In the 2nd half of the 15th-1st third of the 16th centuries. most of the Russian lands were included in the Moscow Grand Duchy. Moscow became the capital of the unified Russian state.

The Grand Duke of All Russia Ivan III Vasilievich (reigned in 1462-1505) annexed the principalities of Yaroslavl (1463), Rostov (1474), the Novgorod Republic (1477), the Grand Duchy of Tver (1485), Vyatka land (1489) to the Grand Duchy of Moscow.

The "standing on the Ugra" of the troops of the Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat and Ivan III in 1480 ended with the retreat of Akhmat, which led to the final liberation of Russia from the Mongol-Tatar yoke. As a result of the Russo-Lithuanian wars of 1487–94 and 1500–03, the Verkhovsky principalities, Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky, Starodub, Gomel, Bryansk, Toropets, and others, ceded to Moscow. In 1487, the Kazan Khanate became a vassal of the Russian state (until 1521). From the end of the 15th century developed a landownership system. The estate, the owner of which was a serving nobleman, and the supreme owner of the Grand Duke, could not be inherited, sold, etc. The nobility formed the basis of the armed forces of the state. The growing need of the state and the feudal lords for money forced them to increase the profitability of estates and estates by transferring duties to cash taxes, increasing quitrents, introducing their own plowing, and transferring peasants to corvée. Sudebnik 1497 legalized a single term for the transition of peasants to other owners, usually in the fall, a week before St. George's Day (November 26) and a week after it. Under Ivan III, the process of folding the central state apparatus was going on. The Boyar Duma became a permanent deliberative body under the supreme power. It included duma ranks: boyars, roundabouts, from the beginning of the 16th century. - duma nobles, later duma clerks. The unification of the courts of the principalities attached to Moscow as part of the Sovereign's court continued. The relationship between the princely-boyar aristocracy of Moscow and the region was regulated by localism. At the same time, a number of special territorial courts were still preserved (Tver land until the 40s of the 16th century, Novgorod land until the first quarter of the 17th century). There were central executive bodies (Treasury, palaces). Local administrative, financial and judicial functions were performed by the institute of governors and volostels that had developed in Russia, supported by feeding, the 2nd marriage (1472) of Ivan III with the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Zoya (Sophia) Palaiologos served to increase the international authority of Moscow. Diplomatic and trade relations were established with the papal throne, the Holy Roman Empire, Hungary, the Principality of Moldavia, the Ottoman Empire, Iran, the Crimean Khanate, etc. Ivan III attracted Italian architects Aleviz Fryazin (Milants), Aleviz Fryazin to the construction of church and secular buildings in Moscow (New), Aristotle Fioravanti and others.

Under Ivan III, the struggle of 2 currents in the Russian Orthodox Church escalated: the Josephites (the founder and spiritual leader Joseph Volotsky) and non-possessors (Nil Sorsky, Paisiy Yaroslavov, Vassian Patrikeev, etc.). At the church council of 1503, the attempt by the nonpossessors to put into practice the idea of ​​the monasteries renouncing land ownership provoked active opposition from Joseph Volotsky and his supporters. Ivan III, who hoped to replenish the land fund of the state through secularization, was forced to recognize the program of the Josephites: "Church acquisition is God's acquisition." He also changed his attitude towards the circle of freethinkers (F. V. Kuritsyn, Ivan Cherny, etc.), which had developed at the court of his son and co-ruler (since 1471), Grand Duke Ivan Ivanovich Molodoy (1458-93) and his wife (since 1483) Helena Stefanovna (died in disgrace in 1505), and yielded to the Archbishop of Novgorod Gennady and other hierarchs who demanded cruel punishments of representatives of the so-called. Novgorod-Moscow heresy.

Grand Duke of All Russia Vasily III Ivanovich (reigned in 1505-33) annexed the Pskov Republic (1510), the Ryazan Grand Duchy (1521) to Moscow. He conquered Smolensk from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1514). The size of the territory of the state increased from 430,000 km2 (early 60s of the 15th century) to 2,800,000 km2 (early 30s of the 16th century). Vasily III, following the policy of his father, strictly regulated his relations with the specific princes, a number of appanages were liquidated. He began construction beyond the Oka of the Great Zasechnaya Line and, in the interests of medium and small feudal lords, supported the development of lands south of Moscow. He, like Ivan III, invited foreigners to Moscow: the doctor and translator N. Bulev, Maxim Grek, etc. To justify the divine origin of the grand duke's power, he used the ideas of Joseph Volotsky, "Tales of the Princes of Vladimir", the theory "Moscow - the third Rome". Divorce from Solomonia Saburova (1525) and marriage to Elena Vasilievna Glinskaya aggravated relations between Vasily III and part of the Moscow boyars.

During the years of the regency of Grand Duchess Elena Glinskaya (1533-38) and after her death, under the juvenile Grand Duke of All Russia (since 1533) Ivan IV Vasilyevich (1530-84), the struggle between court factions intensified. It was attended by Elena's favorite - Prince I. F. Ovchina -

Telepnev-Obolensky (died in prison), princes Belsky, Shuisky, boyars Vorontsov, princes Glinsky. During this period, the inheritances of the brothers Vasily III, princes Yuri Dmitrovsky and Andrei Staritsky, were liquidated (both died in prison). A monetary reform was carried out (1535-38), a description of the lands (1536-44), a lip reform was launched (1539-41), etc.

In the 1st half of the 16th century. landownership in the central districts covered more than a third of the land, but the patrimony remained the dominant form of land ownership. There was an increase in trade and handicraft production. Novgorod, the Serpukhov-Tula region, Ustyuzhna-Zhelezopolskaya became large iron-making centers; they were engaged in salt-making in Salt-Galitskaya, Una and Nenoksa (on the coast of the White Sea), Solvychegodsk; leather processing - in Yaroslavl, etc. The trade and craft elite of a number of cities included guests and merchants of the living room and cloth hundreds. Furs came from the North, where bread was delivered from the center. Trade with Eastern countries (Ottoman Empire, Iran, Central Asian states) was more developed than with Western countries. Moscow has become the largest market in the country. In the middle of the 16th century in the country there were already up to 160 cities, most of which were military-administrative centers-fortresses.

On January 16, 1547, Ivan IV Vasilyevich was married to the kingdom, the royal title was considered equal to the imperial one. The closest adviser to the king was Metropolitan Macarius. In the late 40s - 50s. 16th century Ivan IV together with t.

N. Elected Rada (A.F. Adashev, Sylvester, etc.) participated in the compilation of the Sudebnik of 1550, completed the labial and carried out zemstvo reforms (during the latter, feeding was canceled), began to convene Zemsky sobors, central nationwide class-representative institutions with legislative functions . There was a formation of a class-representative monarchy. The tsar ruled jointly with the Boyar Duma, relying on the decisions of the Zemsky Sobors. The sovereign's court included the upper strata of the ruling class (including the princely and old boyar aristocracy) and was divided into ranks: duma, as well as close to them, including representatives of the highest court positions, Moscow ranks and nobles from county corporations. The main categories of service people "according to the fatherland" and "according to the instrument" were formed. Localism regulated the system of tribal and service relations of noble families. At the same time, Ivan IV, by decree of 1550, limited the application of the norms of parochialism in military service to military merit. In the middle of the 16th century a system of central executive institutions-orders was formed (Ambassadorial, Local, Discharge, etc.). In 1550, 6 archery regiments were established, divided into hundreds. The local system of manning the army was formalized by the "Code of Service" (1555-60).

The most important result of foreign policy in the 1550s. was the capture of Kazan, the annexation of the territories of the Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan (1556) khanates to Russia and the inclusion of the peoples of the Middle Volga and Western Urals in the emerging multinational state. In the 2nd half of the 16th century. In addition to Russians, Tatars, Bashkirs, Udmurts, Maris, Chuvashs, Mordvins, Komis, Karelians, Saami, Veps, Nenets and other peoples lived in Russia.

In order to prevent the raids of the Crimean khans on the southern and central regions of the country in 1556-59, campaigns of Russian and Ukrainian troops were undertaken on the territory subject to the Crimean Khanate. In 1559, voivode D. F. Adashev landed on the Crimean coast, captured a number of towns and villages, and safely returned to Russia.

In 1558, Ivan IV began the Livonian War, with the aim of seizing the Baltic states and establishing himself on the coast of the Baltic Sea. Under the blows of the Russian troops, the Livonian Order disintegrated. Russia was opposed by Sweden, Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (from 1569 - the Commonwealth).

Around 1560, the government of the Chosen Rada fell, some members of which opposed the conduct of the Livonian War, and also considered it necessary to continue the struggle against the Crimean Khanate. Ivan IV also suspected his former associates of sympathy for his cousin, the specific prince Vladimir Staritsky. After the defeat of the Russian troops from the Polish-Lithuanian side on the river. Ula near Polotsk (1564) the tsar put into disgrace and executed the princes M. P. Repnin, Yu. I. Kashin, the governor

N. P. Sheremeteva and others. Trying to break the hidden opposition of some part of the aristocracy and achieve unlimited autocratic power, in December 1564 Ivan IV set about organizing the oprichnina. On January 3, 1565, having retired to Alexandrov's settlement, he announced his abdication, placing the blame on the clergy, boyars, children of boyars and clerks. A deputation from the Boyar Duma and the clergy arrived in the settlement, expressing their consent to granting emergency powers to the tsar. The king established a "special" court with his army, finances and administration. The state was divided into oprichnina and zemstvo territories. In the oprichnina, the oprichnina thought, financial orders (Cheti) operated. Zemshchina continued to be controlled by the Boyar Duma. There were evictions of feudal lords who were not enrolled in the oprichnina, with the transfer of their lands to the guardsmen. From February 1565, the oprichnina terror began. In 1568, the boyar I. P. Fedorov and his alleged “supporters” were executed; in 1569, the Staritskys, Metropolitan Philip, and others were exterminated. defeat of Novgorod. In the same year, many supporters of Ivan IV were executed (guardsmen A. D. and F. A. Basmanov, clerk I. M. Viskovaty, etc.). In 1571, the tsar and the oprichnina army failed to defend Moscow from the raid of the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray. At the same time, the zemstvo governors, princes M. I. Vorotynsky, D. I. Khvorostinin and others, inflicted a crushing defeat on the khan in the Battle of Molodin in 1572. In the same year, Ivan IV abolished the oprichnina, and in 1575 appointed Simeon Bekbulatvich, the Kasimov Khan, Grand Duke of All Russia, he himself was called Prince Ivan Vasilyevich of Moscow, retaining full power. In 1576 he regained the royal throne.

Temporary successes during the Livonian War (the capture of Marienhausen, Lutsin, Zesswegen, Schwanenburg, and others in 1577) gave way to a series of defeats from the troops of the Polish King Stefan Batory and the Swedish King Johan III. In 1581-82, the Pskov garrison, headed by Prince I.P. Shuisky, withstood the siege of the Polish-Lithuanian troops.

The internal policy of Ivan IV and a protracted war led the country in the 70-80s. 16th century to a severe economic crisis, the ruin of the population with taxes, oprichnina pogroms, and the desolation of large areas of Russia. In 1581, Ivan IV introduced a temporary ban on the peasant exit on St. George's Day. Continuing the policy of expanding the territory of the state, the tsar supported the campaign of Yermak Timofeyevich against the Siberian Khanate (about 1581), initiating the annexation of Siberia to the Russian state. The Livonian War ended (1583) with the loss of a number of Russian lands (the Treaty of Yam-Zapolsky in 1582, the Truce of Plus in 1583). The reign of Ivan IV, nicknamed "the Terrible", ended in the collapse of many undertakings and the personal tragedy of the tsar, connected with the murder of his son - Tsarevich Ivan Ivanovich. Historians have not been able to unambiguously explain the reasons for his actions. The combination of talent, outstanding education and the sadistic inclinations of the king is sometimes associated with his severe heredity, mental trauma during his childhood, persecution mania, etc.

Russian culture of the late 15th-16th centuries. It is represented by outstanding achievements in the field of printing (printing houses of Ivan Fedorov, P. T. Mstislavets), architecture (the ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin, the Pokrovsky Cathedral on Red Square, the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye), church painting (frescoes and icons of Dionysius), applied art. In the 16th century compiled Voskresenskaya, Nikonovskaya and other chronicles, the Front chronicle code. The problems of power, the relationship between church and state, the socio-political and economic structure were considered in the works of Philotheus, Joseph Volotsky, Maxim the Greek, Yermolai-Erasmus, I. S. Peresvetov, Ivan IV the Terrible, Prince A. M. Kurbsky and others.

In the 2nd half of the 15th - 1st third of the 16th centuries. most of the Russian lands were included in the Moscow Grand Duchy. Moscow became the capital of the unified Russian state.

The Grand Duke of All Russia Ivan III Vasilyevich (reigned in 1462-1505) annexed the Principality of Yaroslavl (1463), Rostov (1474), the Novgorod Republic (1477), the Grand Duchy of Tver (1485) to the Grand Duchy of Moscow .), Vyatka land (1489). "Standing on the Ugra" of the troops of the Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat and Ivan III in 1480 ended with the retreat of Akhmat, which led to the final liberation of Russia from the Mongol-Tatar yoke. As a result of the Russian-Lithuanian wars of 1487-94. and 1500-03. Verkhovsky Principalities, Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky, Starodub, Gomel, Bryansk, Toropets, and others went to Moscow. In 1487, the Kazan Khanate became a vassal of the Russian state (until 1521). From the end of the XV century. developed a landownership system. The estate, the owner of which was a serving nobleman, and the supreme owner of the Grand Duke, could not be inherited, sold, etc. The nobility formed the basis of the armed forces of the state. The growing need of the state and the feudal lords for money forced them to increase the profitability of estates and estates by transferring duties to cash taxes, increasing quitrents, introducing their own plowing, and transferring peasants to corvée. The Sudebnik of 1497 legalized a single term for the transition of peasants to other owners, usually in the fall, a week before St. George's Day (November 26) and a week after it. Under Ivan III, the process of folding the central state apparatus was going on. The Boyar Duma became a permanent deliberative body under the supreme power. It included duma ranks: boyars, roundabouts, from the beginning of the XIV century. - duma nobles, later duma clerks. The unification of the courts of the principalities attached to Moscow as part of the Sovereign's court continued. The relationship between the princely-boyar aristocracy of Moscow and the region was regulated by localism. At the same time, a number of special territorial courtyards were still preserved (Tver land until the 40s of the XIV century, Novgorod land until the 1st quarter of the XVII century). There were central executive bodies (Treasury, palaces). Local administrative, financial and judicial functions were performed by the institute of governors and volostels that had developed in Russia, supported by feeding, the 2nd marriage (1472) of Ivan III with the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Zoya (Sophia) Palaiologos served to increase the international authority of Moscow. Diplomatic and trade relations were established with the papal throne, the Holy Roman Empire, Hungary, the Principality of Moldavia, the Ottoman Empire, Iran, the Crimean Khanate, etc. Ivan III attracted the Italian architects Aleviz Fryazin (Milanets), Aleviz Fryazin (New), Aristotle Fioravanti and others to the construction of church and secular buildings in Moscow.

Under Ivan III, the struggle of 2 currents in the Russian Orthodox Church escalated: the Josephites (the founder and spiritual leader Joseph Volotsky) and non-possessors (Nil Sorsky, Paisiy Yaroslavov, Vassian Patrikeev, etc.). The attempt of the nonpossessors to put into practice at the church council of 1503 the idea of ​​the monasteries giving up land ownership caused active opposition from Joseph Volotsky and his supporters. Ivan III, who hoped to replenish the land fund of the state through secularization, was forced to recognize the program of the Josephites: "Church acquisition is God's acquisition." He also changed his attitude towards the circle of freethinkers (F. V. Kuritsyn, Ivan Cherny, etc.), which had developed at the court of his son and co-ruler (since 1471), Grand Duke Ivan Ivanovich Molodoy (1458-93) and his wife (since 1483) Elena Stefanovna (died in disgrace in 1505), and yielded to the Archbishop of Novgorod Gennady and other hierarchs who demanded cruel punishments of representatives of the so-called. Novgorod-Moscow heresy.

The Grand Duke of All Russia Vasily III Ivanovich (ruled in 1505-33) annexed the Pskov Republic (1510), the Ryazan Grand Duchy (1521) to Moscow. He conquered Smolensk from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1514). The size of the territory of the state increased from 430 thousand km 2 (the beginning of the 60s of the XV century) to 2800 thousand km 2 (the beginning of the 30s of the XIV century). Vasily III, following the policy of his father, strictly regulated his relations with the specific princes, a number of appanages were liquidated. He began construction beyond the Oka of the Great Zasechnaya Line and, in the interests of medium and small feudal lords, supported the development of lands south of Moscow. He, like Ivan III, invited foreigners to Moscow: the doctor and translator N. Bulev, Maxim Grek, etc. To justify the divine origin of the grand duke's power, he used the ideas of Joseph Volotsky, "Tales of the Princes of Vladimir", the theory "Moscow - the third Rome". Divorce from Solomonia Saburova (1525) and marriage to Elena Vasilievna Glinskaya aggravated relations between Vasily III and part of the Moscow boyars.

During the years of the regency of Grand Duchess Elena Glinskaya (1533-38) and after her death under the young Grand Duke of All Russia (since 1533) Ivan IV Vasilievich (1530-84), the struggle between court factions intensified. It was attended by Elena's favorite - Prince I.F. Ovchina-Telepnev-Obolensky (died in custody), the princes Belsky, Shuisky, the boyars Vorontsov, the princes Glinsky. During this period, the inheritances of the brothers Vasily III, princes Yuri Dmitrovsky and Andrei Staritsky, were liquidated (both died in prison). A monetary reform was carried out (1535-38), a description of the lands (1536-44), a lip reform was launched (1539-41), etc.

In the 1st half of the XVI century. landownership in the central districts covered more than a third of the land, but the patrimony remained the dominant form of land ownership. There was an increase in trade and handicraft production. Novgorod, the Serpukhov-Tula region, Ustyuzhna-Zhelezopolskaya became large iron-making centers; they were engaged in salt-making in Salt-Galitskaya, Una and Nenoksa (on the coast of the White Sea), Solvychegodsk; leather processing - in Yaroslavl, etc. The trade and craft elite of a number of cities included guests and merchants of the living room and cloth hundreds. Furs came from the North, where bread was delivered from the center. Trade with Eastern countries (Ottoman Empire, Iran, Central Asian states) was more developed than with Western countries. Moscow has become the largest market in the country. In the middle of the XVI century. in the country there were already up to 160 cities, most of which were military-administrative centers-fortresses.

On January 16, 1547, Ivan IV Vasilyevich was married to the kingdom, the royal title was considered equal to the imperial one. The closest adviser to the king was Metropolitan Macarius. In the late 40s - 50s. 16th century Ivan IV together with the so-called. The elected council (A.F. Adashev, Sylvester, etc.) participated in the compilation of the Sudebnik of 1550, completed the labial and carried out zemstvo reforms (during the latter, feeding was canceled), began to convene Zemsky sobors, central nationwide class-representative institutions with legislative functions . There was a formation of a class-representative monarchy. The tsar ruled jointly with the Boyar Duma, relying on the decisions of the Zemsky Sobors. The sovereign's court included the upper strata of the ruling class (including the princely and old boyar aristocracy) and was divided into ranks: duma, as well as close to them, including representatives of the highest court positions, Moscow ranks and nobles from county corporations. The main categories of service people "according to the fatherland" and "according to the instrument" were formed. Localism regulated the system of tribal and service relations of noble families. At the same time, Ivan IV, by decree of 1550, limited the application of the norms of parochialism in military service to military merit. In the middle of the XVI century. a system of central executive institutions-orders was formed (Ambassadorial, Local, Discharge, etc.). In 1550, 6 archery regiments were established, divided into hundreds. The local system of manning the army was formalized by the "Service Code" (1555-60).

The most important result of foreign policy in the 1550s. was the capture of Kazan, the annexation of the territories of the Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan (1556) khanates to Russia and the inclusion of the peoples of the Middle Volga and Western Urals in the emerging multinational state. In the 2nd half of the XVI century. in Russia, in addition to Russians, lived Tatars, Bashkirs, Udmurts, Maris, Chuvashs, Mordovians, Komi, Karelians, Saami, Veps, Nenets and other peoples.

In order to prevent the raids of the Crimean khans on the southern and central regions of the country in 1556-59. campaigns of Russian and Ukrainian troops were undertaken on the territory subject to the Crimean Khanate. In 1559, voivode D.F. Adashev landed on the Crimean coast, captured a number of towns and villages, and safely returned to Russia.

In 1558, Ivan IV began the Livonian War, with the aim of capturing the Baltic states and establishing himself on the coast of the Baltic Sea. Under the blows of the Russian troops, the Livonian Order disintegrated. Russia was opposed by Sweden, Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (since 1569 - the Commonwealth).

Around 1560, the government of the Chosen Rada fell, some members of which opposed the Livonian War, and also considered it necessary to continue the struggle against the Crimean Khanate. Ivan IV also suspected his former associates of sympathy for his cousin, the specific prince Vladimir Staritsky. After the defeat of the Russian troops from the Polish-Lithuanian side on the river. Ula near Polotsk (1564), the tsar placed in disgrace and executed the princes M. P. Repnin, Yu. I. Kashin, the governor N. P. Sheremetev, and others.

Trying to break the hidden opposition of some part of the aristocracy and achieve unlimited autocratic power, in December 1564 Ivan IV set about organizing the oprichnina. Having retired to Alexandrov Sloboda, on January 3, 1565, he announced his abdication, placing the blame on the clergy, boyars, children of boyars and clerks. A deputation from the Boyar Duma and the clergy arrived in the settlement, expressing their consent to granting emergency powers to the tsar. The king established a "special" court with his army, finances and administration. The state was divided into oprichnina and zemstvo territories. In the oprichnina, the oprichnina thought, financial orders (Cheti) operated. Zemshchina continued to be controlled by the Boyar Duma. There were evictions of feudal lords who were not enrolled in the oprichnina, with the transfer of their lands to the guardsmen. From February 1565, the oprichnina terror began. In 1568, the boyar I.P. Fedorov and his alleged “supporters” were executed, in 1569 the Staritskys, Metropolitan Philip and others were exterminated. defeat of Novgorod. In the same year, many supporters of Ivan IV were executed (guardsmen A. D. and F. A. Basmanov, clerk I. M. Viskovaty, etc.). In 1571, the tsar and the oprichnina army failed to defend Moscow from the raid of the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray. At the same time, the zemstvo governors, princes M. I. Vorotynsky, D. I. Khvorostinin and others, inflicted a crushing defeat on the khan in the Battle of Molodin in 1572. In the same year, Ivan IV abolished the oprichnina, and in 1575 appointed the Kasimov Khan Grand Duke of All Russia Simeon Bekbulatvich, he himself was called Prince Ivan Vasilievich of Moscow, retaining full power. In 1576 he regained the royal throne.

Temporary successes during the Livonian War (the capture of Marienhausen, Lucin, Zesswegen, Schwanenburg, etc. in 1577) were replaced by a series of defeats from the troops of the Polish king Stefan Batory and the Swedish king Johan III. In 1581-82. the garrison of Pskov, headed by Prince I. P. Shuisky, withstood the siege of the Polish-Lithuanian troops.

The internal policy of Ivan IV and a protracted war led the country in the 70-80s. 16th century to a severe economic crisis, the ruin of the population with taxes, oprichnina pogroms, and the desolation of large areas of Russia. In 1581, Ivan IV introduced a temporary ban on the peasant exit on St. George's Day. Continuing the policy of expanding the territory of the state, the tsar supported the campaign of Yermak Timofeevich against the Siberian Khanate (circa 1581), initiating the annexation of Siberia to the Russian state. The Livonian War ended (1583) with the loss of a number of Russian lands (the Treaty of Yam-Zapolsky in 1582, the Truce of Plus in 1583). The reign of Ivan IV, nicknamed "the Terrible", ended in the collapse of many undertakings and the personal tragedy of the tsar, connected with the murder of his son - Tsarevich Ivan Ivanovich. Historians have not been able to unambiguously explain the reasons for his actions. The combination of talent, outstanding education and the sadistic inclinations of the king is sometimes associated with his severe heredity, mental trauma during his childhood, persecution mania, etc.

Russian culture of the late XV-XVI centuries. It is represented by outstanding achievements in the field of printing (printing houses of Ivan Fedorov, P. T. Mstislavets), architecture (the ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin, the Pokrovsky Cathedral on Red Square, the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye), church painting (frescoes and icons of Dionysius), applied art. In the XVI century. compiled Voskresenskaya, Nikonovskaya and other chronicles, the Front chronicle code. The problems of power, the relationship between church and state, the socio-political and economic structure were considered in the works of Philotheus, Joseph Volotsky, Maxim the Greek, Yermolai-Erasmus, I. S. Peresvetov, Ivan IV the Terrible, Prince A. M. Kurbsky and others.

Completion of the unification of Russian lands and the formation of the Russian state. After the death of Vasily II, the throne passed to his son without any mention of the Horde. During the reign of Ivan III (1462-1505), the Moscow principality developed successfully: with virtually no resistance, many Russian lands were annexed to Moscow - Yaroslavl, Rostov, as well as Perm, Vyatka, with non-Russian peoples living here. This expanded the multinational composition of the Russian state. Chernigov-Seversky possessions passed from Lithuania.

The Novgorod boyar republic, which had considerable power, remained independent of the Moscow prince. In 1471 Ivan III took drastic measures to subdue Novgorod. The decisive battle took place on the Shelon River, when the Muscovites, being in the minority, defeated the Novgorodians. In 1478 the republic in Novgorod was finally liquidated. A veche bell was taken from the city to Moscow. The city was now ruled by Moscow governors.

In 1480, the Horde yoke was finally overthrown. This happened after the clash of Moscow and Mongol-Tatar troops on the Ugra River. Khan Akhmat was at the head of the Horde troops. After standing on the Ugra for several weeks, Akhmat realized that it was pointless to engage in battle. This event went down in history as "standing on the Ugra". Russia, a few years before Akhmat's campaign, stopped paying tribute to the Horde. In 1502, the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey inflicted a crushing defeat on the Golden Horde, after which its existence ceased.

In 1497, a code of laws was introduced - the “Sudebnik” of Ivan III, which strengthened the power of the sovereign and introduced uniform legal norms throughout the state. One of the articles of the Sudebnik regulated the transfer of peasants from one owner to another. According to the Sudebnik, peasants could leave the feudal lords only a week before and a week after St. George's autumn day (November 26), having paid the old. National governing bodies of the country began to form - orders. There was localism - the procedure for obtaining positions depending on the nobility of the family. Local administration was carried out on the basis of a feeding system: while collecting taxes from the population, the governors kept part of the funds. Strengthening the authority of the sovereign was the marriage of Ivan III to the Byzantine princess Sophia Paleolog.

The work of his father was completed by Vasily III (1505-1533), having annexed Ryazan and Pskov, having conquered Smolensk from Lithuania. All Russian lands united into a single Russian state. During the reign of Vasily III, stone construction began in many Russian cities. In Moscow, the Annunciation Cathedral was built in the Kremlin and the Archangel Cathedral was finally completed, into which the remains of the great Moscow princes were transferred. The ditch near the Moscow Kremlin was paved with stone. Wooden walls in Nizhny Novgorod, Tula, Kolomna and Zaraysk were replaced with stone ones. And in Novgorod, which the Grand Duke of Moscow liked to visit, in addition to the walls, streets, squares and rows were rebuilt.

Russia under Ivan IV. Reforms of the middle of the XVI century. Oprichnina policy. After the death of Vasily III, the throne passed to the three-year-old Ivan IV (1533-1584), later nicknamed the Terrible. In fact, the state was ruled by his mother Elena Glinskaya. She entrusted all state affairs to the Boyar Duma. During the reign of Elena Glinskaya, in the war with Lithuania, small territories in the west were annexed, and the raids of the Tatar cavalry on Moscow lands were also repelled. A monetary reform was carried out: the coins of various principalities were replaced by coins of a single sample - kopecks. In 1538, Elena died unexpectedly (there is an assumption that she was poisoned). After her death, the struggle for power between the boyar groups intensified.

Upon reaching the age of 17 in 1547, Ivan Vasilyevich was married to the kingdom, becoming the first tsar in Russia. The ceremony of taking the royal title took place in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. From the hands of the Moscow Metropolitan Macarius, Ivan IV received the cap of Monomakh and other signs of royal power.

Under the young king, a circle of friends formed - the Chosen Rada. It included the nobleman Alexei Adashev, Archpriest Sylvester (confessor of the young king), Prince Andrei Kurbsky, Metropolitan Macarius. The task of these people was to help the king in governing the state and develop reforms.

In 1549, the first Zemsky Sobor in the history of the country was convened, which included elected representatives from each estate. In the 1550s, the formation of the order system was completed, until 1568 it was called the “order hut”. The creation of orders was caused by the complication of state administration due to the growth of subject territories. There were Ambassadorial, Local, Discharge, Robbery orders, petition hut - the highest control body of the state. At the head of the order was a boyar or clerk - a major government official.

In 1550, a new "Sudebnik" was adopted, confirming the rule of St. George's Day.

In 1555-1556 the reform of local government was completed, the feeding system was abolished, the archery army was created, and the labial and zemstvo reforms were carried out. In 1551, Stoglav was adopted - the decision of the church council, which streamlined the affairs of the church.

In 1565–1572 Ivan IV established the oprichnina regime, which led to numerous victims and the ruin of the country. The territory of the state was divided into two parts: the oprichnina and the zemshchina. The tsar included the most important lands in the oprichnina. The nobles who were part of the oprichnina army settled in them. Oprichniki in a short time brought these lands to the most miserable situation, the peasants fled from there to the outskirts of the state. This army was to be supported by the population of the zemstvo. The guardsmen wore black clothes. Dog heads and brooms were attached to their saddles, symbolizing the canine devotion of the guardsmen to the tsar and their readiness to sweep treason out of the country. At the head of the guardsmen, Ivan Vasilyevich made a punitive campaign against Novgorod and Pskov. The cities that were on the way to Novgorod, Novgorod itself and its environs were subjected to terrible ruin. Pskov managed to pay off with a lot of money. In 1581, "reserved years" were introduced - a ban on the transition of peasants on St. George's Day.

Expansion of the territory of Russia in the XVI century. Livonian war. In foreign policy, Ivan IV sought to expand the territory of the state: Kazan was taken in 1552, Astrakhan in 1556, and the conquest of the Siberian Khanate began in 1582.

In 1558–1583 the Livonian War took place for Russia to gain access to the Baltic Sea. But this war ended in failure for Russia: according to the Yam-Zapolsky peace (1582), Livonia retreated to Poland, according to the Peace of Plus (1583), Sweden secured the Gulf of Finland, part of Karelia, the fortresses of Narva, Ivangorod, Koporye, Yam, Karel.

During the Livonian War and the oprichnina in the spring of 1571, the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey moved to Moscow. The oprichnina army was unable to resist the external enemy. Moscow was burned down by the khan. Up to 80 thousand people died in the fire.

In 1582, in the face of the threat of a new invasion of the Tatars, Ivan IV was forced to abandon the division of the army. As a result, the united army under the leadership of the governor Prince M. I. Vorotynsky defeated the Tatars near the village of Molodi. Oprichnina was cancelled.

Trouble. Beginning of the Romanov dynasty. After the death of Ivan the Terrible, the Zemsky Sobor, composed of service people, recognized Ivan IV's son Fyodor as king. In 1589, the patriarchate was introduced, which meant the independence of the Russian Orthodox Church from Constantinople. In 1597, "lesson years" were introduced - a five-year term for detecting fugitive peasants. In 1598, with the death of Fyodor Ivanovich and the suppression of the Rurik dynasty, the Zemsky Sobor elected Boris Godunov to the kingdom by a majority of votes.

Beginning of the 17th century - Time of Troubles. The reasons for the Troubles were the aggravation of social, class, dynastic and international relations at the end of the reign of Ivan IV and under his successors.

1) In the 1570-1580s. the most economically developed center (Moscow) and north-west (Novgorod and Pskov) of the country fell into disrepair. As a result of the oprichnina and the Livonian War, part of the population fled, the other died. The central government, in order to prevent the flight of the peasants to the outskirts, took the path of attaching the peasants to the land of the feudal landowners. In fact, a system of serfdom was established on a state scale. The introduction of serfdom led to an aggravation of social contradictions in the country and created the conditions for mass popular uprisings.

2) After the death of Ivan IV the Terrible, there were no heirs capable of continuing his policy. During the reign of Fyodor Ivanovich (1584–1598), who was gentle in character, his guardian Boris Godunov was the de facto ruler of the country. In 1591, in Uglich, under unclear circumstances, the last of the direct heirs to the throne, the youngest son of Ivan the Terrible, Tsarevich Dmitry, died. Popular rumor attributed the organization of the murder to Boris Godunov. These events triggered a dynastic crisis.

3) At the end of the XVI century. there is a strengthening of the neighbors of Moscow Russia - the Commonwealth, Sweden, the Crimean Khanate, the Ottoman Empire. The aggravation of international contradictions will be another reason for the events that erupted during the Time of Troubles.

During the Time of Troubles, the country was actually in a state of civil war, accompanied by Polish and Swedish interventions. Rumors were widely spread that Tsarevich Dmitry, who “miraculously escaped” in Uglich, was still alive. In 1602, a man appeared in Lithuania, posing as Prince Dmitry. According to the official version of the Moscow government of Boris Godunov, the man posing as Dmitry was a fugitive monk, Grigory Otrepyev. He went down in history under the name of False Dmitry I.

In June 1605, False Dmitry I, a protege of the Polish gentry, entered Moscow. However, his policy caused dissatisfaction with both the common people and the boyars. As a result of a conspiracy of the boyars and an uprising of Muscovites in May 1606, False Dmitry was killed. The boyars proclaim Vasily Shuisky (1606–1610) tsar.

In 1606–1607 there is a popular performance led by Ivan Bolotnikov. In the summer of 1606, Bolotnikov moved from Krom to Moscow. On the way, a small detachment turned into a powerful army, which included peasants, townspeople and even detachments of nobles, led by Prokopy Lyapunov. The Bolotnikovites laid siege to Moscow for two months, but as a result of the betrayal, some of the nobles were defeated by the troops of Vasily Shuisky. In March 1607, Shuisky published the Code of Peasants, which introduced a 15-year term for the search for fugitive peasants. Bolotnikov was driven back to Kaluga and besieged by the tsarist troops, but escaped from the siege and retreated to Tula. The three-month siege of Tula was led by Vasily Shuisky himself. The Upa River was blocked by a dam and the fortress was flooded. After the promise of V. Shuisky to save the lives of the rebels, they opened the gates of Tula. Breaking his word, the king brutally cracked down on the rebels. Bolotnikov was blinded and then drowned in an ice hole in the city of Kargopol.

At the time when Shuisky was besieging Bolotnikov in Tula, a new impostor appeared in the Bryansk region. Relying on the support of the Polish gentry and the Vatican, in 1608 False Dmitry II came out of Poland against Russia. However, attempts to take Moscow ended in vain. False Dmitry II stopped 17 km from the Kremlin in the village of Tushino, for which he received the nickname "Tushino Thief".

In February 1609, Shuisky concluded an agreement with Sweden to fight the Tushins. The Swedes gave troops to fight the "Tushinsky Thief", and Russia abandoned its claims to the Baltic coast.

The Polish king Sigismund III ordered the gentry to leave Tushino and go to Smolensk. The Tushino camp disintegrated. False Dmitry II fled to Kaluga, where he was soon killed. The Tushino boyars invited the son of the Polish king, Tsarevich Vladislav, to the Moscow throne.

In the summer of 1610, a revolution took place in Moscow. Shuisky was overthrown, the boyars headed by F.I. Mstislavsky seized power. This government was called "seven boyars". Despite the protests of Patriarch Hermogenes, the "seven boyars" concluded an agreement on calling Tsarevich Vladislav to the Russian throne and allowed the Polish interventionists into the Kremlin.

The catastrophic situation stirred up the patriotic feelings of the Russian people. At the beginning of 1611, the First People's Militia was formed, led by P. Lyapunov, which besieged Moscow, but due to internal disagreements between the participants, it fell apart, and Prokopiy Lyapunov was killed.

The Swedish troops, released after the overthrow of Shuisky from treaty obligations, captured a significant part of the north of Russia, including Novgorod, besieged Pskov, the Poles captured Smolensk after almost two years of siege. The Polish king Sigismund III announced that he himself would become the Russian tsar, and Russia would enter the Commonwealth.

In the autumn of 1611, the Second People's Militia was formed on the initiative of the Nizhny Novgorod mayor Kuzma Minin and headed by Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. In 1612 Moscow was liberated from the Poles.

In February 1613 Mikhail Romanov was elected to the throne by the Zemsky Sobor.

Culture. Literature. One of the most striking works of the second half of the XV century. was "Journey Beyond the Three Seas" by Athanasius Nikitin. A Tver merchant traveled to India in 1466–1472. The work of Athanasius Nikitin is the first description of India in European literature. The creation of a unified state contributed to the emergence of an extensive journalistic literature, the main theme of which was the path of the country's development. Publicism is represented by the correspondence of Ivan the Terrible with Andrei Kurbsky, the works of M. Bashkin, F. Kosoy, I. Peresvetov. In 1564, Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets laid the foundation for book printing in Russia. The first dated Russian book "Apostle" (1564), then "Book of Hours" (1565), the first Russian primer (1574).

Painting. At the end of the XV century. the famous master of icon painting was Dionysius, who continued the traditions of A. Rublev. His creations are characterized by fine drawing, soft color and festive mood. Dionysius created the famous murals of the Ferapontov Monastery.

Architecture. At the end of the XV century. Moscow became the capital of the Russian state, which should have been fixed in the external appearance of the city. During the reign of Ivan III, under the guidance of Italian masters, a modern Kremlin wall with towers was built. For that time it was an outstanding fortification designed for a long siege. Ivan III attracted Italian masters to build new cathedrals inside the Kremlin. The main temple of Russia - the Assumption Cathedral - the architect Aristotle Fioravanti created on the model of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. The Faceted Chamber was built by Pietro Solari and Mark Fryazin. The Annunciation and Archangel Cathedrals of the Moscow Kremlin were erected. Another Italian architect, Aleviz Novy, took part in the creation of the latter. In the first half of the XVI century. in Russian architecture, a national tent style arose. An outstanding monument of this style was the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye. In 1554–1560 In honor of the capture of Kazan, on the orders of Ivan IV, the Pokrovsky Cathedral on the Moat (St. Basil's Cathedral) was built (Russian architects Barma and Postnik), which became a symbol of Russia for many centuries. In the XVI century. stone walls were erected around many cities. The most famous builder of fortifications was Fedor Kon. He built the walls of the White City in Moscow (on the site of the present Garden Ring), the walls of the Smolensk Kremlin.

Job Samples

When completing the tasks of part 1 (A) in the answer sheet No. 1, under the number of the task you are performing, put an “x” in the box, the number of which corresponds to the number of the answer you have chosen.

A1. Years: 1497, 1581, 1597, 1649 - reflect the main stages

1) Russia's struggle for access to the sea

2) the formation of the Russian centralized state

3) the struggle of Russia with the Golden Horde for independence

4) enslavement of peasants

A2. The lands from which the "state tax" was paid in the 15th-16th centuries were called

1) black

2) specific

4) privately owned

A3. Monuments of culture related to the XV century.

1) "Tale" by Avraamy Palitsyn, Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Putinki, "Savior" by Simon Ushakov

2) Intercession Cathedral in Moscow, Nikon Chronicle, "Domostroy"

3) Trinity Chronicle, Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, "Trinity" by Andrei Rublev

4) "Zadonshchina", "Spas" by Theophanes the Greek, the white-stone Kremlin in Moscow

A4. What was one of the causes of the Troubles (late 16th - early 17th century)?

1) the final enslavement of the peasants

2) the introduction of a poll tax

3) the ruin of the country during the period of the oprichnina and the Livonian War

4) annexation of Veliky Novgorod to Moscow

A5. According to the decree on "reserved years" of 1581

1) peasants were forbidden to leave their owners during the declared years

2) a single period was established for the transition of peasants

3) the right of landowners to judge their peasants was established

4) landlords were forbidden to sell serfs without land

A6. Read the extract from the document and indicate the period in question.

“The inhabitants of Pskov, not knowing what to do and whom to join, not hoping for anyone's help, since there were Lithuanians in Moscow, and in Novgorod the Germans, surrounded on all sides, they decided to call the false tsar to them. Oh, this is the ultimate madness! first they swore not to listen to the false tsar, not to obey him, then they themselves sent elected representatives from all estates to beat him with their foreheads and sent a confession.

1) oprichnina

3) feudal fragmentation

4) palace coups

A7. Which of the listed authorities and officials existed in Russia in the second half of the 16th century?

A) State Duma

B) Boyar Duma

B) Zemsky Sobor

D) zemstvo elders

D) governors

Specify the correct answer.

The tasks of part 2 (B) require an answer in the form of one or two words, a sequence of letters or numbers, which should be written first in the text of the examination paper, and then transferred to the answer sheet No. 1 without spaces and punctuation marks. Write each letter or number in a separate box in accordance with the samples given in the form.

IN 1. Establish a correspondence between the sayings and the historical person that this saying characterizes.

For each position of the first column, select the corresponding position of the second and write down the selected numbers in the table under the corresponding letters.

Answer: 4231.

IN 2. Arrange the events in chronological order.

A) the establishment of the patriarchate in Russia

B) the uprising of Ivan Bolotnikov

C) the overthrow of the Horde yoke

D) establishment of the oprichnina

Transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer sheet No. 1 (without spaces and any symbols).

Answer: VGAB.

IN 3. What three features listed below characterized the development of the Russian state in the 15th-16th centuries?

1) accelerating the process of enslaving the peasants

2) completion of the process of centralization of the country

3) the beginning of feudal fragmentation

4) the emergence of the first manufactories

5) strengthening of the grand duke's power

6) development of market relations

Transfer the resulting sequence of numbers to the answer sheet No. 1 (without spaces and any symbols).

Answer: 125.

AT 4. Read an excerpt from the work of the historian S. M. Solovyov and write the title of the meetings in question.

“In addition to the usual seats of the great sovereign with the boyars, there were also extraordinary meetings, to which the higher clergy and elected representatives from other estates were invited. These emergencies were usually on the question: to start or not to start a dangerous, difficult war, and a long and hard service of military people would be required, on the other hand, monetary donations from hard-working people would be required; it is necessary to call on elected or council people from both, from all ranks, so that they say their thoughts, and if they say that it is necessary to start a war, then so that they do not complain afterwards, they themselves impose a burden.<…>Elected, or council people, came from Moscow and the regions, from different ranks, two people each; from the nobles and children of the boyar large cities, two people each, from the smaller ones by person, from the guests, three people each, from the living room and the cloth hundreds, two each, from the black hundreds and settlements and from the cities, from the settlements by person. There were no elected peasants.”

Answer: Zemsky Sobor.

To answer the tasks of part 3 (C), use the answer sheet No. 2. First write down the task number (C1, etc.), and then the detailed answer to it.

Tasks С4-С7 provide for different types of activities: presentation of a generalized description of historical events and phenomena (C4), consideration of historical versions and assessments (C5), analysis of the historical situation (C6), comparison (C7). As you complete these tasks, pay attention to the wording of each question.

C4. Specify the main results of the activities of Ivan IV the Terrible in the field of foreign policy. List at least three outcomes.

C7. Compare the results of the Battle of Kulikovo and the "standing" on the Ugra. Name what was common (at least two common characteristics) and what was different (at least two differences).

Note. Record your answer in the form of a table. In the second part of the table, differences can be shown both in terms of comparable (paired) features, and those features that were inherent in only one of the compared objects (the table does not establish the mandatory number and composition of common features and differences, but only shows how best to arrange answer).

Russia in the second half of the XV-XVI centuries.

In the second half of the XV century. the process of unification of Russian lands into a single state continued, the center of which was Moscow.
In 1462, the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily II died and his son Ivan III, an intelligent and far-sighted politician, ascended the throne. Ivan III continued the unification of Russian lands around Moscow. In 1463, he annexed the Yaroslavl principality, in 1471 forced Novgorod to recognize itself as a vassal of Moscow, in 1472 the Perm land was conquered, in 1474 the Rostov principality was finally annexed.
In connection with the conquest of Byzantium by the Turks in 1453, the Moscow Principality became the largest Orthodox state in Europe. In 1472, at the initiative of Rome, Ivan III married the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Sophia Paleolog. The Pope and the Western European states considered the Moscow principality as a potential ally against Muslim Turkey. However, Russia did not allow itself to be drawn into an alliance against them. The papal court was the center of international life, and two years of marriage negotiations introduced Ivan III into Western European politics, helped establish diplomatic relations with Western European powers and attract European artisans and architects to Russia. Thanks to this marriage, the prestige of the Grand Duchy of Moscow increased significantly not only among the Russian lands, but also in Western Europe. The selection of the Moscow prince among other Rurikovichs also meant the recognition of the role of Moscow as the center of the unification of Russian lands.
In 1478, having suppressed the rebellion in Novgorod, Ivan III annexed the Novgorod land. He stopped paying tribute to the Horde. In response, Khan Akhmat, having concluded an alliance with Lithuania, invaded Russia. In the autumn of 1480, the Tatars approached the Oka, where the Ugra flows into it. On the other side of the Ugra, the Russian army was waiting for them. Attempts by the Tatars to cross the Ugra were repulsed. The Lithuanians did not provide assistance to Akhmat. The Tatars did not dare to start a battle and left. After “standing on the Ugra”, Russia finally freed itself from the Horde oppression.
In 1485, Ivan III annexed the Principality of Tver, and in 1489 - Vyatka land. A large single state independent of the Tatars appeared.
From 1488, Ivan III began to call himself "the sovereign of all Russia." In 1497, a code of laws was adopted - Sudebnik. Russia declared itself the successor of the Old Russian state, which united all the East Slavic lands. This meant that she laid claim to them. Spiritually, Russia claimed to be the successor of Byzantium.
Russia was surrounded by enemies: in the west - the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, in which Orthodoxy was forcibly replaced by Catholicism in the Russian lands; in the south and east - the Muslim Crimean, Astrakhan and Kazan khanates, which became vassals of the mighty Ottoman Empire. Under Ivan III, an alliance arose with the Crimea, thanks to which Khan Mengli-Girey destroyed the Great Horde in 1502, but in the 16th century. The Crimean Khanate became a Turkish vassal and the worst enemy of Russia. After the wars with Lithuania in 1492-1494. and 1501-1503. Russia received the possessions of the "Verkhovsky" (in the upper reaches of the Oka River) princes and the lands of Chernigov and Seversk.
In 1505, the son of Ivan III, Vasily III (1505-1533), came to the throne. Under him, with the annexation of Pskov in 1510, Smolensk in 1514 and the Principality of Ryazan in 1521, the unification of Russian lands was completed.
In 1533, the three-year-old son of Vasily III became the Grand Duke of Moscow - Ivan IV the Terrible(1533-1584). In 1547, he was the first of the Russian princes to be crowned king. The adoption of the royal title was of great importance for the fate of the Russian state. Byzantine emperors, and later the Golden Horde khans, were called tsars in Ancient Russia. The king was equal in importance to the emperor of the German Empire and was considered higher than European kings.
Ivan IV carried out a number of reforms. The archery army was established. In peacetime, the archers were engaged in crafts and petty trade. Reforms of central and local government were carried out, a new code of laws was developed - the Code of Laws of 1550. The Church was forbidden to acquire new lands without the permission of the king. A lot of land was distributed to small nobles - landlords, who were obliged to carry out military service for the land. The reforms strengthened the state system. The tsar was supported by the head of the Russian Church, Metropolitan Macarius (1482-1563).
But the big princes and boyars still had their military detachments. The remains of the former liberties were preserved in Novgorod and Pskov. In 1565, having decided to strengthen his power, Ivan IV introduced the "oprichnina": he divided the country into two parts, one of which he took under his personal leadership and called it "oprichnina", that is, a special territory. The other part was called "zemshchina", that is, the rest of the land.
At the same time, a corps of guardsmen was formed - the personal royal guard. The guardsmen wore black clothes, dog heads were tied around the neck of the horse, and panicles were tied to the saddle. This meant that they had to sniff out, gnaw and sweep treason out of the country. From the oprichnina territory, many boyars and nobles were forcibly relocated to other regions of the country, many were brutally executed; Metropolitan Philip (Kolychev) who condemned the oprichnina was killed. During the oprichnina, Ivan IV destroyed the appanages, the remnants of the autocracy of the boyars, destroyed not only his open opponents who did not accept his ideas of autocracy, but everyone who protested or even doubted his methods of government. But the guardsmen fought well only with the people, while the Tatars who invaded in 1572 were defeated by the Zemstvo army.
In 1572, considering his goal achieved, Ivan IV canceled the oprichnina. In 1581, the transfer of peasants from owner to another owner was partially prohibited.
From the very beginning of the emergence of the Kazan Khanate, which came close to the Russian state, the Tatars almost every year ravaged the eastern lands of Russia, burning cities and taking away a huge crowd. Moscow tried to neutralize their hostility and increase its influence there, without setting the task of annexing the khanate.
In 1552 Ivan IV took Kazan by storm. The Kazan Khanate was annexed to Russia. More than 60 thousand people were released from captivity. In 1556, the Astrakhan Khanate was annexed to Russia. In 1552-1557. Bashkiria, the Great Nogai Horde and Kabarda recognized themselves as vassals of Russia. Now the entire Volga and Kama routes were in the hands of Moscow. Russian military and commercial fortresses began to appear on these lands: Cheboksary, Samara, Saratov, Tsaritsyn, Ufa. In the North Caucasus along the river. Terek was settled by serving Cossacks, the fortress of Terki was built.
For the Crimean Tatars, the war was the main means of subsistence, and they also constantly undertook predatory raids on Russia, sometimes reaching Moscow. But after the elimination of the threat from the east, Ivan IV considered the main task to be protection from aggression from the west: the return of the Russian principalities captured by the Lithuanians and the lands that belonged to the Old Russian state in the Baltic states, as well as gaining access to the Baltic Sea.
To protect against the Crimean Tatars, the Zasechnaya Line was built - a strip of fortifications that stretched for more than 600 km along the southern borders of Russia - from the Bryansk forests, to the banks of the Oka and further to Ryazan, consisting of forest blockages, earthen ramparts and fortresses.
In 1558 Russia started a war in the Baltics. The Livonian Order was defeated and ceased to exist, but Lithuania, Poland and Sweden opposed Russia. In 1569, Lithuania and Poland united into a single state - the Commonwealth (Poland). In the same year, the Turkish campaign against Astrakhan was repulsed. In 1571, the Crimean Tatars managed to take and burn Moscow, but in 1572 they were defeated near the village of Molodi. In 1582, exhausted by the war and the oprichnina, Russia concluded a ten-year truce with Poland, refusing to conquer in the Baltic states, and in 1583 with Sweden, not recognizing the capture of Russian lands by the Swedes: Izhora (Ingermanland, Ingria), part of the Karelian Isthmus, Neva ( banks of the Neva) with the fortress of Oreshek and the northwestern Ladoga region with the city of Korela. After a new war with Sweden in 1590-1593. they were returned to Russia Tyavzinsky peace treaty 1595
After the collapse in the XV century. Golden Horde in Western Siberia emerged Siberian Khanate. Siberian Tatars often plundered the possessions of Russian merchants, who in the first half of the 16th century. moved to the Trans-Urals, developing the territories located beyond the Ob River. Merchants Stroganovs took an active part in this development. They had vast territories along the rivers Kama and Chusovaya, given to them by Ivan IV on a charter in 1558. From there they organized campaigns beyond the Urals in search of new commercial fur areas and to fight the Siberian Tatars. To protect against them, the Stroganovs hired a squad of Volga Cossacks led by Yermak Timofeevich Alyoshin. In 1581, Yermak began a campaign for the Urals against the Siberian Khanate. He managed to defeat the Tatars and annex the Siberian Khanate to Russia.
The advance, which began in Siberia on the initiative of the Stroganovs, received the support of the government. The detachments marching to Western Siberia in 1585-1590 secured the territory by building fortified cities. In 1586, a city was built on the Tura River - Tyumen. In 1587, the city of Tobolsk was founded in the very center of the Siberian Khanate, which became the main administrative center of Siberia. Then, in 1594, the city of Tara was built, from where campaigns began against the Baraba Tatars, who soon recognized the power of the Russian state over themselves. With the foundation in 1593 of the city of Berezov, the entire lower reaches of the river turned out to be part of the Russian state. Ob, and with the construction of the cities of Surgut (1594), Narym (1598) and Tomsk (1604), movement up the Ob began. The entry of the Siberian lands into the Russian state was important for the economic and political development of the state, for its strengthening and expansion.
After the death of Ivan IV in 1584, his son Fyodor (1584-1598) came to the throne. Under him, in 1589, the Patriarchate was approved and the independence of the Russian Orthodox Church from the Patriarch of Constantinople was proclaimed.
In 1591, in the city of Uglich, under unclear circumstances, the youngest son of Ivan IV, Tsarevich Dmitry, died. This made it possible after the death of Fyodor in 1598, the election by the Zemsky Sobor as Tsar Boris Godunov.
In 1592-1593, after completing the description of land holdings in the country, a decree was issued definitively prohibiting the transfer of peasants from one owner to another; in 1597, decrees were issued on the search for and return to the owners of fugitive peasants and on the enslavement of serfs (who entered the service to work off their debt). These decrees of 1592-1597. issued serfdom in Russia and created one of the prerequisites for the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century.

main phenomenon Russian culture of the 16th century became connected with the events and ideas of a unified state. Folklore first of all reflected Ivan the Terrible: he is both the defender of the poor, all the humiliated and offended, and a formidable despot. Another favorite figure was the conqueror of Siberia Ermak Timofeevich. Reforms required literate people. They appeared in cities and large villages, made bills of sale and wills, wrote complaints to the king. The first textbooks on grammar and arithmetic appeared. The first Russian grammar was compiled by a native of the Greek lands Maxim Grek, who left many works in which he criticized vices and called for the education of morality.
Book printing appeared: the Russian master Ivan Fedorov (c. 1510-1583) printed in 1564 the book "Apostle", a kind of collection containing the most popular texts of the Gospel and the Bible at that time. Libraries began to appear in the homes of wealthy people. "Domostroy" was compiled - a guide for behavior in the family and society, proclaiming the primacy of parents in the family, corporal punishment of children, and the firm observance of church rites. The Facial Code was written, an illustrated work on history, in which the idea of ​​the succession of power between the Byzantine emperors and the Russian Tsar and the idea of ​​autocratic power, and the Power Book, a genealogy of the Rurik dynasty, were written. Historical stories and legends reported on the most important events of the time of Ivan the Terrible.
There was publicity. The nobleman Ivan Peresvetov urged the young tsar to resolutely fight to strengthen his power. Prince Kurbsky, who fled to Lithuania, denounced his tyranny in correspondence with Ivan the Terrible, and the tsar defended the idea of ​​autocratic power.
In honor of the birth of Ivan IV, his father Vasily III built a miracle of the then stone architecture - the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye. The famous Intercession Cathedral was built in the same style, popularly called St. Basil's Cathedral after the then famous holy fool. Elements of realism began to appear in icon painting, the transition from icons to portraiture.
The life of the upper strata of society was influenced by expanding ties with foreign countries. Since 1553, constant trade relations with England began. Ambassadors and merchants from different European countries began to come to Moscow. Western influence began to appear in the clothes of noble Muscovites. Chess and Western musical instruments appeared in the houses.

Unification of Russian lands around Moscow contributed to the creation of a unified Russian state. This process was supported by the Russian Church, she provided assistance to fight the enemies.
Metropolitans and large monasteries donated money for the maintenance of the Russian army, inspired Russian princes, governors, ordinary soldiers to protect their native lands. Religious ascetics, ordinary monks, priests provided people with spiritual support. The church helped the poor financially. Her activities contributed to the rallying of society, fostering a sense of community, responsibility for the fate of their native land.
By the end of the XVI century. Russia became a huge Eurasian centralized state, with territory in Europe and Asia (Western Siberia). One of the main foreign policy tasks was solved: security in the east was ensured. With the accession of the peoples of the Volga and Ural regions, rich eastern markets opened up before Russia.
But the Tatar-Mongol yoke ruined Russia, broke its ties with Western Europe. Huge amounts of money went to the defense of the country. Russia did not have access to the Baltic and Black Seas and was surrounded by heterodox enemies that prevented its economic and cultural ties with Western Europe. Russia's desire to reach the Baltic Sea has now become a constant factor in European politics. There remained the need to ensure security in the south and west; reunification with the rest of the ancient Russian lands was not achieved. The task of developing the Russian state territory in Siberia also arose. The victories in the East strengthened the international position of Russia and raised its prestige among the Christian states of the West as a possible ally against Muslim Turkey.

Russian culture reflected the growth of unity, centralization, independence of the state, the strengthening of autocracy, and the strengthening of the influence of the Church.

Territory and population of Russia in the XVI century.
(calculated, rounded)

DEVELOPMENT OF THE TERRITORY, TRAVEL, GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES, CARTOGRAPHY

As a result of economic, commercial and military activities, the population of the principalities of Ancient Russia at the beginning of the 12th century. was familiar with the basins of the Black, Baltic and Caspian Seas. Further geographical discoveries occurred as a result of the development of new territories. Novgorodians penetrated especially far, significantly expanding their knowledge of the North-East of Europe. At the end of the XI-XII centuries. Novgorodians traveled to the eastern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula, to the Urals, to the Kola Peninsula, to the shores of North-Eastern Europe and to the river basins of the Barents Sea. Information about their voyages in the Arctic Ocean has been preserved. By the XI-XII centuries. include the first penetration of Novgorodians into Siberia.
According to archaeological research, in the XIV century. there was a development by the Russian peasantry of the upper reaches of small rivers and river watersheds. Novgorodians play the main role in the conquest and economic development of the vast territory east of Ladoga and Onega up to the Pechora River.
Pomors constantly visited Novaya Zemlya, and many families went there from generation to generation. Even at the beginning of the XIV century. navigation from the mouth of the Northern Dvina to Novaya Zemlya was supported by the great Moscow princes. And not only to Novaya Zemlya: from the charter issued to the Dvina governor, it is known that Prince Ivan I Danilovich Kalita annually sent a gang of industrialists from the Dvina to the Pechora by sea, entrusting them with “falconry”.
In 1379, the famous missionary-educator Stefan of Perm penetrated into the lands of the Zyryans (Komi) in the basins of the Pechora and Vychegda rivers and for many years conducted missionary activities there, while studying the nature and life of the Zyryans. In 1364-1365. Alexander Abakumovich made a trip through the Urals to the Ob River and to the coast of the Kara Sea.
By 1466-1472. refers to the "Journey Beyond Three Seas" by the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin, which began by sailing along the Volga and the Caspian Sea.
Under Ivan III, under the leadership of the Moscow governor Princes Fyodor Kurbsky-Cherny and Ivan Saltyk-Travin, they made the first historically proven Russian crossing in 1483 through the Stone (Middle Urals) to the Yugra land and sailing along the Irtysh and Ob.
In 1499, three Moscow governors - Semyon Fedorovich Kurbsky, Pyotr Fedorovich Ushaty, Vasily Ivanovich Gavrilov-Brazhnikov - led a large campaign to the "Siberian Land" - to Western Siberia. At the end of the XV century. movement to the Urals and beyond the Urals has become systematic.
The idea of ​​the North-Eastern passage was first put forward by the clerk of the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily III Dmitry Gerasimov, who went with an embassy to Denmark from the mouth of the Northern Dvina and gained an idea of ​​the conditions of navigation in the North from his own experience. At the end of the XV century. Russians become aware of the sea route from the White Sea to Western European countries. In 1496, their ships were delivered from the mouth of the Northern Dvina to Norway by the plenipotentiary ambassador of the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III Grigory Istom. Other Russian voyages are also known. Demand for seafaring products and furs was growing, which led to the expansion of mining areas, initially concentrated off the coast of the White and Barents Seas. In search of a fearless animal and rich schools of fish, the Pomors went further and further to the east, northeast and north, to the region of eternal ice. The Pomors were the first Europeans to discover Svalbard (Russian sailors called it Grumant) and Novaya Zemlya, but the exact time of their discovery is unknown, although information about the polar islands in Russia was available as early as the 13th century. The Pomors explored in detail the coasts of the northern seas; discovered the White Sea islands; islands Kolguev, Vaigach, Bear; gave names to thousands of geographical features. With the development and expansion of navigation areas, the accumulation of geographical information already in the second half of the 16th century. (or even earlier), hand-written Pomor sailing directions and hand-written maps appear at the helmsmen of the Pomeranian ships.
The search for the Northern Sea Route to the East already in the middle of the 16th century. led to the establishment of direct maritime links between Western Europe and Russia. Generations of Russian navigators and industrialists laid and studied in detail along the sea coast a sea route that connected the mouths of the Kola, Onega, Northern Dvina and Pechora rivers, and regular navigation was established between the Northern Dvina and Pechora rivers.
At the end of the XIV - the middle of the XVI centuries. there was an intensive development of the eastern lands. The main importance was acquired by the development of the territory, which went from the southern Russian lands to the north-east of Europe and especially to Western Siberia. Under Ivan IV Vasilyevich the Terrible, numerous service people were sent to the east, the first explorers were brave Russian travelers. These expeditions had, among others, the task of finding out at what distance from Moscow are various cities.
The earliest documentary references to cartographic work in Russia refer to the drawing up of a drawing of disputed tracts and the drawing up of descriptions and images in terms of fortresses, cities and special defense lines (notch lines) (XIII-XVI centuries). The need for orientation in long-distance travels and military campaigns led to the creation of route descriptions, and subsequently drawings of the main rivers and land routes, as well as coasts, along which coastal voyages of Pomors were carried out. Historical sources testify that the descriptions of the rivers and sea coasts of Northern Russia, compiled by the Russian coast-dwellers, were distinguished by exceptional detail. Pomors already in the XV century. used a compass, calling it a uterus or matochnik.
Princely destinies were described by scribes already at the beginning of the 15th century, in 1490-1498. grandiose work was undertaken on the census of villages and cities from the Baltic to the Middle Volga and the Oka, and by the middle of the 16th century. the primary description of the Volga region and the North was completed. Special descriptions were created for the frontier lands of the state. The scribe, reviewed, sentinel and other books and descriptions that appeared as a result of these works testify to the desire of the Moscow government to form an accurate picture of their state. In Russia, from ancient times, road builders, or itineraries, were created, lists of cities on the most important routes, indicating the distances between them in versts or days of travel.
The creation of route descriptions and drawings was of great importance for the formation of general ideas about the geography of Russia, and subsequently for compiling overview maps of the entire Muscovite state and its large parts.
At the end of the 15th century, with the formation of the Russian centralized state, accompanied by the elimination of feudal fragmentation of individual lands and principalities, the centralization of administration and the intensification of foreign policy, an objective need arose for a geographical study of the country as a whole and the creation of maps to meet the practical needs of economic activity, administration and defense of the state . For this period, Russian cartography was characterized by the state orientation of its activities, which was concentrated in the Ambassadorial and Discharge orders, which were in charge of the diplomatic and military affairs of the country. At the end of the XV - beginning of the XVI century. in the Moscow state, abundant and diverse geographical material is accumulated, which made up three main groups of sources: scribe books, descriptions of foreign lands and road builders. In addition to textual descriptions, a lot of maps - drawings - were created on the territories that were of the greatest importance, in particular, on frontier lands. Apparently, the drawing up of drawings in the central government and in the field became commonplace in the practice of the Russian state in the 16th-17th centuries. This is evidenced by hundreds of drawings stored in boxes and boxes of the Discharge, Ambassadorial, Local and other orders. In total, six such inventories were identified, which were compiled in the 1570-1670s. during the inventory of documents of the Archive of Ivan the Terrible, Discharge, Ambassadorial and Secret orders.
According to the inventory of the Tsar's archive of 1572-1575. and the Archive of the Posolsky Prikaz, it can be seen that almost the entire western border of Muscovy from the Arctic Ocean to Putivl and Chernigov was represented by a number of local drawings.
In the second half of the XVI century. almost all the lands that were part of the Muscovite state were subjected to descriptions. Descriptions were even made along the shores of the White Sea, in Olonets, Vyatka, Cherdyn, Solikamsk, Pskov, Novgorod, Polotsk and Livonia.

In 1552, a decree was issued "to measure the land and make a drawing for the state." This was required, firstly, by the tasks of managing a centralized state, and, secondly, by the tasks of the country's defense. Such first general map of Russian land, called the "Big Drawing", was compiled by Afanasy Mezentsev on the basis of a significant number of private cartographic sources. At the very end of the XVI century. in the Discharge Order (the highest government institution in Moscow, in charge of military affairs), the so-called "Big Drawing of the entire Moscow State for all neighboring states" was drawn up. The size of the drawing was 3 x 3 arshins (2 m 14 cm x 2 m 14 cm), the scale was 75 versts in 1 inch (1:850,000). The “Big Drawing”, as well as its copy, made in 1627 with the addition of the southern territories up to the Crimea, have not survived to this day. However, the content of these works can be judged from the “Book of the Big Drawing”, known in many copies, which is an explanatory text created in the same 1627 for a copy of the “Great Drawing” and its addition. Judging by the Book, the geographical coverage of the "Big Drawing" was very significant: in the east it shows the territory up to the Ob River, in the west - up to the Dnieper and Zapadnaya Dvina rivers, in the northwest - up to the Tana River in Lapland, and in the south it covered territories of Bukhara, Georgia and Crimea. More than one and a half thousand geographical names were signed on the "Big Drawing". It was a road map, which depicted rivers, roads, mountains, seas, settlements, indicated the distances between them. The "Big Drawing" and "The Book of the Big Drawing" were not only the result of the magnificent geographical work of the Russian people in the 16th - early 17th centuries, but also evidence of their high culture.

The formation of the Russian centralized state falls during the reign of Ivan III. Although the predecessors of Ivan III - his grandfather Vasily I and father Vasily II - managed in the 15th century. somewhat expand their possessions at the expense of the Novgorod Bezhetsky Verkh, some lands of the Yaroslavl principality and Rostov possessions in the Northern Dvina basin, the main increase in Moscow territory falls on the time of Ivan III.

In 1463, Ivan III annexed the Yaroslavl principality to his possessions. In 1474, he bought from the Rostov princes the Borisoglebsk half of the principality that remained in their hands. Thus, the entire Rostov Principality came under the rule of the Grand Duke of Moscow. In 1477, as a result of a military campaign, Ivan III eliminated the political independence of the Novgorod Republic and annexed its vast lands to the Moscow principality. After that, he took the title of Grand Duke of "All Russia" and refused to pay tribute to the Tatars. The place of the Moscow principality was occupied by the Russian state. Having strengthened his sovereignty in the confrontation with the Khan of the Great Horde (heir to the former Golden Horde) Akhmat on the banks of the river. Ugry in 1480, Ivan III subjugated the Tver principality in 1485. At the same time, the expansion of the possessions of the Moscow Grand Duke in the east took place. In 1472, Great Perm was conquered (lands along the middle reaches of the Kama). In 1478, the lands between the Pechora and the lower reaches of the Ob were annexed. In 1489, the independence of the Vyatches was broken by the armies of Ivan III, and all the lands from Vetluga to Kama were under the rule of the Grand Duke of Moscow. In 1499, a campaign was organized against the Yugra land, which lay between the upper reaches of the Pechora and Sosva. The Vogul and Ostyak princes who lived here recognized the power of Ivan III.

By the beginning of the XVI century. a united state arose, headed by the Russian people, which included a number of peoples of the North (, Komi,) and (,). Strengthening of the Russian state in the late XV-early XVI centuries. made it possible to reunite with him the Russian lands that were under the rule of the Grand Duchy. In 1500, a war began with and for the western Russian lands. The result was a peace treaty of 1503, according to which part of the lands of the former Smolensk principality, conquered by Lithuania back in 1404, passed to the Russian state: Toropets and Dorogobuzh, the lands of the ancient Chernigov principality, as well as lands on the left bank of the Dnieper north of Kyiv, but Kyiv itself remained with the Polish king.

The power of Ivan III turned out to be so extensive that in an appeal in 1493 to the Austrian Archduke Sigismund, Ivan III especially emphasized that he belonged to the distant lands of “our state, which is to the east on the great river Ob”.

Appearance in the last quarter of the XV century. a large and strong Russian state had a significant impact on the development of the peoples and states of Eastern and Central Europe in subsequent times.

Travel and geographical discoveries

Pomors constantly visited Novaya Zemlya. Even at the beginning of the XIV century. navigation from the mouth of the Northern Dvina to Novaya Zemlya was supported by the great Moscow princes. And not only to Novaya Zemlya: from the charter issued to the Dvina governor, it is known that Prince Ivan Danilovich Kalita annually sent a gang of industrialists from the Dvina to the Pechora by sea, entrusting them with “falconry”.

At the end of the XIV-_mid of the XVI centuries. there was an intensive development of the eastern lands. The so-called lowland colonization, which went from the southern Russian lands to the north-east of Europe and especially to Western Siberia, acquired the main importance. At the end of the XV century. movement to the Urals and beyond the Urals has become systematic.

In 1379, the famous missionary-educator Stefan of Perm for many years conducted missionary activities in the lands of the Zyryans (Komi) in the basins of the Pechora and Vychegda rivers and studied the nature and life of the Zyryans. In 1364-_1365. Alexander Obakunovich made a trip through the Urals to the Ob River and to the coast. Under Ivan III (1483), the Russians, led by Kurbsky, Chernoy and Saltykov-Travnin, made a big trip through the Stone () to the Yugra land and sailed along the Irtysh and Ob.

By 1471-_1474. Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin visited and left his notes about this journey under the title “Journey beyond three seas”.

Territory mapping

The earliest documentary mention of cartographic work in Russia refers to the drawing up of a drawing for disputed tracts. In 1483, “before the lord of Pskov ... and before the posadnik hegumen and the elders of the Snetogorsk monastery, a complaint was made that they were being deprived of their legally belonging sixth part in the Pererva River and were not being given passage. To clarify the case, they sent the boyar Mikhailo Chet and the Sotsky toe of the water in the Pererva River to inspect. The princess boyar and the sotsky toe looked at the water, and they wrote it out on the bast [that is, they drew it on birch bark] and put it in front of the Lord and fought [argued] on the bast.

Princely destinies were described by scribes already at the beginning of the 15th century, in 1490-_1498. grandiose work was undertaken on the census of villages and cities from the Baltic to the Middle Volga and the Oka, and by the middle of the 16th century. the primary description of the Volga region and the North was completed. Special descriptions were created for the frontier lands of the state. The scribe, reviewed, sentinel and other books and descriptions that appeared as a result of these works testify to the desire of the Moscow government to form an accurate picture of their state. The third type of geographical materials (except for tax-fiscal and foreign descriptions) were road builders, or itineraries, lists of cities on the most important routes, indicating the distances between them in versts or days of travel, created in Russia since ancient times.

The need for long-distance travels and military campaigns led to the creation of route descriptions, and subsequently drawings of the main rivers, land routes and coasts, along which coastal voyages of Pomors were carried out. Descriptions of the rivers and sea coasts of Northern Russia, compiled by Russian Pomors, were distinguished by exceptional detail. The Pomors used the compass as early as the 15th century, calling it a uterus or matka. So in domestic practice, angular measurements appeared and were widely used.

There are testimonies of foreign authors of the 16th century. on the drawing up by Pomors, in addition to descriptions, drawings of significant sections of the coasts of the northern seas. So, in 1594, the Dutch, asking the Russians near the island about the local places, received from the helmsman-Pomor a drawing of the coast from to the river. Pechory. The famous Dutch cartographer Gerard Mercator, in a letter to the English geographer Richard Hakluyt, reports that in compiling the data on the north he received from one of the Russians.