A Brief History of the Russian Language

Russian is one of the most widely spoken languages ​​in the world, the fifth largest in terms of the total number of speakers. Moreover, it is the most widely spoken Slavic language in Europe. According to the classification, it belongs to the East Slavic subgroup of the Indo-European family of languages.

In the prehistoric period, the language of the Slavs was a complex group of dialects of different tribes. At the same time, the Old Russian language was divided into three ethnolinguistic groups: South Russian, North Russian and Central Russian (East Russian).

The origin of the Old Russian literary language dates back to the 11th century AD, that is, to the period of the formation of Kievan Rus. Greek culture had a certain influence on the formation of writing. However, the use of the Greek alphabet could not fully convey the features of the Slavic language, so the Byzantine emperor Michael III ordered the creation of a new alphabet for the Old Church Slavonic language.

This process contributed to the simplified translation of Greek religious texts into Slavonic. As a rule, the creation of the Russian literary language is associated with the Christian preachers Cyril and Methodius. The rapid spread of writing and the development of the language in Ancient Russia led to the fact that the Slavic language was on a par with the leading languages ​​​​of the era.

The language became the main factor in the unification of the Slavic peoples from the 9th to the 11th century. One of the outstanding literary monuments of that period is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" - a work about the campaign of Russian princes against the Polovtsians. The author of the epic has not been identified.

In the period from the 13th to the 14th century, due to feudal fragmentation, the increased influence of the Mongol-Tatar yoke and frequent raids by the Polish-Lithuanian troops, changes occurred in the development of the Russian language. Since then, it has been divided into three groups: Great Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.

With the formation of Muscovite Rus, some reforms took place in written speech. The sentences became short, with an abundance of everyday vocabulary and folk sayings. A vivid example of this language was the work "Domostroy", printed in the middle of the 16th century. Printing has played a significant role in the development of the literary language.

In the 17th century, the Polish language became the supplier of scientific, technical, legal and other terms in Europe. So, gradually there was a modernization of the Russian language. At the beginning of the 18th century, the alphabet underwent reforms and became closer to the European model. The Russian literary language henceforth existed independently of church ideology.

In the second half of the 18th century, the influence of the French language increased in Europe, and along with this, the Europeanization of Russian society also intensified. Around the same period, M.V. Lomonosov introduced new norms of the literary language, establishing a system of styles and combining all varieties of the Russian language (order, oral speech, regional variations).

Other writers who influenced the formation of the Russian language in the 18th - 19th centuries were Fonvizin, Derzhavin, Karamzin, Gogol, Lermontov and, of course, Pushkin. It was A. S. Pushkin who was able to show all the richness and beauty of the Russian language to the fullest, freeing it from stylistic restrictions.

In the 20th century, under the influence of the social and political life of Russia, the Russian language was enriched with many new words and expressions. In many ways, the development of these lexical forms was facilitated by the media and Internet communications.

The Russian language belongs to the group of Slavic languages, which is part of the Indo-European language family. It is the state language adopted on the territory of the Russian Federation and the most numerous in terms of geographical distribution and the number of speakers in Europe.
Story
Modern lexical and grammatical norms of the Russian language appeared as a result of a long interaction between various East Slavic dialects that existed on Great Russian territory and the Church Slavonic language, which arose as a result of the adaptation of the first Christian books.
East Slavic, also known as the Old Russian language, in the 14th-15th centuries was the basis for the formation of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, however, the dialectical features due to which they differ so much appeared somewhat earlier.
Dialects
In the 15th century, two main groups of dialects were established in the European territory of Russia - the southern and northern dialects, which have a number of distinctive features, for example, akanye is typical for the southern dialect, and okanye for the northern one. In addition, a number of Central Russian dialects appeared, which were essentially intermediate between northern and southern and partially incorporated their distinctive features.
A bright representative of the Central Russian dialect - Moscow was the basis for the emergence of the literary Russian language, which is currently classical Russian, literature and periodicals in other dialects are not published.
Vocabulary
A large layer in Russian vocabulary is occupied by words of Greek and Turkic origin. So, for example, diamond, fog and pants came to us from the Turkic language, and crocodile, bench and beets are words of Greek origin, just as in our time it is no secret to anyone that most of the names that were given at baptism also came to us from Greece, and these names were not only Greek, such as Catherine or Fedor, but also of Hebrew origin, such as Ilya or Mary.
In the 16th-17th century, Polish became the main source of the emergence of new lexical units in Russian, thanks to which such words of Latin, Germanic and Romance origin as algebra, dance and powder and directly Polish words, such as jar and duel, got into our speech.

In Belarus, Russian is the state language along with the Belarusian language. In Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, South Ossetia, Abkhazia and the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic, Russian is recognized as the official language, that is, it has a privileged status despite the presence of the state language.

In the US, in the state of New York, Russian is one of the eight languages ​​in which all official election documents are printed, and in California, in Russian, you can take an exam for obtaining a driver's license.

Until 1991, the Russian language was used for communication in the territory of the former USSR, in fact being the state language. For this reason, for many residents of the republics that left the USSR, Russian is still their native language.

In the literature there are such names of the Russian language as Russian and Great Russian, but they are used mainly by linguists and are not used in modern colloquial speech.

The alphabet of the Russian language, consisting of thirty-three letters in the form in which we are all used to seeing it, has existed since 1918, and was officially approved only in 1942. Until that time, there were officially thirty-one letters in the alphabet, because Ё was equal to E, and Y to I.

Church Slavonic, from its inception to the present day, has been the language used in Orthodox worship. For a long time it was Church Slavonic that was used as the official written language and prevailed in colloquial speech.

The oldest monument of literary art written in Russian is the Novgorod Code, its appearance dates back to the beginning of the 11th century. In addition to it, historians mention the Ostromir Gospel, written in Church Slavonic in 1056-1057.

The modern Russian language that we use, also known as the literary language, appeared in the 17th-18th centuries, after which it underwent serious interference in 1918, the letters “decimal and”, “fita” and “yat” were removed from the alphabet by reform , instead of which the letters “i”, “f” and “e” appeared, respectively, in addition, the use of a solid sign at the ends of words was canceled. In prefixes, it has become customary to write the letter “s” before voiceless consonants, and “z” before vowels and voiced consonants. Some other changes were also made regarding the use of endings in different case forms and the replacement of a number of word forms with

more modern. By the way, the official changes did not affect the use of Izhitsa, this letter was of little use even before the reform, and over time it itself disappeared from the alphabet.

Differences in dialects have never been a hindrance to communication between people, but compulsory education, the advent of the press and the media, and large-scale migration of the population during the Soviet era, almost completely replaced the dialects from use, as they were replaced by standardized Russian speech. At present, echoes of the use of dialects are heard in the speech of representatives of the older generation, who live mainly in rural areas, but, thanks to the spread of television broadcasting, their speech is also gradually leveling out, acquiring the outlines of a literary language.

In modern Russian, many words came from Church Slavonic. In addition, the vocabulary of the Russian language was significantly influenced by those languages ​​with which he had been in contact for a long time. The oldest layer of borrowings has East Germanic roots, as evidenced by such words as, for example, camel, church or cross. A few but frequently used words were borrowed from the ancient Iranian languages, the so-called Scythian vocabulary, such as paradise or dog. Some Russian names, such as Olga or Igor, have a Germanic, most often Scandinavian origin.

Since the 18th century, the main stream of words comes to us from the Dutch (orange, yacht), German (tie, cement) and French (beach, conductor) languages.

Today, the main stream of words comes to us from the English language, and some of them began to appear already at the beginning of the 19th century. The flow of English borrowings intensified in the first half of the 20th century and gave the Russian language such words as station, cocktail and container. It is interesting to know that some words fell into Russian speech from English twice, while displacing each other, an example of such a word is lunch (earlier - lunch), in addition, modern English borrowings are gradually replacing earlier borrowings from others in Russian, for example, English the word "bowling" replaced the old German word "bowling alley" with its appearance, and the old French lobster became the modern English lobster.

It is impossible not to note the influence of other languages, although to a much lesser extent than English, on the modern sound of the Russian language. Military terms (hussar, saber) came to us from Hungarian, and musical, financial and culinary (opera, balance and pasta) from Italian.

However, despite the abundant influx of borrowed vocabulary, the Russian language also developed independently, having managed to give the world a lot of its own words that have become internationalisms. Examples of such words are vodka, pogrom, samovar, dacha, mammoth, satellite, tsar, matryoshka, dacha and steppe.

Teacher's advice:

Learning a foreign language becomes easier when you practice it a little every day. Each language has its own special sound. The more you listen to the language, the easier it is given. Reading helps build grammar and your vocabulary, so read every day. It doesn't matter if you listen to the news or music, whether you read a book, a magazine or a website, the most important thing is to do it a little every day.

Learning a language becomes easier when you practice a little every day. Every language has a different sound and the more you listen the easier it gets. Reading improves your grammar and vocabulary so read a little every day too. It doesn't matter if you listen to the news or music, or read a book, magazine or website, the important thing is to a little every day.

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Secondary school No. 2

abstract

on the topic:Origin of the Russian language

9th grade student

Umerova F.A.

Simferopol, 2014

Introduction

1. The formation and development of the book and writing tradition in Russia and the main stages in the history of the Russian language

2. Formation of the literary Russian language

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Russian is one of the largest languages ​​in the world: in terms of the number of speakers, it ranks fifth after Chinese, English, Hindi and Spanish. The modern Russian language is a continuation of the Old Russian East Slavic language. The Old Russian language was spoken by the East Slavic tribes, which formed in the 9th century. Old Russian nationality within the limits of Ancient Russia.

All Slavic languages ​​(Polish, Czech, Slovak, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Macedonian, Bulgarian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Russian) come from a common root - a single Proto-Slavic language that probably existed until the 10th-11th centuries. Slavic languages ​​show great similarities among themselves.

In 1949, about s. Gnezdovo (near Smolensk), excavations were carried out at mound No. 13, dating from the first quarter of the 10th century, which give us valuable information about the history of culture and writing of the peoples of Ancient Russia. Among the many items of everyday life and life of the villagers discovered there, shards of a korchaga were found - an amphora, on which scientists were able to read the inscription in Cyrillic - gorushna (gorushna).

In the XIV-XV centuries. as a result of the collapse of Kievan Rus, on the basis of a single language of the ancient Russian people, three independent languages ​​arose: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, which, with the formation of separate nations, took shape in national languages. They are the closest and most similar to each other and form the East Slavic subgroup of the Slavic group of the Indo-European family.

The Slavic branch originates from the Indo-European language family, which also includes Indian (Indo-Aryan), Iranian, Greek, Italian, Romance, Celtic, Germanic, Baltic language groups, as well as Armenian, Albanian and other languages. Of all the Indo-European languages, the Baltic languages ​​are closest to Slavic: Lithuanian, Latvian and the dead Prussian language, which finally disappeared by the first decades of the 18th century. The collapse of the Indo-European linguistic unity is usually attributed to the end of the III - the beginning of the II millennium BC. Apparently, at the same time, processes took place that led to the emergence of the Proto-Slavic language, to its separation from the Indo-European.

Proto-Slavic is the ancestral language of all Slavic languages. It had no written language and was not fixed in writing. However, it can be restored by comparing the Slavic languages ​​among themselves, as well as by comparing them with other related Indo-European languages.

A common source - the Proto-Slavic language - makes all Slavic languages ​​related, endowing them with many similar features, meanings, sounds ... The Tale of Bygone Years, an Old Russian chronicle of the beginning of the 12th century, says: "But the Slovenian language and Russian are one ... ". The word language is used here not only in the ancient meaning of "people", but also in the meaning of "speech".

The ancestral home of the Slavs, that is, the territory where they developed as a people with their own language and where they lived until their separation and resettlement to new lands, has not yet been precisely determined due to the lack of reliable data. However, with relative certainty it can be argued that it was located in the east of Central Europe, north of the foothills of the Carpathians. Many scientists believe that the northern border of the ancestral home of the Slavs ran along the Pripyat River (the right tributary of the Dnieper), the western border - along the middle course of the Vistula River, and in the east the Slavs settled the Ukrainian Polesie to the Dnieper.

According to the degree of their proximity to each other, Slavic languages ​​are usually divided into three groups:

South Slavic - Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian and Macedonian;

West Slavic - Polish, Czech, Slovak, Kashubian, Upper and Lower Lusatian languages ​​and the dead Polabian language, which completely disappeared by the end of the 18th century;

East Slavic - Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian.

The ancestor of modern Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian languages ​​was Old Russian (or East Slavic) language. Two main eras can be distinguished in its history: pre-literate (from the collapse of the Proto-Slavic language to the end of the 10th century) and written.

The collapse of the Old Russian language led to the emergence of the Russian language, which differs from Ukrainian and Belarusian. This happened in the XIV century, although already in the XII-XIII centuries. in the Old Russian language, phenomena were outlined that distinguished the dialects of the ancestors of the Great Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians from each other. The modern Russian language is based on the northern and northeastern dialects of Kievan Rus.

1. The formation and development of the book and writing tradition in Russia and the main stages in the history of the Russian language

The first texts written in Cyrillic appeared among the Eastern Slavs in the 10th century.

After the baptism of Russia in 988, book writing arose. In Kievan Rus, a mixed language was used, which was called Church Slavonic. All liturgical literature, being written off from Old Slavonic, Byzantine and Bulgarian sources, reflected the norms of the Old Slavonic language. The originals for the East Slavic handwritten books were mainly South Slavic manuscripts dating back to the works of the students of the creators of the Slavic script Cyril and Methodius. In the process of correspondence, the original language was adapted to the East Slavic language, and the Old Russian book language was formed - the Russian version of the Church Slavonic language. However, words and elements of the Old Russian language penetrated into this literature.

In parallel to this style of language, secular and business literature also existed. If the Psalter, the Gospel, and so on serve as examples of the Church Slavonic language, then the Tale of Igor's Campaign, The Tale of Bygone Years, and Russkaya Pravda are considered an example of the secular and business language of Kievan Rus.

Secular and business literature reflects the linguistic norms of the living spoken language of the Slavs, their oral folk art. Based on the fact that Kievan Rus had such a complex dual language system, it is difficult for scientists to explain the origin of the modern literary Russian language. Their opinions differ, but the most common is the theory of Academician V.V. Vinogradov, according to which two varieties of the literary language functioned in Kievan Rus:

1) book-Slavonic literary language, based on Old Church Slavonic and used mainly in church literature;

2) folk-literary language, based on the living Old Russian language and used in secular literature.

According to V.V. Vinogradova, these are two types of language, and not two special languages, i.e. there was no bilingualism in Kievan Rus. These two types of language interacted with each other for a long time. Gradually they became closer, and on their basis in the XVIII century. a unified literary Russian language was formed.

2. Formation of the literaryRussianlanguage

The Russian language of the era of Muscovite Russia (XIV-XVII centuries) had a complex history. Dialect features continued to develop. Two main dialect zones took shape - Northern Great Russian (approximately north of the line Pskov - Tver - Moscow, south of Nizhny Novgorod) and South Great Russian (south of this line to the Belarusian and Ukrainian regions) dialects, overlapping with other dialect divisions. Intermediate Middle Russian dialects arose, among which the dialect of Moscow began to play a leading role. Initially, it was mixed, then it developed into a harmonious system. For him became characteristic: akanye; pronounced reduction of vowels of unstressed syllables; explosive consonant "g"; the ending "-ovo", "-evo" in the genitive singular masculine and neuter in the pronominal declension; hard ending "-t" in the verbs of the 3rd person of the present and future tense; forms of pronouns "me", "you", "myself" and a number of other phenomena. The Moscow dialect is gradually becoming exemplary and forms the basis of the Russian national literary language.

The language of writing remains motley. Religion and the rudiments of scientific knowledge were mainly served by book-Slavonic, by origin Old Bulgarian, which experienced a noticeable influence of the Russian language, cut off from the popular colloquial element. The language of statehood (the so-called business language) was based on Russian folk speech, but did not coincide with it in everything. Speech cliches developed in it, often including purely bookish elements; its syntax, in contrast to the spoken language, was more organized, with the presence of cumbersome complex sentences; the penetration of dialect features into it was largely prevented by standard all-Russian norms. Written fiction was diverse in terms of linguistic means. Since ancient times, the oral language of folklore played an important role, serving until the 16th-17th centuries. all segments of the population. This is evidenced by its reflection in ancient Russian writing (tales about the Belogorod jelly, about Olga's revenge, etc. in The Tale of Bygone Years, folklore motifs in the Tale of Igor's Campaign, vivid phraseology in Daniil Zatochnik's Prayer, etc. ), as well as archaic layers of modern epics, fairy tales, songs and other types of oral folk art.

During the period of the Muscovite state of the XIV-XVI centuries. the main styles of the Russian literary language were clearly defined:

1. Literary and artistic (ascending to the "Tale of Igor's Campaign);

2. Documentary and business style (these include ancient treaties, letters, "Russian Truth");

3. Journalistic style (correspondence of Ivan the Terrible with Kurbsky).

4. Industrial-professional style (various manuals and management manuals).

5. The style is epistolary.

Second half of the 16th century in the Muscovite state was marked by such a great event, which had a valuable cultural and historical significance, as the appearance of the first printed books. Typography was of great importance for the fate of the Russian literary language, culture and education. The first printed books were church books, primers, grammars, dictionaries. In 1708, a civil alphabet was introduced, on which secular literature was printed.

Since the 17th century the trend towards convergence of book and spoken language is increasing. In petitions, in various kinds of private letters and letters, words and expressions of an everyday nature that have not previously been encountered in book speech are increasingly being used. For example, in the "Life of the Prototope Avvakum" the colloquial elements of Russian colloquial and everyday speech are presented very fully. Non-colloquial words and expressions are used here ( lying on his belly, they suddenly shout, fools, there are a lot of fleas and lice etc.), but also colloquial meanings of well-known words.

In the XVIII and early XIX centuries. secular writing became widespread, church literature was gradually relegated to the background and, finally, became the lot of religious rituals, and its language turned into a kind of church jargon. Scientific and technical, military, nautical, administrative and other terminology developed rapidly, which caused a large influx into the Russian language of words and expressions from Western European languages. Especially great impact from the second half of the XVIII century. French began to render Russian vocabulary and phraseology. The clash of heterogeneous linguistic elements and the need for a common literary language posed the problem of creating unified national language norms. The formation of these norms took place in a sharp struggle of different currents. Democratic-minded sections of society sought to bring the literary language closer to folk speech, the reactionary clergy tried to preserve the purity of the archaic "Slovenian" language, which was incomprehensible to the general population. At the same time, an excessive passion for foreign words began among the upper strata of society, which threatened to clog the Russian language. The language theory and practice of M.V. Lomonosov, the author of "Russian Grammar" - the first detailed grammar of the Russian language, who proposed to distribute various speech means, depending on the purpose of literary works, into high, medium and low "calms".

The development of grammatical science in the second half of the XVIII century. and in the first decades of the nineteenth century. led to the emergence of two main points of view on grammatical phenomena: structural-grammatical and logical-semantic. In the XVIII century. The Russian language is becoming a literary language with generally recognized norms, widely used in both book and colloquial speech. M.V. Lomonosov, V.K. Trediakovsky, D.I. Fonvizin, G.R. Derzhavin, A.N. Radishchev, N.M. Karamzin and other Russian writers paved the way for the great reform of A.S. Pushkin.

19th century can be considered the first period of development of the modern literary Russian language. The beginning of the stage of development of the modern Russian literary language is considered to be the time of the great Russian poet Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin, who is sometimes called the creator of the modern Russian literary language. The language of Pushkin and writers of the 19th century. is a classic example of the literary language up to the present day. The creative genius of Pushkin synthesized various speech elements into a single system: Russian folk, Church Slavonic and Western European, and the Russian folk language, especially its Moscow variety, became the cementing basis. The modern Russian literary language begins with Pushkin, rich and diverse linguistic styles (artistic, journalistic, scientific, etc.) are closely related to each other. All-Russian phonetic, grammatical and lexical norms, obligatory for all those who know the literary language, are determined, the lexical system is developed and enriched. slav cyrillic colloquial literary

In his work, Pushkin was guided by the principle of proportionality and conformity. He did not reject any words because of their Old Slavonic, foreign or common origin. He considered any word acceptable in literature, in poetry, if it accurately, figuratively expresses the concept, conveys the meaning. But he opposed the thoughtless passion for foreign words, and also against the desire to replace mastered foreign words with artificially selected or composed Russian words.

If the scientific and literary works of the Lomonosov era look rather archaic in their language, then the works of Pushkin and all literature after him became the literary basis of the language we speak today. A.S. Pushkin streamlined the artistic means of the Russian literary language and significantly enriched it. Based on various manifestations of the folk language, he managed to create in his works a language that was perceived by society as a literary one. “With the name of Pushkin, the thought of a Russian national poet immediately dawns,” wrote N.V. Gogol. “He, as if in a lexicon, contained all the richness, strength and flexibility of our language. He is more than anyone, he further pushed his boundaries and more showed all its space.

Of course, since the time of A.S. Pushkin, a lot of time has passed and a lot has changed, including the Russian language: something has gone out of it, a lot of new words have appeared. Although the great poet did not leave us a grammar, he was the author of not only artistic, but also historical, journalistic works, he clearly distinguished between the author's speech and characters, i.e. practically laid the foundations for the modern functional and stylistic classification of the literary Russian language.

End of the 19th century and up to the present time - the second period of development of the modern literary Russian language. This period is characterized by well-established linguistic norms, but these norms are being improved to this day. In the development and formation of the modern Russian literary language, such Russian writers of the 19th-20th centuries also played a big role. like A.S. Griboyedov, M.Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, M. Gorky, A.P. Chekhov and others.

Since the second half of the XX century. the development of the literary language and the formation of its functional styles - scientific, journalistic and others - are also beginning to be influenced by public figures, representatives of science and culture.

The development of phonetic, grammatical and lexical norms of the modern Russian literary language is governed by two related trends: established traditions, which are considered exemplary, and the constantly changing speech of native speakers. The established traditions are the use of speech means in the language of writers, publicists, theater artists, masters of cinema, radio, television and other means of mass communication. For example, the exemplary "Moscow pronunciation", which became common Russian, developed in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. at the Moscow Art and Maly theatres. It changes, but its foundations are still considered unshakable.

Conclusion

The modern Russian language is represented by a number of stylistic, dialectal and other varieties that are in complex interaction. All these varieties, united by a common origin, a common phonetic and grammatical system and the main vocabulary, constitute a single national Russian language, the main link of which is the literary language in its written and oral forms. Shifts in the very system of the literary language, the constant impact on it of other varieties of speech lead not only to its enrichment with new means of expression, but also to the complication of stylistic diversity, the development of variance.

List of literaturecheers

1. Old Russian language: textbook. allowance for ist. fak. un-tov / N.G. Samsonov. - M.: "High School", 1973. - 295 p. : ill.

2. History of Russian linguistics: textbook. allowance for philol. specialties / F.M. Berezin. - M.: Higher. school, 1979. - 223 p.

3. History of the Russian literary language: textbook. allowance for students ped. in-t on spec. "Russian language and literature in the national school." / L.V. Sudavichen, N.Ya. Serdobintsev, Yu.G. Kadkalov; ed. I.F. Protchenko. - 2nd ed. finalized - L.: Enlightenment; Leningrad. Department, 1990. - 319 p.

4. History of the Russian literary language / A.N. Gorshkov. - M.: Higher. school, 1969. - 366 p.

5. Historical grammar of the Russian language: textbook. for students ped. in-t on spec. "Russian language and lit." / V.V. Ivanov. - 3rd ed., revised. and additional - M. : Enlightenment, 1990. - 400 p. : ill.

6. History of the Russian literary language: a course of lectures / A.I. Efimov. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow. un-ta, 1954. - 431 p.

7. History of the Russian literary language / A.I. Efimov. - 3rd ed., corrected. - M.: Publishing House "Higher School", 1971. - 295.

8. P.Ya. Chernykh. On the issue of the Gnezdovskaya inscription / P.Ya. Chernykh // Izv. Dep. Liter. and language. - 1950. - Vol. 9, issue. 5. - S. 401.

9. Legends about the beginning of Slavic writing / rev. ed. V.D. Korolyuk. - M.: Publishing house "Nauka", 1981. - 197 p. - Monuments of the medieval history of the peoples of Central and Eastern Europe.

10. Reader on the history of grammatical teachings in Russia / comp. V.V. Shcheulin, V.I. Medvedev. - M.: Publishing house "Higher school", 1965. - 355 p.

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The Russian language has come a long way of historical development.

There are three periods of development of the Russian language:

Early period (VI-VII - XIV centuries).

Middle period (XIV-XV - XVII centuries).

Late period (XVII-XVIII - the end of the XX - the beginning of the XXI century).

I period (early) begins after the separation of the Eastern Slavs from the common Slavic unity and the formation of the language of the Eastern Slavs (Old Russian language) - the predecessor of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. This period is characterized by the presence in the language of Old Slavonicisms, Church Slavonic vocabulary, and Turkic borrowings.

II period (middle) begins with the collapse of the language of the Eastern Slavs and the separation of the Russian language proper (the language of the Great Russian people). By the second half of the 17th century the Russian nation is taking shape and the Russian national language is being formalized, based on the traditions of Moscow dialect.

III period- this is a period of development of the Russian national language, design and improvement Russian literary language.

In the 18th century there is an update, enrichment of the Russian language at the expense of Western European languages; society begins to realize that the Russian national language is capable of becoming the language of science, art, and education. He played a special role in the creation of the literary language M.V. Lomonosov who wrote "Russian grammar" and developed the theory of three styles (high, medium, low).

In the 19th century Throughout the century, there have been disputes about what should be considered the basis of the grammar of the Russian literary language, what role should the Church Slavonic language play in the development of its styles, how to relate to the common language and vernacular? In this dispute, they are primarily involved N.M. Karamzin and his Westernizers and Slavophiles, led by A.S. Shishkov.

A decisive influence on the development of Russian norms literary language rendered creativity A.S. Pushkin, who in relation to language was guided by the principle proportionality and conformity: any word is acceptable in poetry, if it accurately, figuratively expresses the concept, conveys the meaning.

In general, in the process of synthesizing various elements (folk colloquial, Church Slavonic, foreign borrowings, elements of the business language), the norms of the Russian literary language are developed. It is believed that in general Russian national language system developed around the first half of the 19th century.

In the XX century, there are two periods in the history of the Russian language:

Period 1 (October 1917 - April 1985) is characterized by the presence of the following processes in the language:

1) the withdrawal into the passive reserve of a huge layer of secular and church vocabulary ( lord, king, monarch, governor, gymnasium; Savior, Mother of God, bishop, Eucharist and etc.);

2) the emergence of new words reflecting changes in politics and economics. Most of them were official abbreviations of words and phrases: NKVD, RSDLP, collective farm, district committee, tax in kind, educational program and etc.;

3) interference of the opposite.

The essence of this phenomenon is that two words are formed that positively and negatively characterize the same phenomena of reality that exist in different political systems. After the October events of 1917, two lexical systems gradually took shape in the Russian language: one for naming the phenomena of capitalism, the other for socialism. So, if it was about enemy countries, then their scouts were called spies, warriors - occupiers, partisans - terrorists etc.;

4) renaming the denotation. Denotation- an object of extralinguistic reality, to which a linguistic sign belongs as part of an utterance. So, not only the names of cities and streets are renamed (Tsaritsyn - in Stalingrad, Nizhny Novgorod - in Bitter; Large noble - in Revolution Avenue), but also social concepts (competition - in social competition, harvesting bread - in battle for the harvest, peasants - in collective farmers etc.). As a result of renaming, the authorities, firstly, managed to break the connection with the pre-revolutionary past, and secondly, to create the illusion of a general renewal. Thus, through the word, the party and government oligarchy influenced the public consciousness.

During 2 periods(April 1985 - present) there have been serious political, economic, ideological changes that have led to significant changes in the Russian literary language:

1) a significant expansion of the vocabulary due to:

a) foreign vocabulary (barter, business, legitimate);

b) the formation in the Russian language itself of a mass of new words (post-Soviet, denationalization, desovietization);

2) return to the active vocabulary of words that left the language during the Soviet period ( Duma, governor, corporation; communion, liturgy, vigil);

3) withdrawal into the passive stock of words-sovietisms (collective farm, Komsomolets, district committee);

4) change in the meanings of many words, occurring for ideological and political reasons. For example, in the dictionary of the Soviet period about the word God the following is written: "God - according to religious and mystical ideas: a mythical supreme being, supposedly ruling the world"(Ozhegov S.I. Dictionary of the Russian language. - M., 1953). The definition includes indicators of unreliability (particle supposedly and adjective mythical). The purpose of such an interpretation is to impose on the user of the dictionary an atheistic worldview, corresponding to a totalitarian ideology.

In the modern dictionary - " God is in religion: the supreme omnipotent being…”(Ozhegov S.I. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language: 80,000 words and phraseological expressions. - M., 2006);

5) vulgarization - the use of jargon, vernacular and other non-literary elements in the speech of seemingly educated people ( bucks, rollback, disassembly, chaos);

6) "foreignization" of the Russian language - that is, the unjustified use of borrowings in speech ( reception desk- reception, reception point; Ganges- criminal association, gang; show- spectacle, etc.).

There are three periods in the history of the Russian language: 1) 6th-7th - 14th centuries; 2) 15th - 17th centuries; 3) 18 - 21 centuries.

1) The early period of the History of the Russian language begins after the collapse of the Proto-Slavic language and the separation of the Common East Slavic language - the ancestor of the three East Slavic languages ​​- Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. The Common East Slavic language, which is also called Old Russian, existed until the 14th century, that is, before it began to be divided into three independent East Slavic languages. Since that time, one can speak of Russian proper, or of the Great Russian language, which differs not only from the languages ​​of the southern and western Slavs, but also from the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages ​​closest to it. The Great Russian language also went through a long path of development - from the language of the Great Russian people to the modern Russian national language - the language of the Russian nation. The history of the Russian language is the history of the Old Russian language, the language of the Great Russian people and the language of the Russian nation; The structure of the modern Russian language has developed from elements dating back to different eras of its development.

Borkowski identifies three periods in the history of language development:

1) the Old Russian period is the same as the source of all three modern East Slavic languages ​​(from ancient times to the 14th century);

2) the Old Russian period (15-17 centuries);

3) new, modern Russian language (since the 18th century).

The main boundary between different types of literary language is the pre-national and national period. For the Russian language, this is the border between the Middle Ages and modern times - the middle - the second half of the 17th century. A distinctive feature of the pre-national period is that another language can act as a literary language, in this case Church Slavonic, according to Shakhmatov, Tolstoy. During the national period, the literary language changes its base: it focuses on dialectal speech, and is formed on a national basis. During this period, the oral form of the literary language begins to form.

Vostokov, Karamzin distinguish three periods: ancient (10-13 centuries), middle (14-18 centuries), new (from the end of the 18th century). These frames coincide with the chronology of historical changes.

Separation of the Eastern Slavs from the common Slavic unity (approximately in the 6th-7th centuries) linguistically, it was accompanied by the development of such features that were inherent in all Eastern Slavs and distinguished them from the southern and western Slavs. These include the following phonetic features: the presence of ch, zh in place of the ancient tj, dj: candle, boundary; full-vowel combinations oro, ere, olo in place of the ancient or, ol, er, el: beard, coast; the presence of o at the beginning of the word with je in other Slavic languages: lake, deer, autumn, one.

In strengthening the unity of the Old Russian language, the development Kiev Koine(common colloquial language), it combined features of the north (horse, veksha, istba) and primordially southern (for example, vol, brehati, lepy). In the Old Kievan Koine, sharp dialectal features are leveled, as a result of which it could become a language that satisfies the needs of Kyiv in its relations with all of Russia, which strengthened the unity of the Russian people. The question of the development of the Old Russian language in the Kievan era is connected with the question of the origin of writing and the beginning of the development of the Russian literary language. 907 - an agreement between the Russians and the Greeks, preserved in later lists. Consequently, the writing of the Eastern Slavs originated long before the baptism of Russia and the ancient Russian letter was alphabetic.

During this period, the literary language also developed, reflected in the monuments of various genres. The first written monuments of the Old Russian language date back to the 11th century; The oldest inscription on a vessel found during excavations of the Gnezdovsky mounds near Smolensk dates back to the beginning of the 10th century.

In the 10th century, with the adoption of Christianity, church books written in Old Church Slavonic began to arrive in Russia from Bulgaria. This contributed to the spread of writing. The books were copied by Russian scribes, who mastered the features of the Old Slavonic language. But Art.-Cl. language absorbs local linguistic features. So in the 11-12 centuries, local varieties of the old-sl. language; the totality of these editions is called the Church Slavonic language. It was the common literary language of the Slavs throughout the medieval period. It was used to write texts on church topics, canonical and similar. During this period, secular genres of writing also existed - records and comments on real historical events, travel descriptions, texts of laws and private correspondence. The language of this writing is the Old Russian language, filled with words and forms of living East Slavic speech, it reflected the Koine.

The works of secular writing written in the Old Russian language are divided into two groups: 1) chronicle stories and artistic and narrative literature: the works of Vladimir Monomakh (late 11th - early 12th centuries), "The Prayer of Daniel the Sharpener" (1st quarter of the 13th century), etc. .; 2) monuments of a business nature and private correspondence (Birch bark letters).

The vast territory of Kievan Rus, with a diverse population in terms of economic, ethnic, and cultural characteristics, early began to show tendencies towards disintegration. By the middle of the 12th century, and especially in its second half, the process of weakening Kyiv as a common center and the process of strengthening new, local centers led to the loss of Kiev's leading role. Life began to concentrate around other centers in the north, northeast and northwest (Vladimir, Suzdal, Rostov, etc.). Feudal fragmentation is intensifying, which leads to a deepening of dialect differences in the Old Russian language. In the written monuments of the 12th - early 13th centuries. a number of dialects of the Old Russian language are reflected. It was a period when the Eastern Slavs were going through a common process for all Slavs. loss of reduced, which entailed consequences that are different for the south and for the rest of the territory of the Old Russian language. According to the fate of the primordial e and o, which received lengthening in the position before the lost b and b and later diphthongization, according to the fate of combinations of smooth c b and b between consonants and other phenomena, the south and southwest of Ancient Russia turned out to be opposed to the north and northeast. However, there were also dialectal differences.

2) The beginning of the second period is the collapse of the single East Slavic language and the emergence of the language of the Great Russian people.

Strengthening the feudal fragmentation of Russia, further separation of northeastern Russia from western and southwestern during the Mongol-Tatar yoke, as well as as a result of the processes of development of the western and southern lands as part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (and later Poland), economic growth and political strengthening northeastern Russia leads to the fact that in the 14-16 centuries. the Great Russian state and the Great Russian nationality are formed.

North-Eastern (Suzdal) Russia becomes the center of the gathering of Russian lands and the struggle against the Golden Horde. Beginning in the 14th century rise of Moscow originally a small city of Suzdal Rus, which later turned into the political, economic and cultural center of the state. Under the rule of Prince M., the lands located to the north, south and west of Moscow are collected. Somewhat earlier in the west, the rise of the Principality of Lithuania begins. Lithuanian princes seized Western Russia in the 13th century, in the 13th-14th centuries. making forays into the southwest. In the 14th century, the Galicia-Volyn lands and Kyiv were part of the Lithuanian principality. In the 14th-15th centuries. On the territory of the Lithuanian Principality, on the basis of Old Russian dialects, the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages ​​are formed. The formation here of two, and not one, language is explained by the comparative disunity of the various parts of this state formation, as well as by the fact that different lands at different times were part of it.

Evidence of the formation of the Great Russian nationality and its language was the emergence throughout the territory of the settlement of the nationality of linguistic neoplasms that were not characteristic of the languages ​​of the Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities. A change in weak b and b in combination with the previous smooth one in o and e, the development of ûy, yy in oh, her. In the field of morphology, there is a loss of the vocative form, the replacement of whistling with posterior lingual in the forms of declension (legE instead of nozE), the development of plural forms. I.p. on –a (shores, forests), the formation of imperative mood forms in –ite instead of –Ete, the emergence of imperative mood forms with r, x, k in back-lingual verbs (help instead of help).

Structurally, the language of the Great Russian people was already close to the S.R.Y.: there was a change of e into o, a functional unification of u, s with their phonetic difference. A system of hard-soft and voiced-deaf consonants was established, the old system of past tenses of the verb was lost, there was a unification of declension types, etc.

The core of this territory was dialectally unified, but the gradual expansion of the emerging state, the annexation of new territories was accompanied by an increase in dialect diversity, because. in the annexed territories there were both S.-E.-R. and S.-E.-R. dialects. Both become dialects of the Great Russian language, with the leading role played by the Rostov-Suzdal dialect, which included the Moscow dialect. Moscow, which became a political and cultural center from the 2nd quarter of the 14th century, played a special role in the unification of the norms of the Russian language. Around the Moscow Principality, a number of other principalities united, and in the 15th century a vast state, Muscovite Russia, was created. In the 16th century, the norms of Moscow colloquial speech were gradually developed, which reflected the features of the northern and southern. The colloquial speech of Moscow was reflected in the business documents of the Moscow orders, and the language of these orders influenced the Old Russian literary language, which was reflected in the language of many works of the 15th-17th centuries. In the literary language of the Muscovite state, the book and written traditions of Kievan Rus continue to develop. At the same time, structural changes separating it from the written language are increasing in the Russian spoken language. The Great Russian language is influenced by extralinguistic factors. Victory in the Battle of Kulikovo destroys the age-old yoke on Russian soil. The Ottoman Empire captures the capital of Byzantium in 1453 and establishes dominance in the Balkans. Figures of the South Slavic and Byzantine cultures come to Moscow Russia. By the 14th - early 15th centuries. editing of Slavic church books under the guidance of Metropolitan Cyprian is carried out to bring them into their original form, corresponding to the originals. This was the "second South Slavic influence". Russian writing approaches the Slavic.

In the book-Slavic type of the literary language, archaic spellings based on the South Slavic spelling norm are becoming widespread. A special rhetorical manner of expression arises, saturated with metaphors - “ weaving words.” This complex of phenomena is called the second South Slavic influence. The folk-literary type of language was not subjected to it. During this period, the functions of the business language are expanding. New genres of business writing are emerging: court records, article lists of Russian ambassadors, Domostroy, Stoglav, etc. The spelling practice and word usage of the business language influenced the formation of the norms of the literary language. In the second half of the 16th century, book printing began in the Muscovite state.. The first printed book was The Apostle (1564). In 1566 The Clockworker was published. Church books of grammar, dictionaries, primers necessary for education and enlightenment are printed. The first printed educational books were Primer (1574), Slovenska Grammar by Lavrenty Zizaniy (1576), Slovene Grammar by Melety Smotrytsky (1618).

3) In the 17th century, the Russian nation was formed. During this period, the ratio of the national language and dialects changes. The development of new dialect features stops, the old ones remain stable. From the middle of the 17th century, a new period in the history of the Russian literary language begins - the national one. Dialects begin to level out.

The development of economic and political ties of Muscovite Rus, the growth of Moscow's authority, the spread of Moscow orders contributed to the growth of the influence of Moscow's oral speech on the territory of Russia, the dialect of Moscow formed the basis of the national language. The formation of a new literary language was facilitated by the widespread distribution of literature in the democratic strata of society, the language of which was formed on the basis of oral and business speech.

In 1708, a civil alphabet was introduced, in which secular literature was printed, Cyrillic was used for confessional purposes. In the literary language of the late 17th - 1st half of the 18th centuries. closely intertwined and interact Book Slavonic, often even archaic, lexical and grammatical elements, words and turns of speech of a folk-colloquial and business nature and Western European borrowings. The vocabulary of the language becomes more diverse, but stylistically disordered. There is a need to normalize the literary language. The first attempts to describe the norms of the literary language were made by A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Trediakovsky, V. E. Atoturov.

The leading role in the transformation of the Russian literary language in the description of its norms belongs to Lomonosov. He is the founder of the science of the Russian language, laid the foundation for the descriptive and comparative historical study of the Russian language, and characterized the subject of linguistics as a science. In "Letters on the Rules of Russian Poetry", "Rhetoric", "Russian Grammar", "Foreword on the Usefulness of Church Books and the Russian Language", he described the norms of the Russian literary language at all levels of the language system, showed the paths of historical development, created a doctrine of three styles .

He connected the theory of three styles with the national originality of the historical development of the Russian literary language, which consisted in the long-term interaction and mutual influence of two elements: book-Slavic and Russian folk. The stylistic theory based the norm on those words, turns of speech, grammatical forms that were stylistically neutral, limited the use of Slavicisms and borrowings, and allowed the use of vernacular in literary speech.

In the development of the language, the role of individual author's styles gradually increases and becomes decisive. The greatest influence on the process of development of the Russian literary language of this period was exerted by the work of G. R. Derzhavin, A. N. Radishchev, I. A. Krylov, N. M. Karamzin. Their works are characterized by an orientation towards live speech use. Moreover, the use of colloquial elements was combined with the stylistically purposeful use of Slavism. A major role in the normalization of the Russian literary language of the late 18th - early 19th centuries. played an explanatory dictionary of the Russian language - "Dictionary of the Russian Academy."

In the early 90s. In the 18th century, “Letters from a Russian Traveler” and Karamzin’s stories appear. They cultivated the language of description, which was called the Russian syllable. It was based on the principle of convergence of the literary language with the spoken language, the rejection of the abstract schematism of the literature of classicism, and interest in the inner world of man. Karamzin set a goal to form a language accessible to all: for books and for society, in order to write as they say and speak as they write. The downside was that he focused on the language of high society, included a large number of gallicisms that were absent in general use.

The writers of the early 19th century took a significant step towards bringing the literary language closer to the spoken language, in updating the norms of the new literary language. By the 19th century, the genre and style of works of literature were no longer determined by the rigid attachment of words, grammatical forms and constructions. The role of a creative linguistic personality has increased, the concept of a true linguistic taste in an individual author's style has arisen.

The first third of the 19th century is Pushkin period. In his work, the formation of the national Russian literary language is completed. In the language of his works, the main elements of Russian writing and oral speech came into balance. He found such ways of merging the three linguistic elements - Slavic, colloquial and Western European elements, which influenced the development of the norms of the national Russian literary language. This language has basically survived to this day. From this period begins the era of the new Russian literary language. In the work of Pushkin, uniform, national norms were developed and consolidated, which linked together the oral and written varieties of the Russian literary language. The creation of unified national norms concerned not only the lexical and grammatical structure, but also systemic and functional styles. Having completely destroyed the system of three styles, he created a variety of styles, stylistic contexts, welded together by theme and content, opened up the possibility of their endless, individual artistic variation. All subsequent development of the Russian literary language was a deepening and improvement of the norms laid down in this era. In the development of the Russian literary language, the formation of its norms, the language practice of the largest Russian writers of the 19th - early 20th centuries (Lermontov, Gogol, Dostoevsky, etc.) played an important role. With Pushkin, the system of functional speech styles was finally established in the Russian literary language, and then improved. In the second half of the 19th century, a significant development of the journalistic style was noted. He begins to influence the development of fiction. Scientific-philosophical, socio-political terminology appears in the literary language. Along with this, the literary language incorporates vocabulary and phraseology from territorial dialects, urban vernacular and socio-professional jargons.

After 1917, there is a significant change in the language and its norms. The social base of native speakers is changing. Moscow, as a carrier of the capital's Koine, acquires the character of a multinational city, under the influence of these factors, the norms of the language begin to change rapidly. The development of public education, publishing, the interest of the broad masses in literature and journalism, the emergence of radio, etc. led to the fact that the functions of the literary language became more complex and expanded. New conditions for the relationship between literary and non-literary language arose. There are changes in the expressive coloring of some words (master, master). The language of the Communist Party and its leaders has an impact on the literary one (for example, dizziness from success, to catch up and overtake). Extralinguistic factors influence the formation of new words and expressions (council, five-year plan, collective farm, sabotage). The special technical language is enriched in connection with achievements in science and technology, etc.

In Soviet times, academic grammars, normative dictionaries, books on the culture of speech, and magazines played an important role.

In the 20th century, the vocabulary of the Russian literary language was significantly enriched. In particular, the development of science and technology contributed to the replenishment of the literary language with special terminological vocabulary, some shifts occurred in word formation, grammatical structure, and stylistic means were enriched.