. He persistently recommended that the trading people form trading companies in the manner of Western European ones. Having built St. Petersburg, he artificially diverted goods from the port of Arkhangelsk to St. Petersburg. Taking care that Russian merchants themselves traded abroad, Peter sought to start a Russian merchant fleet. Not hoping for quick trading successes of the small urban class, which seemed to Peter to be a "scattered temple", he attracted other classes of the population to trade. He argued that even a nobleman can engage in commercial and industrial affairs without shame. Understanding the importance of communication routes for trade, Peter was in a hurry to connect his new harbor of St. Petersburg with the center of the state by waterways, arranged (in 1711) the Vyshnevolotsky Canal, and after the Ladoga Canal.

Breaking the Ladoga Canal

However, Peter did not wait for the results of his trade policy. Internal trade revived, some internal trading companies were established, even a Russian merchant (Soloviev), who traded in Amsterdam, appeared; but in general the matter of Russian foreign trade did not noticeably change, and Russian exports remained predominantly in the hands of foreigners. There were no noticeable successes in trade with the East, which greatly interested Peter. However, in the absence of drastic changes in the trading life of Russia, the revival of trade took place before Peter's eyes, and he did not give up his hopes to the end.

Addition

Industrial and commercial activities of Peter I (according to lectures by V. O. Klyuchevsky)

Industry and trade under Peter I

The poll census found many new tax payers for the treasury and increased the amount of hard work. Measures aimed at industry and trade were aimed at raising the quality of this labor and strengthening the productive work of the people. This was the area of transformative activity, after the army, the most concerned about the reformer, the most akin to his mind and character, and no less military rich in results. Here he discovered both amazing clarity, and breadth of vision, and resourceful diligence, and tireless energy, and was not only the true successor of the Moscow tsars, patrimonial owners who knew how to acquire and save, but also a statesman, a master-economist, capable of creating new means and put them into public circulation. Peter's predecessors left him only thoughts and timid undertakings in this area; Peter found a plan and means for the broad development of the cause.

Plan and techniques

One of the most fruitful ideas that began to stir in the minds of Moscow in the 17th century was the awareness of the fundamental deficiency that the financial system of the Muscovite state suffered from. This system, raising taxes as the needs of the treasury increased, weighed down the labor of the people, without helping it to become more productive. The idea of a preliminary rise in the country's productive forces, as a necessary condition for the enrichment of the treasury, formed the basis of Peter's economic policy. He set himself the task of equipping people's labor with the best technical methods and tools of production and introducing new industries into the national economic circulation, turning people's labor to develop the country's still untouched wealth. Having asked himself this matter, he affected all branches of the national economy; there does not seem to be a single industry left, even the smallest one, to which Peter would not pay keen attention: agriculture in all its branches, cattle breeding, horse breeding, sheep breeding, sericulture, horticulture, hop growing, winemaking, fishing, etc. - everything touched his hand. But most of all he spent his efforts on the development of the manufacturing industry, manufactories, especially mining, as the most necessary for the army. He could not pass by useful work, no matter how modest it was, so as not to stop, not to go into details. In a French village he saw a priest working in a garden; now with questions and with a practical conclusion for myself: I will force my lazy village priests to cultivate gardens and fields so that they win the most reliable bread and a better life.

Portal for the student. Self-training

Industrial and trade policy of Peter 1 briefly. History of trade in Russia

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Development of the state under Peter I

Public Administration Reform

Regional (provincial) reform

Judicial reform

Military reforms

Church reform

Development of finance

financial reform

Monetary reform of Peter I

Conclusion

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