Different types of word formation are unproductive and productive. Those types of word formation that are not used to form new words are unproductive. Some of these unproductive types are represented by isolated cases, for example: kum - kum-anek, husband - husband-enek; bargain-ov-th - bargain-ash, curl-yav-th - curl-yash; pass-ti - pass-tukh, pe-t - rooster; others have a significant number of examples, but do not add new ones, for example: kind - kind-from-a; deafness, blindness, emptiness, breadth, purity, beauty, dumbness, poverty.
Those types of word formation that are widely used when creating new words are productive. For example, a productive suffix -clerk. which is widely used in the names of people according to their occupation, in particular in the names of workers according to their specialties: facets clerk, strict clerk, storms clerk, watering clerk, copier clerk, rice clerk, fasten clerk, klepa clerk, pull clerk etc. Productive suffix -ik, which is used in the names of persons according to some of their characteristics, associated with the range of their activities, its nature, with the attitude of people to this activity, with their position in society, etc.: excellent ik, percussion ik, sole ik, cultural ik, graduation ik, draft ik, preschool ik, in absentia ik, public ik, production ik, economic ik.
Productive suffix -tel, which not only denotes actors (teach body, writing body), but it has also been widely used to form words that name mechanisms, devices, machines, chemical reagents, etc., for example: switch, protect body, moving body, exterminate body, measure body, straighten body, loudspeaker body, bang body, paint body, manifest body etc.
The productivity of the type of word formation is usually limited by the fact that not every suffix (for formal, grammatical or semantic reasons) can be combined with any stem; e.g. suffix -l th forms adjectives only from intransitive verbs with stems in -e-, -a- and into a consonant: turned yellow ate oh, chill ate oh, icy ate oh, dilapidated al th, lie down al oh, hug sl th; suffix -ast- forms adjectives almost exclusively from nouns denoting parts of the human or animal body: eye ast ouch, tooth ast oh, heads ast ouch, cheek ast th etc.
Exercise 104. Write by inserting the missing letters. Make a word-formation and morphemic analysis of each word. Orally indicate especially productive types of modern Russian word formation.
Leading worker, food worker, collective farmer, pereb ... ik, ob ... e ... chik, city industrial farm, drummer ... clerk, signalman, essayist, fighter, indicator ... zatel, traffic controller, deployment ... compaction ... artisanship ... cohesion ... cohesion, lack of development, co ... activization, sportswoman, ... trader, weigher, timekeeper, orderly, voucher, kursovka, group work.
105 . Explain what caused the transition of a derivative word into a non-derivative one? (Generative words are in parentheses.)
Piston (flutter), happiness (part), window (eye - “eye”), dacha (give), soot (sit down), dot (poke), cloth (sukati - “twist”), hoop (hand), breakfast ( morning; instead of “mornings”), saucer (dish), bag (fur), ink (blacken).
106. In which words did the suffix merge with the root, in which words did it not merge?
Stove, stick, shelf (for books), shelf (garden), faithful, black, red, awl, wing, oar, treasure, rags, nose, scarecrow, fan, cockroach.
- AFFIX in the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms:
(lat. affixus - attached). A service morpheme, that is, a part of a word that modifies the lexical or grammatical meaning of the root (base) or expresses ... - stinky stinker in the Galactic Encyclopedia of Science Fiction Literature:
Particularly productive creatures are capable of generating up to 5000 stench (a unit of smells) per second. She behaves the way she is photographed whenever she is photographed. Kind of aimed… - GUATTARI in the Dictionary of Postmodernism:
(Gattari) (Guattari) Felix (1930-1992) - French psychoanalyst and philosopher. One of the founders of schizoanalysis. The main philosophical writings of G. were written ... - SCHIZOPHRENIA in the One-volume large legal dictionary:
(from Gr. schizo - I separate, split and phren - mind, thought) - mental illness; main manifestations: personality changes (decreased activity, … - SCHIZOPHRENIA (FROM GR. SCHIZO in the Big Law Dictionary:
- I separate, split and phren - mind, thought) - mental illness; main manifestations: personality changes (decreased activity, emotional devastation, autism ... - JAPANESE LANGUAGE
For a long time it was believed that the Japanese language is not included in any of the known language families, occupying in the genealogical classification of languages ... - WRITING in Encyclopedia Japan from A to Z:
in Japan arose on the basis of Chinese a little over 1200 years ago. Various hypotheses about the original writings that allegedly existed among the Japanese ... - FORESTS in Encyclopedia Japan from A to Z:
Of the 37.8 million hectares of the entire territory of Japan, 25.15 million hectares, or 66.6% of the country's area, are covered with forests. Only Finland (76.1%) and ... - SCHIZOPHRENIA in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
(from the Greek schizo - I separate, split and phren - heart, soul, mind) - a mental illness. The main manifestations of Sh. are personality changes ... - SCHIZOPHRENIA
An endogenous progressive mental illness characterized by dissociation of mental functions and proceeding with the obligatory development of a mental defect in the emotional-volitional sphere and various ... - CONFUSION in the Explanatory Dictionary of Psychiatric Terms:
A form of clouding of consciousness, in which separate elements of its various syndromes are combined - delirium, amentia - with a significant severity of amnestic disorders. … - RESIDUAL MENTAL DISORDERS in the Explanatory Dictionary of Psychiatric Terms:
(lat. residuus - remaining, preserved). Separate productive psychopathological symptoms, most often hallucinations or delusions, preserved after an acute psychotic ... - WERNIKKE ADDUCTIVE AND CONTRACTIVE SYMPTOMS in the Explanatory Dictionary of Psychiatric Terms:
(Wernicke S., 1900). Concepts identical to the terms productive and unproductive symptoms. Adductive - symptoms that are additional in relation to the content of a normal psyche ... - PSYCHOSIS LATENT in Medical terms:
(psychosis latens) a variety of schizophrenia, manifested by erased symptoms of personality change, slowly progressing with periods of prolonged stabilization; productive symptoms are absent or weak ... - JAPANESE LETTER
mixed ideographic-syllabic writing, which combines hieroglyphs and syllabic signs (the so-called kana). Hieroglyphs are borrowed from Chinese writing (c 5 ... - SCHIZOPHRENIA in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
(from the Greek schizo - I split and split and phren - mind, thought), mental illness; main manifestations: personality changes (decrease in activity, emotional ... - FOREST GROWTH in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
(from Latin bonitas - good quality) an indicator of forest productivity. Depends on growing conditions. It is determined by the average height of the trees of the main species with ... - AFFIX in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
(from lat. affixus - attached) part of the word, opposed to the root and expressing grammatical or derivational meaning. By position relative to the root affixes ... - LINGUISTICS
linguistics, linguistics, the science of language. The object of language is the structure, functioning and historical development of language, language in its entirety ... - SUMERIAN LANGUAGE in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
language, the language of the Sumerians (extinct by the end of the 3rd millennium BC). Kinship Sh. I. not installed with other languages. By … - SCHIZOPHRENIA in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
(from the Greek schizo - split and phren - mind, mind, thought), the most common mental illness, which is characterized by a variety of manifestations and ... - SWEDEN
- CHUKO-KAMCHATKA LANGUAGES in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
languages, an isolated family of languages spoken by the minority peoples that make up the main indigenous population of Chukotka and Kamchatka. The total number of speakers of… - TEA in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
(Thea), 1) a genus of tropical evergreen perennial plants of the tea family; Some taxonomists attribute tea to the genus Camellia. In genus 2... - BOAR in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
knur, male pig, sire. Sexual instincts appear by 4-5 months. For the reproduction of X. in farms, they begin to use it no earlier than 10 months ... - HAUSA (LANGUAGE) in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
language of the Hausa people. Distributed in Northern Nigeria and adjacent areas of Niger, as well as in Cameroon, Dahomey, Ghana and some ... - AGRICULTURAL LAND in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
agricultural, land plots (arrays), systematically and systematically used for the production of agricultural - x. products. K W. s. include: arable land, perennial plantations ... - TUNGUSKA COAL BASIN in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
coal basin, one of the largest coal basins in the USSR, located mainly on the territory of the Krasnoyarsk Territory, partly in the Yakutsk ... - WELL TORPEDIATION in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
wells, blasting carried out in boreholes with the help of special charges - torpedoes. They are used in deep wells, drilled or ... - TAJIK SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLIC in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB.
- THE USSR. MINERAL RESOURCES in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
resources of the USSR ranks first in the world in terms of explored reserves and production of iron and manganese ores, asbestos, oil production, ... - WELL in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
drilling, mining circular section with a depth of more than 5 m and a diameter of usually 75-300 mm, carried out using a drilling rig. … - SYNTAX (GRAMMATIC) in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
a branch of grammar that studies the internal structure and general properties of a sentence. The founder of S. is considered to be the Greek grammarian A. Diskol (2 ... - SELECTION in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
(lat. selectio - choice, selection, from seligo - I choose, I select), 1) the science of methods for creating varieties and hybrids of plants, breeds ... - CROP ROTATION in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
scientifically substantiated alternation of page - x. crops in the fields and in time, contributing to the restoration and increase of soil fertility; essential part of the system... - PIG in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
domestic, artiodactyl animal of the genus of real pigs (Sus) of the family of pigs. Domestic S. descended from different subspecies of the wild boar - European and Asian, ... - Placer in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
alluvial deposits, accumulations on the earth's surface of small fragments of rocks or minerals arising from the destruction of primary mineral deposits or ... - DEVELOPMENT OF MINERAL DEPOSITS in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
mineral deposits, a system of organizational and technical measures for the extraction of minerals from the bowels of the Earth. Distinguish R. of m of the item and. open and... - POLYSYNTHETIC LANGUAGES in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
languages, a kind of synthetic language in which all grammatical meanings are usually conveyed as part of a word characterized by a long sequence of morphemes. … - NEGATIVE (IN GRAMMAR) in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
in grammar, a word or affix indicating the absence of an object (“I don’t have a book”), qualitative signs of an object (“this person is not old”), ... - ORIA (LANGUAGE) in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
Audrey, utkali, one of the main languages of India. Distributed in the state of Orissa (East India). Number of speakers 19.7 million people. (1971, census). … - ANIMATION in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
one of the categorical language forms, characteristic mainly of nouns that denote the names of living beings, and constituting a universal semantic opposition O. ... - OIL in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
Oil (through Turkish neft, from Persian oil) is a flammable oily liquid with a specific odor, common in the sedimentary shell of the Earth, which is ... - KARACHAYEV-BALKAR LANGUAGE in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
language, the language of Karachays and Balkars, living mainly in the Karachay-Cherkess Autonomous Region and the Kabardino-Balkarian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. The number of speakers of K.-b. I.: … - FOREST GROWTH in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
forests (German Bonitat, from Latin bonitas - good quality), an indicator of forest productivity, depending on soil and climatic conditions (habitat). Determined by the average ... - AGGLUTINATION (IN LINGUISTICS) in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
in linguistics, the formation of grammatical forms and derivative words in languages by attaching affixes to the root or to the base of the word, ... - LINGUISTICS in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
linguistics, otherwise linguistics (from Latin lingua, language), glottis or glottology (from Greek ??????, ?????? - language) - in the narrow sense ... - LINGUISTICS in the Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron:
linguistics, otherwise linguistics (from Latin lingua, language), glottis or glottology (from Greek ??????, ?????? ? language)? in tight... - TURKEY: NATURE - H. SOILS in Collier's Dictionary:
To the article TURKEY: NATURE The most fertile soils containing minerals and humus necessary for plant growth are confined to floodplains and …
Speaking about the regularity or irregularity of affixes, we had in mind their reproducibility in the whole category of words or in separate, single words, acting as word-building isolated ones. Speaking about their productivity or unproductivity, one should keep in mind their inherent different productivity in creating words and forms, different (for each affix and model its own) creative character.
There are certain relationships between the concept of regularity-irregularity and productivity-unproductivity (irregular affixes are always unproductive at the same time), but the concept of regularity is not covered by the concept of productivity. Among the regular service morphemes, there are many that are no longer productive. The regularity of many now unproductive affixes is due to their vivid performance in the past.
One can speak about the productivity or unproductivity of this or that affix only by comparing the number and composition of the words containing it in a given language system with what was observed in the language in previous eras of its development. Thus, the regular suffix -izn(a), which now stands out in conjunction with the adjectival stem in at least 12 words, is just as unproductive in modern Russian as the irregular suffix -ovizn(a), known only in the word dearness. This is evidenced by the fact that since the XIX century. not a single new noun formed by means of the suffix -izn(a) has entered our speech. All words with this suffix currently in use were known in the 18th century. Moreover, at that time there were even more of them (for example, youth, blueness, tone, etc., which have now disappeared).
Productive are such affixes that stand out in a number of recent formations in their appearance in the language. Unproductive affixes are auxiliary morphemes, with the help of which new words and forms are either not formed at present, or are formed very rarely.
As currently completely unproductive affixes, one can name, for example, the prefixes su-, niz- (twilight, loam; bring down, fall, etc.), suffixes -cmeuj (e), -zn (calmness, pleasure; life, illness, fear), the ending of nouns in the instrumental case of the plural -ьми (bones), the ending -ух in the numeral two, etc. These affixes are freely distinguished both in words and in forms, however, among such words and forms of recent formations are not observed.
The circle of words and forms, in which there are completely unproductive service morphemes, is often limited to several single formations. So, the ending -a for all indirect cases is a specific accessory of only three numerals: one hundred, forty, ninety; the prefix sur- is known in Russian only in the words surrealism, surrealist, surrealistic; the suffix -tv(a) with the meaning of an abstract action is distinguished as a morpheme only in the nouns harvest, grub, battle, prayer, etc.
Examples of currently productive affixes can be the suffixes -k(a) (for the formation of female names from the corresponding masculine words), -o (for the formation of adverbs from adjectives), -yva (-iva) (for the formation of verbs imperfective form), prefixes with-, from-, pro-, the bulk of endings in nouns, adjectives and verbs, etc. With their help, new words and forms are formed intensively and constantly, their morphematic connections are wide and varied. Thus, the zero ending in the nominative singular is inherent in the vast majority of inflected masculine nouns; it is with its help that the words of the indicated generic affiliation are currently formed in the Russian language, both recent neoplasms and newly acquired borrowings. The prefix does not have the ability to form new adjectives from adjectives of very different structure, origin and time of appearance (non-party, incomplete, non-standard, unreadable, non-equivalent, etc.). With the help of the suffix -ost, abstract nouns are continuously formed.
Unproductive affixes are, for example, the suffix -ach (compare at least the October words izbach, circus performer, trickster, listener formed with the help of this morpheme), the estimated diminutive suffix -ets, the prefix anti- (compare recent derivatives with it: anti-state, anti-colonial, anti-fascist, anti-scientific, etc.), ending -e in the nominative case of plural nouns (such as brothers).
The productivity of any affix in the formation of structurally and semantically different forms and words can be different. So, the suffix -tel, which is unproductive in the production of names with the meaning of the acting person, is at the same time productive in the production of words - the names of the acting object (switch, heater, rectifier, etc.). The suffix -sh(a) is unproductive in modern Russian for the formation of the names of a wife by her husband, but is productive as a female suffix, for example: elevator operator, announcer, usher, proofreader, etc.
The same can be noted about the productivity of such affixes, which are common to a number of parts of speech. So, for example, the prefix is also found in names, and in the verb, and in the adverb.
However, its effectiveness as a formative affix in the sphere of these lexico-grammatical categories of words is not the same. In the field of adjectives and adverbs, the prefix is preproductive and freely forms derivatives from any qualitative adjective and from adverbs in -o, -e. In the sphere of verbs, this prefix, although it stands out in a number of words formed with its help (to exaggerate, to exalt, to exceed, to increase, to succeed, to be fed up, etc.), is unproductive: from relatively recent formations, only present and downplay can be noted. The remaining verbs with a prefix were known, as a rule, already in the Old Russian language. In nouns, it is completely unproductive, although it stands out in individual words (barrier, transgression, satiety, wisdom, excess, etc.).
Questions about why some affixes and models are currently productive, while others are unproductive, which explains the fact that previously productive auxiliary morphemes and types of word formation become unproductive and vice versa, have not yet been sufficiently developed, however, some conclusions can be drawn.
- Affixes can turn into unproductive or unproductive due to changes in the vocabulary as a whole, as well as in the system and methods of naming, associated with the development of society. So, in the modern Russian literary language, “wife suffixes” (-sh (a), -ih (a), etc., have become unproductive, for example: general's wife, miller's wife). This was due to the fact that in the Soviet era women became full members of society, not only wives, but also specialists in a particular area of social activity. As a result, women began to be called not by their husband, but by their acquired profession, occupation, etc. The suffix -sh (a) received a new meaning, turning as a productive morpheme into a suffix to designate female persons by their activity, profession, etc. d Another example. Currently, face suffixes are unproductive, forming words that represent the expressive characteristics of a person according to some of his external signs. The suffixes an and -un can now be characterized as unproductive [puzan, wrasse, striped mullet, gorlan; blinker, screamer, dancer, etc.). This is explained by the fact that in the modern language the methods of forming the names of persons according to their social qualities began to prevail. Such is the modern “linguistic vision”: in a person they began to “see” not his external data as a “biological unit”, but his position in society. Thus, one of the reasons for the unproductiveness or unproductiveness of previously productive affixes is the corresponding shifts in the lexical system of the Russian language, due to changes in public life and the "linguistic vision" of the objective world.
Undoubtedly, with the general development of medicine and pharmacology, with the appearance of numerous drugs of artificial origin, the emergence of productivity in the suffix -in is also associated.
Changes in the nature of the nomination also determined the productivity of the suffix -k(a) in the sphere of names that arose in the dynamic language of our present as a compression of the corresponding phraseological phrases (train, flyer, postcard, canned meat, ten-year-old, multi-circulation, seven-year-old, etc.).
- Sometimes the unproductiveness of an affix is explained by the narrowness of the circle of those words with the bases of which it can link in the process of word production. Thus, the word-formative connections of the suffix -am- are limited, as a rule, to nouns denoting parts of the body of a person or animals (humped, horned, pot-bellied, mustachioed, caudate, etc.).
- Affixes can become unproductive for purely linguistic reasons, in particular, as a result of their displacement from the sphere of productive service morphemes by others that are synonymous with them, but at the same time more adapted to form words of the corresponding meaning. It is precisely because of this that, for example, the suffixes -from (a), -in (a), -stv (o) (for example, kindness, depth, slyness, etc.), pushed aside at the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th centuries, became unproductive . to the background with the suffix -awn. The approval of the suffix -ost as the only productive suffix of quality names, among other reasons (among which the most important is the influence on the literary Russian language of the literary language of Southwestern Russia at that time) was facilitated by its unambiguity and phonetic "uniqueness". Therefore, a certain role in the transformation of the suffixes -ot(a), -in(a), -stv(o) into unproductive ones was played by the fact of their multifunctionality and the presence of homonymous suffixes next to them (cf.: hoarseness, pea, teaching, etc. , where -ot(a), -ib(a), -stv(o) respectively have the meanings of state, unity-st: and collectiveness).
- In a number of cases, the affix becomes unproductive because the corresponding formative model becomes archaic. As an example, we can cite the multiplicity suffix -iva-, -iva- (in verbs such as read, speak, walk, prick, fly to p.), in the 16th-17th centuries. being productive.
Not all affixes are equally common: some of them take an active part in the word-formation process, while others, on the contrary, do not participate in modern word-formation. From the point of view of usage and activity in word production and form formation, affixes are divided into productive and unproductive.
Productive - these are morphemes that actively participate in modern word production and give new formations. These morphemes are easily distinguished in words. So, For example, in the formation of the name of males in Russian, there are over 50 different suffixes. But in modern word formation, four are the most productive: -schik- (-chik-), -ik-(-nick-), -u-, -ist-. Their boundaries in the word are clear: gas welder / box, concrete / box, rocket / chip, apparatus / chip, evening / nickname, part-time / nickname, mass / ik, advanced / ik, atomic / ik, Leningrad / ets, bulldozer / ist.
An important condition for the emergence of a new word is the presence productive model, according to which a new lexical unit is created. If certain affixes are involved in new formations, then we can assume that these morphemes are productive and are living linguistic realities.
Unproductive - these are affixes with the help of which new words and forms are not currently formed. Unproductive affixes are often found in long-formed, everyday and very common words, but they are no longer word-building models ( herald, frequenter, spy, intercessor). Here, perhaps, all the words with the suffix - tai-, available in Russian. This suffix no longer gives new formations. The same applies to suffixes: -ev-( about) ( brew, glow), -hell- ( a) ( blockade, clowning, colonnade), -spruce- (death, drops, cradle, blizzard), -e-( I) ( witch, reaper, seamstress), -zn- (sickness, fear, life), -yash- (round, curly, tribal), -them- (stepfather, brother) and others, which have already ceased to be a means of word production and only retained the property of separability.
The productivity of affixes, and primarily suffixes, is influenced not only by linguistic, but extralinguistic(or extralinguistic) factors, in particular, we will change the social need for certain groups of vocabulary. It is known that suffixes have become unproductive in the modern language. -sh- (a), -them- ( a) denoting wives according to the husband's profession (professor). For us, the social quality of a person is more important, therefore, in the modern Russian language, methods of forming names of persons according to the spheres of production activity, according to actions or states that characterize the social image of a person, his social position, according to ideological characteristics, in relation to the social direction, scientific, ideological , artistic flow, etc.
Now consider the cases of loss of productivity of suffixes due to purely language reasons. Sometimes the use of a particular suffix is limited by the number of bases with which this suffix can be combined. For example, using the suffix -at- limited by the number of words denoting parts of the body of humans and animals, since only with these bases can this suffix be combined ( bearded, nosy, hairy, tailed, horned and etc.).
Sometimes one or another word-formation model is archaic, for example, the use of a multiplicity suffix -yva-, -iva- in non-prefixed verbs ( read, speak and etc.).
A characteristic feature of productive affixes is manifold and the breadth of their connections, which makes it possible to actively form new words and new forms.
In addition to productivity - unproductivity, affixes differ in their regularity. Those affixes that are repeated in the language and form a certain derivational or formative type are called regular. So, in Russian, the derivational type of masculine nouns with the suffix -ist- (communist, tractor driver, activist) and a feminine correlative with the suffix -to -( a) ( commun / ist / k / a, tractor / ist / k / a, asset / ist / k / a) is certainly a regular type of word formation.
Regular affixes are opposed to irregular ones, which occur in words from time to time (sporadically), most often singly. They are incomprehensible outside a specific word and do not form a reproducible type of word formation and inflection. Let's give examples. Suffix -Enek - in the word hubby unit; in Russian there are no words in which this suffix would be repeated. The same applies to suffixes. -ate- in the word goat, - anek- in the word kumanek, -avets- in words beautiful / avets, merz / avets, - unok- in the word picture, -yuh- in the word horse / yukh.
Regularity and productivity are diverse, but correlative concepts. When they talk about the regularity of affixes, they mean their repetition. For example: write - writer - writer; read - reader - reader; love - amateur - amateur, etc.; agitate - agitation, liquidate - liquidation, argue - argumentation, etc.
If these regular affixes are actively involved in new formations, then we are dealing with productive derivational affixes. Therefore, all irregular affixes - are simultaneously unproductive, but not all regular affixes are productive.
The word-formation system of the language is constantly changing. This can explain the presence in the language of productive and unproductive, regular and irregular affixes. Consequently, derivational types are not given once and for all.
CSR No. 3 Topic: “Morphemic structure of the word. Morphemics"
Morphemics- a branch of linguistics that studies the system of morphemes of a language and the morphemic structure of words and their forms.
word formation- a section of linguistics that studies the formal semantic derivative of the words of a language, means and methods of word formation.
The basis of the word and its types.
Foundation (linguistics)- an invariable part of a word that expresses its lexical meaning.
In inflected words, the stem is defined as part of a word without an ending and a formative affix: pines -a, desert -I, eight -oh, our -a, entertaining th,chita -l. In immutable words, the stem is equal to the word: high , dreaming . In some cases, the basis may be intermittent:
§ verb forms containing a postfix -sya/ -ss
learning-ie-Xia ;
§ bases of indefinite pronouns containing postfixes -then/ -or/ -someday
as-oh-then ;
§ stems of some compound nouns
closet-a-coupe ;
§ bases of complex numbers
sem-and-ten -and.
Depending on the structure, the bases are derivatives and non-derivatives. non-derivative are stems that consist of one morpheme - the root: city ,table , yellow th. Derivatives are the stems, which include two or more derivational affixes. It is usually a root combined with one or more suffixes: bread n -th; with one or more prefixes: flight ; with a suffix and a prefix at the same time: no-home-n -th). New words can be formed from both non-derivative and derived stems.
From derivative and non-derivative bases should be distinguished producing bases- bases from which new words are formed. For example, the non-derivative stem of the word forces -a is generating for the word strong th.
Change in the morphemic structure of a word
The word is historically changeable (its phonemic composition, meaning, morphemic appearance changes). Modern morphemic and word-formation structures may not coincide with historical correspondence, as evidenced by morphemic and word-formation analyzes of words.
The main reasons for such phenomena are the following processes:
simplification- a linguistic process, as a result of which a word with a derivative base becomes non-derivative. At simplification there is a transformation of a word with a complex structure into a single morpheme. In Russian, different parts of speech and different morphemic structures are subject to simplification. These can be historical suffix structures: after all-m-a - witches, prefixed in origin words: za-kon - law, suffix-prefix derivatives: on-rech-y-e, words formed by adding bases: vel-m-a. Reasons leading to simplification, this is: a change in the lexical meaning of the motivating word (the word porch was originally formed from the word wing), the disappearance of the motivating word from the vocabulary ( yard in the meaning of "persons surrounding the king"), the loss of words from the vocabulary (the word mitten was formed from the word varega), change in the sound composition of the word: word cloud came from the word envelop and used to be pronounced like cloud;
re-decomposition- the process, as a result of which there is a movement of boundaries between morphs. Redecomposition can occur if the word has historically been derivative and remains derivative, but other morphs are now distinguished in its composition. So, originally the word vehemence derived from the adjective hot (hotness), but now, after the disappearance of such an adjective, the structure of the word looks like hotness, and we consider the adjective as its producer hot;
complication of the base- this is a complication of the generating basis, as a result of which indivisible, non-derivative words become articulated, derivatives. This process is the opposite simplification. For example, the word umbrella it was in this form that it came to us from the Dutch language, but now we single out both the root and the suffix in this word: umbrella.
Historical changes in the morphemic structure of words
The morpheme composition of a word is not constant. In the course of the development of the language, changes could occur in it.
For example, the word sheet was formed from the adjective simple, the suffix -yn’-(a) was once distinguished in it. Thus, once this word consisted of three morphemes - a root, a suffix and an ending. Now, only two morphemes stand out in it - the root and the ending: prostyn’-a. Consequently, the morphemic structure of the word has become simpler. And this phenomenon - the merging of two morphemes into one, that is, the reduction in the number of morphemes in a word - is called simplification. Another example of simplification is the word sour cream.
But in the language you can find examples of the opposite phenomenon. It is called the complication of the morphemic structure of the word. As a result of complication, one morpheme begins to divide into two. Examples are the words umbrella and flask. Both of these words are loanwords, one from Dutch (zonnedek), the other from Polish (flaszka), so neither originally had a suffix. Later, these borrowings were perceived as diminutive and the words umbrella and flask were formed for them.
Finally, the third type of change in the morphemic structure of a word is re-decomposition. The number of morphemes remains the same, but the boundary between morphemes changes: one or more sounds go from one of the morphemes to another morpheme. For example: in the Old Russian language there were prefixes vn-, sii- and the corresponding prepositions vn, kn, son. If the root of the word began with a consonant sound, the prefixes v- and s- were used, for example: v-brother, s-brother, but if the root began with a vowel, then a variant of the prefix ending in -n- was used, for example: vn-imati , son-imati (cf. the colloquial verb imat 'grab; take'). In the same way, the use of prepositions in front of pronouns was distributed: to that, to that, to tem, but to him, to em, to remove them. Later, the consonant n went to the root. So, now we are highlighting morphemes with-him-a-t; in-him-ah-be. The root nim-, by analogy with these words, also appeared in those single-rooted verbs where it was not in this form in the Old Russian language: pri-im-a-t (other Russian pri-im-a-ti); behind-him-a-t (other Russian for-im-a-ti). Similar origin and combination of prepositions with pronoun forms in him, to him, with him, cf .: I greet him, but I am pleased with him.
Types of affixes by function.
Word-formative, formative and syncretic affixes
Word-forming prefixes, suffixes and postfixes are called, which serve to form new words: language - parent language; soup - soup; to achieve - to achieve.
Form-building there are such affixes that serve to form the form of a word: smart - smarter, smarter (with the help of -ee-, -eysh- simple forms of the comparative and superlative degree of the adjective are formed); throw - throw, brew - brew (suffixes -a-, -i-, -iva- form the specific forms of verbs); run - ran (with the help of the suffix -т- the infinitive form is formed, -l- is the past tense form of the verb); chitajut - reading, read - reading (suffixes -usch-, -vsh- form forms of real participles).
In some cases, it is difficult to draw a line between these two types of affixes, for example: in which cases the postfix -sya is formative, and in which cases it is word-formative. In order not to be mistaken in the function of such affixes, it is necessary to refer to the explanatory dictionary.
Syncretic affixes are such morphemes that simultaneously perform formative and word-forming functions, for example: write - rewrite, sign (when prefixes are added, the lexical meaning of the word and its form also change: write - non-sov. form, rewrite - sov. form). Inflections can also be syncretic, cf.: spouse - spouse. Spouse. 1. The same as the husband. 2. pl. Husband and wife. Spouse (obsolete, now official and simple). The same as the wife (in 1 character). (Quoted by: Ozhegov, S.I. Dictionary of the Russian language / S.I. Ozhegov. - M., 1972 - P. 717.). With the help of inflection -a, not only a new word is formed, its form also changes. This morpheme indicates that it is a feminine noun, in the nominative singular.
Affixes regular and irregular, productive
And unproductive
Regular affixes are reproduced constantly in the composition of words and form certain word-forming or formative models, for example: suffixes -tel-, -n-(th) (teacher, teacher; frosty, cold); prefixes not-, from- (ugly, not bad, expound); inflections -y, -eat, -ish (chitaju, readajesh).
Irregular affixes rarely found in words, for example:
suffix -k- with the meaning of action, distinguished only in the word fight, inflection -m, found only in the words ladies, eat, create.
So, speaking of the regularity / irregularity of affixes, we mean how often or rarely they occur in words at the present time.
When determining the productivity / unproductivity of affixes, we pay attention to their different productivity in the formation of new words or forms.
Productive are such affixes that serve to form numerous groups of words in modern Russian, for example, the suffixes -ist-, -nick-, denoting a male person by occupation (driver, defender); suffixes -sk-, -n- in the formation of relative and qualitative adjectives (Gorno-Altai, harmful); prefixes without-, not- (safe, timid).
There is a close relationship between the concepts of regular / irregular, productive / unproductive affixes: all irregular affixes are unproductive, and regular ones can be both productive and unproductive.
