(Eastern) Roman Empire, Byzantium
Byzantium (lat.), Imperium Romanum, Romania (lat.) , Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων, Ῥωμανία (Greek)

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The Byzantine Empire or Eastern Roman Empire was the continuation of the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages. The capital was Constantinople, now known as Istanbul. Over a thousand years, the empire has grown into a powerful force despite military setbacks and loss of territory. The empire entered into a long decline after the twelfth century, leading to the fall of Constantinople from the Turks in 1453.

Byzantine history can conveniently be divided into the following periods.

The first extends to the beginning of the VIII century, while its initial moments chronologically cannot be determined, just as the date delimiting the end of ancient and the beginning of modern history has not been found. In terms of the volume and content of historical material, this should include facts that characterize and prepare Byzantinism, even if they chronologically relate to the flourishing period of the Roman Empire. The same ethnographic upheaval that in the West prepared the transition from ancient to middle history is gradually taking place in the East as well. The only difference is that the West completely became the prey of the new peoples, having been swallowed up by German immigration, while the East showed more adaptability to new historical conditions and survived the critical epoch with fewer losses for itself. In the struggle against the Goths and Huns, the empire paid only temporary losses. The situation was more difficult in the 6th and 7th centuries, when the Avars and Slavs pressed on the one hand, and the Persians on the other.

The victories of Justinian (527-565) and Heraclius (610-641) delayed the onslaught of external enemies and determined the political tasks of the empire for the future. The most important business of the kings of this period was to organize the relationship of the Slavs to the empire. This task was achieved by the system of placing the Slavic tribes in the western and eastern provinces, providing them with free land for agricultural crops and non-interference in the internal order of the Slavic community. As a result, the outskirts of the empire acquired a settled agricultural population, which constituted a barrier against unexpected invasions of new enemies; military and economic means increased so much that the impending danger of an Arab conquest did not have disastrous consequences for the empire.

The second period, from Leo III the Isaurian to Basil the Macedonian (717-867), is characterized by such features in which Byzantinism finds its full and comprehensive expression. Throughout this entire period there is a lively struggle of ideas, which has found its external formula of expression in the system of iconoclasm. After twenty years of anarchy, which preceded the accession of Leo III to the throne, two dynasties of eastern origin follow, which stood at the head of the empire during the entire iconoclastic period: the Isaurians and the Armenians. Both are kept on the throne in constant fear for the strength of power; the antagonism between Hellenic and non-Hellenic elements makes itself felt in riots and the appearance of impostors. But the most difficult problem was to resolve the question put forward by Judaism and Mohammedanism. The Orthodox kingdom was dealt a severe blow by philosophical theories and practical conclusions from them, which cast doubt on the basic dogmas about the divine sonship of Jesus Christ and about the Mother of God. Byzantine scholarship tries to repel this blow with the method and means drawn from Hellenic philosophy; the government is trying a number of practical measures by which it intends to weaken the significance of the attacks from Judaism and Mohammedanism, depriving Christian worship and worship of symbols and external forms. The persecution of St. The icon divided the empire into two hostile camps, in the organization of which the antagonism of nationalities also played an important role. The victory over iconoclasm, formally won in 842, on the one hand, marks the predominance of Slavic and Hellenic elements over East Asian ones, and on the other hand, it prepares a wide field of activity for Byzantinism in Europe. The introduction of Slavic customary law into imperial legislation and reforms in the social and economic order give this period a deep interest.

The third period - from the accession to the throne of Basil the Macedonian to Alexei I Comnenus (867-1081). The essential features of its history are the high rise of Byzantinism and the spread of its cultural mission to southeastern Europe. Through the labors of the brothers Cyril and Methodius, the Slavic peoples were introduced into the number of cultural countries in Europe; Patriarch Photius put up barriers to the ambitious claims of the Roman popes and theoretically substantiated the right of Constantinople to church independence from Rome. In the field of science, this period is distinguished by an extraordinary fertility and variety of literary enterprises; in the collections and adaptations of this period, precious historical, literary and archaeological material, borrowed from writers now lost, has been preserved. In external history, the most expressive fact that runs through the entire period is the wars with the Bulgarians. Then for the first time the question of the political role of the Slavic element was raised. Simeon of Bulgaria, by accepting the royal title and establishing an independent church government, claimed to transfer the primacy of the empire to the Slavs. The theater of operations was transferred from Adrianople and Philippopolis to Greece and the Dardanelles. The participation of the Russian prince Svyatoslav in this war was accompanied by disastrous consequences for the Slavic movement. In 1018 Bulgaria was pacified and became part of the empire. From the East, the most important event was the conquest of the island of Crete from the Arabs in 961.

The fourth period - from the accession to the throne of Alexei I Komnenos until 1261. The entire interest of the period is mainly focused on the struggle of the European West with the Asian East. The crusading movement inevitably had to affect the Byzantine Empire and put it in the need to attend to the protection of its own possessions. The leaders of the crusading militias gradually lose sight of the original goal of the movement - the Holy Land and the weakening of the power of the Muslims and come to the idea of ​​conquering Constantinople. All the wisdom of the policy of the kings of the Komnenos (Alexei I and Manuel I) focused on keeping the elements hostile to the empire in balance and not allowing one of them to predominate over the other. As a result of this, political alliances are concluded alternately with Christians against the Mohammedans, then vice versa; hence the phenomenon that particularly struck the crusaders of the first campaign - the Polovtsian and Pecheneg hordes in the service of the empire. In 1204, the crusaders of the fourth campaign captured Constantinople and divided the empire among themselves. But a handful of patriots headed by Theodore Laskaris withdrew to Nicaea, and there was formed the seed of a political movement against the Latins and a center of freedom, to which the thoughts of all Hellenes rushed. Michael Palaiologos in 1261 ousted the Latins from Constantinople. In more or less close connection with the events of the crusades are secondary facts of this period. In the East, the Seljuk Turks appear, who use the crusades to spread their power at the expense of the Byzantine Empire. In the west, on the one hand, the Normans, who had established themselves in southern Italy and Sicily, are bringing personal scores with the empire to the crusading movement and threatening the maritime possessions of Byzantium, on the other, the Bulgarians are making a complete revolution in the affairs of the Balkan Peninsula. The uprising of Peter and Asen at the end of the twelfth century. was accompanied by the liberation of Bulgaria and the formation of the second Bulgarian kingdom, which tends to unite the interests of all the Slavs in the Balkan Peninsula. The interests of the Bulgarian kingdom and the Empire of Nicaea coincided for some time due to the common danger from the Latins; but with the transfer of the capital back to Constantinople, political antagonism reappears, which the Ottoman Turks successfully took advantage of.

The fifth period embraces the time from 1261 to 1453. The facts of the external and internal history of this last period are determined by the exceptional conditions in which the kingdom of the Palaiologos found itself. After the conquest of Constantinople, Michael Palaiologos makes every effort to unite under his rule the provinces of the empire that were under alien domination. To do this, he enters into very difficult and burdensome agreements with Genoa and Venice, sacrificing the essential interests of the empire in favor of these trading republics; in the same considerations, he made very important concessions to the Pope, agreeing to a union with the Roman Church (Council of Lyon, 1274). Both sacrifices not only did not bring the expected benefits, but, on the contrary, were accompanied by direct damage to the empire. With the beginning of the XIV century. the Ottoman Turks begin to play a major role in the fate of the empire. With the conquest of Brussa, Nicaea and Nicomedia, the Turks established their dominance in Asia Minor, and in 1354 the occupation of Gallipoli became a firm foot in Europe. Dominance on the Balkan Peninsula was divided between the Greeks, Serbs and Bulgarians. Jealously guarding only their own interests, the Greeks used the services of the Ottoman Turks against the Slavs; in turn, these latter supported the Turks against the Greeks. Ottoman power grows at the expense of political discord between the states of the Balkan Peninsula. Despite the danger posed by the Turks, the Palaiologoi were not able to abandon their short-sighted policy and continued to pin all their hopes on an alliance with the West and on foreign help. In 1341, after the death of Andronicus the Younger, internal strife due to the possession of the throne and the church schism generated by the struggle between the national and Western parties diverted the attention of the government from political affairs for many years. Meanwhile, the Turks inflict one defeat after another on the Greeks and Slavs: in 1361 they took Adrianople, then Serbia was crushed by the battle of Maritsa and the Kosovo field (1389), and soon after that - Bulgaria (1393). Little by little, the Byzantine Empire was limited to a small strip between the Black and Marmara Seas. Although some provinces remained connected with it, in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries a sharp antagonism is revealed between Constantinople and the provinces, which strive for political identity. Under Tsar Constantine XI Palaiologos (1449-1453), whose brothers Demetrius and Thomas had independent reigns in the Peloponnese, Constantinople was left exclusively to its own forces and means in its last struggle with the sea and foot forces of Mohammed II. May 29, 1453 The Byzantine Empire ceased to exist.

Eastern Roman Empire

Dynasty of Constantine
Beyond dynasties
Theodosian dynasty
Dynasty Lviv
(1)	474-475
	475-476

Byzantine Empire

Dynasty Lviv
(2)	476-491
Justinian dynasty
Beyond dynasties
Nicephorus dynasty
Beyond dynasties
Amorian dynasty
Macedonian dynasty
Douka dynasty
Komnenos dynasty

Byzantium (Byzantine Empire) - a medieval state from the name of the city of Byzantium, on the site of which the emperor of the Roman Empire Constantine I the Great (306–337) founded Constantinople and in 330 moved the capital here from Rome (see Ancient Rome). In 395 the empire was divided into Western and Eastern; in 476 the Western Empire fell; East survived. Byzantium was its continuation. The subjects themselves called her Romania (Roman power), and themselves - Romans (Romans), regardless of their ethnic origin.

Byzantine Empire in the VI-XI centuries.

Byzantium existed until the middle of the 15th century; until the 2nd half of the 12th century. it was a powerful, richest state that played a huge role in the political life of Europe and the countries of the Middle East. Byzantium achieved its most significant foreign policy successes at the end of the 10th century. - the beginning of the 11th century; she temporarily conquered the western Roman lands, then stopped the offensive of the Arabs, conquered Bulgaria in the Balkans, subjugated the Serbs and Croats and became in essence a Greek-Slavic state for almost two centuries. Its emperors tried to act as the supreme overlords of the entire Christian world. Ambassadors from all over the world came to Constantinople. The sovereigns of many countries of Europe and Asia dreamed of kinship with the emperor of Byzantium. Visited Constantinople around the middle of the 10th century. and Russian princess Olga. Her reception in the palace was described by Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus himself. He was the first to call Russia "Rosia" and spoke about the path "from the Varangians to the Greeks."

Even more significant was the influence of the peculiar and vibrant culture of Byzantium. Until the end of the 12th century. it remained the most cultured country in Europe. Kievan Rus and Byzantium supported from the 9th century. regular trade, political and cultural ties. Invented around 860 by Byzantine cultural figures - the "Thessalonica brothers" Constantine (in monasticism Cyril) and Methodius, Slavic writing in the 2nd half of the 10th century. - early 11th c. penetrated into Russia mainly through Bulgaria and quickly became widespread here (see Writing). From Byzantium in 988, Russia also adopted Christianity (see Religion). Simultaneously with the baptism, Prince Vladimir of Kyiv married the emperor's sister (granddaughter of Constantine VI) Anna. In the next two centuries, dynastic marriages between the ruling houses of Byzantium and Russia were concluded many times. Gradually in the 9th-11th centuries. on the basis of an ideological (then primarily religious) community, an extensive cultural zone (“the world of orthodoxy” - Orthodoxy) developed, the center of which was Byzantium and in which the achievements of Byzantine civilization were actively perceived, developed and processed. The Orthodox zone (it was opposed by the Catholic one) included, in addition to Russia, Georgia, Bulgaria and most of Serbia.

One of the factors holding back the social and state development of Byzantium was the continuous wars that it waged throughout its existence. In Europe, she held back the onslaught of the Bulgarians and nomadic tribes - the Pechenegs, the Uzes, the Polovtsians; waged wars with the Serbs, Hungarians, Normans (in 1071 they deprived the empire of its last possessions in Italy), and finally, with the crusaders. In the East, Byzantium served for centuries as a barrier (like Kievan Rus) for Asian peoples: Arabs, Seljuk Turks, and from the 13th century. - and the Ottoman Turks.

There are several periods in the history of Byzantium. Time from the 4th c. until the middle of the 7th c. - this is the era of the collapse of the slave system, the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages. Slavery has outlived itself, the ancient policy (city) - the stronghold of the old system - was wrecked. The crisis was experienced by the economy, the state system, and ideology. Waves of "barbarian" invasions hit the empire. Relying on the huge bureaucratic apparatus of power inherited from the Roman Empire, the state recruited part of the peasants into the army, forced others to perform official duties (to carry goods, build fortresses), imposed heavy taxes on the population, attached it to the land. Justinian I (527–565) attempted to restore the Roman Empire to its former borders. His commanders Belisarius and Narses temporarily conquered North Africa from the Vandals, Italy from the Ostrogoths, and part of Southeastern Spain from the Visigoths. The grandiose wars of Justinian were vividly described by one of the largest contemporary historians - Procopius of Caesarea. But the rise was short. By the middle of the 7th c. the territory of Byzantium was reduced by almost three times: possessions in Spain, more than half of the lands in Italy, most of the Balkan Peninsula, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt were lost.

The culture of Byzantium in this era was distinguished by its bright originality. Although Latin was almost until the middle of the 7th century. official language, there was also literature in Greek, Syriac, Coptic, Armenian, Georgian. Christianity, which became the state religion in the 4th century, had a huge impact on the development of culture. The church controlled all genres of literature and the arts. Libraries and theaters were destroyed or destroyed, schools where "pagan" (ancient) sciences were taught were closed. But Byzantium needed educated people, the preservation of elements of secular scholarship and natural science knowledge, as well as applied arts, the skill of painters and architects. A significant fund of ancient heritage in Byzantine culture is one of its characteristic features. The Christian Church could not exist without a competent clergy. It turned out to be powerless in the face of criticism from pagans, heretics, adherents of Zoroastrianism and Islam, without relying on ancient philosophy and dialectics. On the foundation of ancient science and art, multicolored mosaics of the 5th-6th centuries, enduring in their artistic value, arose, among which the mosaics of churches in Ravenna stand out especially (for example, with the image of the emperor in the church of San Vitale). The Code of Civil Law of Justinian was drawn up, which later formed the basis of bourgeois law, since it was based on the principle of private property (see Roman law). An outstanding work of Byzantine architecture was the magnificent church of St. Sophia, built in Constantinople in 532-537. Anthimius of Thrall and Isidore of Miletus. This miracle of building technology is a kind of symbol of the political and ideological unity of the empire.

In the 1st third of the 7th c. Byzantium was in a state of severe crisis. Huge areas of previously cultivated lands were desolate and depopulated, many cities lay in ruins, the treasury was empty. The entire north of the Balkans was occupied by the Slavs, some of them penetrated far to the south. The state saw a way out of this situation in the revival of small free peasant landownership. Strengthening its power over the peasants, it made them its main support: the treasury was made up of taxes from them, an army was created from those obliged to serve in the militia. It helped to strengthen power in the provinces and return the lost lands in the 7th-10th centuries. a new administrative structure, the so-called thematic system: the governor of the province (themes) - the strategist received from the emperor all the fullness of military and civil power. The first themes arose in areas close to the capital, each new theme served as the basis for the creation of the next, neighboring one. The barbarians who settled in it also became subjects of the empire: as taxpayers and warriors, they were used to revive it.

With the loss of lands in the east and west, the majority of its population were Greeks, the emperor began to be called in Greek - "basileus".

In the 8th–10th centuries Byzantium became a feudal monarchy. A strong central government held back the development of feudal relations. Some of the peasants retained their freedom, remaining taxpayers to the treasury. The vassal system in Byzantium did not take shape (see Feudalism). Most of the feudal lords lived in large cities. The power of the basileus was especially strengthened in the era of iconoclasm (726-843): under the flag of the fight against superstition and idolatry (veneration of icons, relics), the emperors subjugated the clergy, who argued with them in the struggle for power, and in the provinces supported separatist tendencies, confiscated the wealth of the church and monasteries . From now on, the choice of the patriarch, and often the bishops, began to depend on the will of the emperor, as well as the welfare of the church. Having solved these problems, the government restored icon veneration in 843.

In the 9th-10th centuries. the state completely subjugated not only the village, but also the city. The gold Byzantine coin - nomisma acquired the role of an international currency. Constantinople became again a "workshop of splendor" that amazed foreigners; as a "golden bridge", he brought into a knot the trade routes from Asia and Europe. Merchants of the entire civilized world and all "barbarian" countries aspired here. But the artisans and merchants of the major centers of Byzantium were subjected to strict control and regulation by the state, paid high taxes and duties, and could not participate in political life. From the end of the 11th century their products could no longer withstand the competition of Italian goods. Uprisings of townspeople in the 11th-12th centuries. brutally repressed. Cities, including the capital, fell into decay. Their markets were dominated by foreigners who bought wholesale products from large feudal lords, churches, and monasteries.

The development of state power in Byzantium in the 8th–11th centuries. - this is the path of gradual revival in a new guise of a centralized bureaucratic apparatus. Numerous departments, courts, and overt and secret police operated a huge machine of power, designed to control all spheres of life of citizens, to ensure their payment of taxes, the fulfillment of duties, and unquestioning obedience. In the center of it stood the emperor - the supreme judge, legislator, military leader, who distributed titles, awards and positions. His every step was decorated with solemn ceremonies, especially the receptions of ambassadors. He presided over the council of the highest nobility (synclite). But his power was not legally hereditary. There was a bloody struggle for the throne, sometimes the synclite decided the matter. Intervened in the fate of the throne and the patriarch, and the palace guards, and all-powerful temporary workers, and the capital's plebs. In the 11th century two main groups of nobility competed - the civil bureaucracy (it stood for centralization and increased tax oppression) and the military (it sought greater independence and expansion of estates at the expense of free taxpayers). The Vasileusses of the Macedonian dynasty (867–1056), founded by Basil I (867–886), under whom Byzantium reached the pinnacle of power, represented the civil nobility. The rebellious commanders-usurpers waged a continuous struggle with her and in 1081 managed to put their protege Alexei I Comnenus (1081-1118), the founder of a new dynasty (1081-1185), on the throne. But the Comneni achieved temporary successes, they only delayed the fall of the empire. In the provinces, the rich magnates refused to consolidate the central government; Bulgarians and Serbs in Europe, Armenians in Asia did not recognize the power of the Basils. Byzantium, which was in crisis, fell in 1204, during the invasion of the Crusaders during the 4th Crusade (see Crusades).

In the cultural life of Byzantium in the 7th-12th centuries. changed three stages. Until the 2nd third of the 9th c. its culture is marked by decadence. Elementary literacy became a rarity, secular sciences were almost expelled (except for those related to military affairs; for example, in the 7th century "Greek fire" was invented, a liquid combustible mixture that brought victories to the imperial fleet more than once). Literature was dominated by the genre of biographies of saints - primitive narratives that praised patience and implanted faith in miracles. Byzantine painting of this period is poorly known - icons and frescoes perished during the era of iconoclasm.

The period from the middle of the 9th c. and almost to the end of the 11th century. called by the name of the ruling dynasty, the time of the "Macedonian revival" of culture. Back in the 8th c. it became predominantly Greek-speaking. The "Renaissance" was peculiar: it was based on official, strictly systematized theology. The metropolitan school acted as a legislator both in the sphere of ideas and in the forms of their embodiment. The canon, model, stencil, fidelity to tradition, the unchanging norm triumphed in everything. All types of fine arts were permeated with spiritualism, the idea of ​​humility and the triumph of the spirit over the body. Painting (icon painting, frescoes) was regulated by obligatory plots, images, the arrangement of figures, a certain combination of colors and chiaroscuro. These were not images of real people with their individual traits, but symbols of moral ideals, faces as carriers of certain virtues. But even in such conditions, artists created genuine masterpieces. An example of this is the beautiful miniatures of the Psalter of the early 10th century. (stored in Paris). Byzantine icons, frescoes, book miniatures occupy a place of honor in the world of fine arts (see Art).

Philosophy, aesthetics, and literature are marked by conservatism, a penchant for compilation, and a fear of novelty. The culture of this period is distinguished by external pomposity, adherence to strict rituals, splendor (during worship, palace receptions, organizing holidays and sports, triumphs in honor of military victories), as well as a sense of superiority over the culture of the peoples of the rest of the world.

However, this time was also marked by a struggle of ideas, and by democratic and rationalist tendencies. Major advances have been made in the natural sciences. He was famous for his scholarship in the first half of the 9th century. Lev Mathematician. The ancient heritage was actively comprehended. He was often approached by Patriarch Photius (mid-ninth century), who cared about the quality of teaching at the higher Mangavra school in Constantinople, where the Slavic enlighteners Cyril and Methodius were then studying. They relied on ancient knowledge when creating encyclopedias on medicine, agricultural technology, military affairs, and diplomacy. In the 11th century the teaching of jurisprudence and philosophy was restored. The number of schools that taught literacy and numeracy increased (see Education). Passion for antiquity led to the emergence of rationalistic attempts to justify the superiority of reason over faith. In the "low" literary genres, calls for sympathy for the poor and humiliated became more frequent. The heroic epic (the poem "Digenis Akrit") is permeated with the idea of ​​patriotism, consciousness of human dignity, independence. Instead of brief world chronicles, there are extensive historical descriptions of the recent past and events contemporary to the author, where the basileus' devastating criticism often sounded. Such, for example, is the highly artistic Chronography by Michael Psellos (2nd half of the 11th century).

In painting, the number of subjects increased sharply, technique became more complicated, attention to the individuality of images increased, although the canon did not disappear. In architecture, the basilica was replaced by a cross-domed church with rich decoration. The pinnacle of the historiographical genre was the "History" by Nikita Choniates, an extensive historical narrative, brought to 1206 (including a story about the tragedy of the empire in 1204), full of sharp moral assessments and attempts to clarify the cause-and-effect relationships between events.

On the ruins of Byzantium in 1204, the Latin Empire arose, consisting of several states of Western knights bound by vassal ties. At the same time, three state associations of the local population were formed - the Kingdom of Epirus, the Empire of Trebizond and the Empire of Nicaea, hostile to the Latins (as the Byzantines called all Catholics whose church language was Latin) and to each other. In the long-term struggle for the “Byzantine inheritance”, the Nicaean Empire gradually won. In 1261, she expelled the Latins from Constantinople, but the restored Byzantium did not regain its former greatness. Not all lands were returned, and the development of feudalism led to the 14th century. to feudal disunity. In Constantinople and other large cities, Italian merchants were in charge, having received unheard-of benefits from the emperors. Civil wars were added to the wars with Bulgaria and Serbia. In 1342–1349 the democratic elements of the cities (primarily Thessalonica) revolted against the big feudal lords, but were defeated.

The development of Byzantine culture in 1204–1261 lost unity: it proceeded within the framework of the three states mentioned above and in the Latin principalities, reflecting both Byzantine traditions and the characteristics of these new political entities. Since 1261, the culture of late Byzantium has been characterized as a "Paleologian revival". This was a new bright flowering of Byzantine culture, marked, however, by especially sharp contradictions. Literature was still dominated by works on church topics - lamentations, panegyrics, lives, theological treatises, etc. However, secular motifs are beginning to sound more and more insistently. The poetic genre developed, novels in verse on ancient subjects appeared. Works were created in which there were disputes about the meaning of ancient philosophy and rhetoric. Folk motifs, in particular folk songs, began to be used more boldly. The fables ridiculed the vices of the social system. Literature in the vernacular arose. 15th century humanist philosopher Georgy Gemist Plifon exposed the self-interest of the feudal lords, proposed to liquidate private property, to replace obsolete Christianity with a new religious system. In painting, bright colors, dynamic postures, individuality of portrait and psychological characteristics prevailed. Many original monuments of religious and secular (palace) architecture were created.

Starting from 1352, the Ottoman Turks, having captured almost all the possessions of Byzantium in Asia Minor, began to conquer its lands in the Balkans. Attempts to bring the Slavic countries in the Balkans to the union failed. The West, however, promised Byzantium help only on the condition that the church of the empire be subordinated to the papacy. The Ferraro-Florentine union of 1439 was rejected by the people, who protested violently, hating the Latins for their dominance in the economy of the cities, for the robberies and oppression of the crusaders. At the beginning of April 1453, Constantinople, almost alone in the struggle, was surrounded by a huge Turkish army and on May 29 was taken by storm. The last emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos, died in arms on the walls of Constantinople. The city was sacked; it then became Istanbul - the capital of the Ottoman Empire. In 1460, the Turks conquered the Byzantine Morea in the Peloponnese, and in 1461 Trebizond, the last fragment of the former empire. The fall of Byzantium, which had existed for a thousand years, was an event of world-historical significance. It resonated with keen sympathy in Russia, in Ukraine, among the peoples of the Caucasus and the Balkan Peninsula, who by 1453 had already experienced the severity of the Ottoman yoke.

Byzantium perished, but its bright, multifaceted culture left a deep mark on the history of world civilization. The traditions of Byzantine culture were carefully preserved and developed in the Russian state, which experienced a rise and soon after the fall of Constantinople, at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries, turned into a powerful centralized state. Her sovereign Ivan III (1462–1505), under whom the unification of Russian lands was completed, was married to Sophia (Zoya) Paleolog, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor.

BYZANTINE EMPIRE
the eastern part of the Roman Empire, which survived the fall of Rome and the loss of the western provinces at the beginning of the Middle Ages and existed until the conquest of Constantinople (the capital of the Byzantine Empire) by the Turks in 1453. There was a period when it stretched from Spain to Persia, but it was always based on Greece and other Balkan lands and Asia Minor. Until the middle of the 11th century. Byzantium was the most powerful power in the Christian world, and Constantinople was the largest city in Europe. The Byzantines called their country the "Empire of the Romans" (Greek "Roma" - Roman), but it was extremely different from the Roman Empire of Augustus. Byzantium retained the Roman system of government and laws, but in terms of language and culture it was a Greek state, had an oriental-type monarchy, and most importantly, zealously preserved the Christian faith. For centuries, the Byzantine Empire acted as the guardian of Greek culture; thanks to it, the Slavic peoples joined the civilization.
EARLY BYZANTIA
Founding of Constantinople. It would be legitimate to start the history of Byzantium from the moment of the fall of Rome. However, two important decisions that determined the character of this medieval empire - the conversion to Christianity and the founding of Constantinople - were taken by Emperor Constantine I the Great (reigned 324-337) about a century and a half before the fall of the Roman Empire. Diocletian (284-305), who ruled shortly before Constantine, reorganized the administration of the empire, dividing it into East and West. After the death of Diocletian, the empire was plunged into a civil war, when several applicants fought for the throne at once, among whom was Constantine. In 313, Constantine, having defeated his opponents in the West, retreated from the pagan gods with whom Rome was inextricably linked, and declared himself an adherent of Christianity. All of his successors, except one, were Christians, and with the support of the imperial power, Christianity soon spread throughout the empire. Another important decision of Constantine, taken by him after he became the sole emperor, having overthrown his rival in the East, was the election as the new capital of the ancient Greek city of Byzantium, founded by Greek sailors on the European coast of the Bosporus in 659 (or 668) BC . Constantine expanded Byzantium, erected new fortifications, rebuilt it according to the Roman model and gave the city a new name. The official proclamation of the new capital took place in 330 AD.
Fall of the Western Provinces. It seemed that Constantine's administrative and financial policies breathed new life into the united Roman Empire. But the period of unity and prosperity did not last long. The last emperor who owned the entire empire was Theodosius I the Great (reigned 379-395). After his death, the empire was finally divided into East and West. Throughout the 5th c. at the head of the Western Roman Empire were mediocre emperors who were unable to protect their provinces from barbarian raids. In addition, the welfare of the western part of the empire has always depended on the welfare of its eastern part. With the division of the empire, the West was cut off from its main sources of income. Gradually, the western provinces disintegrated into several barbarian states, and in 476 the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire was deposed.
The struggle to save the Eastern Roman Empire. Constantinople and the East as a whole were in a better position. The Eastern Roman Empire was led by more able rulers, its borders were not so long and better fortified, and it was also richer and had a larger population. On the eastern borders, Constantinople retained its possessions during the endless wars with Persia that began in Roman times. However, the Eastern Roman Empire also faced a number of serious problems. The cultural traditions of the Middle Eastern provinces of Syria, Palestine, and Egypt were very different from those of the Greeks and Romans, and the population of these territories regarded the domination of the empire with disgust. Separatism was closely connected with ecclesiastical strife: in Antioch (Syria) and Alexandria (Egypt) every now and then new teachings appeared, which the Ecumenical Councils condemned as heretical. Of all the heresies, Monophysitism has been the most troubling. Constantinople's attempts to reach a compromise between orthodox and Monophysite teachings led to a schism between the Roman and Eastern churches. The split was overcome after the accession to the throne of Justin I (reigned 518-527), an unshakable orthodox, but Rome and Constantinople continued to drift apart in doctrine, worship and church organization. First of all, Constantinople objected to the pope's claim to supremacy over the entire Christian church. Discord arose from time to time, which led in 1054 to the final split (schism) of the Christian Church into the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox.

Justinian I. A large-scale attempt to regain power over the West was made by Emperor Justinian I (reigned 527-565). Military campaigns led by outstanding commanders - Belisarius, and later Narses - ended with great success. Italy, North Africa and southern Spain were conquered. However, in the Balkans, the invasion of the Slavic tribes, crossing the Danube and devastating the Byzantine lands, could not be stopped. In addition, Justinian had to content himself with a tenuous truce with Persia, following a long and inconclusive war. In the empire itself, Justinian maintained the traditions of imperial luxury. Under him, such masterpieces of architecture as the Cathedral of St. Sophia in Constantinople and the church of San Vitale in Ravenna, aqueducts, baths, public buildings in cities and border fortresses were also built. Perhaps Justinian's most significant achievement was the codification of Roman law. Although it was subsequently replaced by other codes in Byzantium itself, in the West, Roman law formed the basis of the laws of France, Germany and Italy. Justinian had a wonderful assistant - his wife Theodora. Once she saved the crown for him by persuading Justinian to stay in the capital during the riots. Theodora supported the Monophysites. Under her influence, and also faced with the political realities of the rise of the Monophysites in the east, Justinian was forced to move away from the orthodox position he had held in the early period of his reign. Justinian is unanimously recognized as one of the greatest Byzantine emperors. He restored cultural ties between Rome and Constantinople and prolonged the period of prosperity for the North African region by 100 years. During his reign, the empire reached its maximum size.

FORMATION OF MEDIEVAL BYZANTH
A century and a half after Justinian, the face of the empire changed completely. She lost most of her possessions, and the remaining provinces were reorganized. Greek replaced Latin as the official language. Even the national composition of the empire changed. By the 8th c. the country effectively ceased to be the Eastern Roman Empire and became the medieval Byzantine Empire. Military setbacks began shortly after Justinian's death. The Germanic tribes of the Lombards invaded northern Italy and established duchies in their own right further south. Byzantium retained only Sicily, the extreme south of the Apennine Peninsula (Bruttius and Calabria, i.e. "sock" and "heel"), as well as the corridor between Rome and Ravenna, the seat of the imperial governor. The northern borders of the empire were threatened by the Asian nomadic tribes of the Avars. Slavs poured into the Balkans, who began to populate these lands, establishing their principalities on them.
Heraclius. Together with the attacks of the barbarians, the empire had to endure a devastating war with Persia. Detachments of Persian troops invaded Syria, Palestine, Egypt and Asia Minor. Constantinople was almost taken. In 610 Heraclius (reigned 610-641), the son of the governor of North Africa, arrived in Constantinople and took power into his own hands. He devoted the first decade of his reign to raising a crushed empire from ruins. He raised the morale of the army, reorganized it, found allies in the Caucasus, and defeated the Persians in several brilliant campaigns. By 628, Persia was finally defeated, and peace reigned on the eastern borders of the empire. However, the war undermined the strength of the empire. In 633, the Arabs, who converted to Islam and were full of religious enthusiasm, launched an invasion of the Middle East. Egypt, Palestine and Syria, which Heraclius managed to return to the empire, were again lost by 641 (the year of his death). By the end of the century, the empire had lost North Africa. Now Byzantium consisted of small territories in Italy, constantly devastated by the Slavs of the Balkan provinces, and in Asia Minor, now and then suffering from the raids of the Arabs. Other emperors of the Heraclius dynasty fought off the enemies, as far as it was in their power. The provinces were reorganized, and administrative and military policies were radically revised. The Slavs were allocated state lands for settlement, which made them subjects of the empire. With the help of skillful diplomacy, Byzantium managed to make allies and trading partners of the Turkic-speaking tribes of the Khazars, who inhabited the lands north of the Caspian Sea.
Isaurian (Syrian) dynasty. The policy of the emperors of the Heraclius dynasty was continued by Leo III (ruled 717-741), the founder of the Isaurian dynasty. The Isaurian emperors were active and successful rulers. They could not return the lands occupied by the Slavs, but at least they managed to keep the Slavs away from Constantinople. In Asia Minor, they fought off the Arabs, driving them out of these territories. However, they failed in Italy. Forced to repel the raids of the Slavs and Arabs, absorbed in ecclesiastical disputes, they had neither the time nor the means to protect the corridor connecting Rome with Ravenna from the aggressive Lombards. Around 751, the Byzantine governor (exarch) surrendered Ravenna to the Lombards. The Pope, who himself was attacked by the Lombards, received help from the Franks from the north, and in 800 Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as emperor in Rome. The Byzantines considered this act of the pope an infringement on their rights and in the future did not recognize the legitimacy of the Western emperors of the Holy Roman Empire. The Isaurian emperors were especially famous for their role in the turbulent events around iconoclasm. Iconoclasm is a heretical religious movement against the worship of icons, images of Jesus Christ and saints. He was supported by broad sections of society and many clergy, especially in Asia Minor. However, it went against ancient church customs and was condemned by the Roman church. In the end, after the cathedral restored the veneration of icons in 843, the movement was suppressed.
THE GOLDEN AGE OF THE MEDIEVAL BYZANTINE
Amorian and Macedonian dynasties. The Isaurian dynasty was replaced by the short-lived Amorian, or Phrygian, dynasty (820-867), whose founder was Michael II, formerly a simple soldier from the city of Amorius in Asia Minor. Under Emperor Michael III (reigned 842-867), the empire entered into a period of new expansion that lasted almost 200 years (842-1025), which made us recall its former power. However, the Amorian dynasty was overthrown by Basil, the harsh and ambitious favorite of the emperor. A peasant, in the recent past a groom, Vasily rose to the post of great chamberlain, after which he achieved the execution of Varda, the powerful uncle of Michael III, and a year later he deposed and executed Michael himself. By origin, Basil was an Armenian, but was born in Macedonia (northern Greece), and therefore the dynasty he founded was called the Macedonian. The Macedonian dynasty was very popular and lasted until 1056. Basil I (reigned 867-886) was an energetic and gifted ruler. His administrative transformations were continued by Leo VI the Wise (ruled 886-912), during whose reign the empire suffered setbacks: the Arabs captured Sicily, the Russian prince Oleg approached Constantinople. Leo's son Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (ruled 913-959) focused on literary activity, and military affairs were managed by the co-ruler, naval commander Roman I Lakapin (ruled 913-944). The son of Constantine Roman II (reigned in 959-963) died four years after accession to the throne, leaving two young sons, until the age of majority of which the outstanding military leaders Nicephorus II Phocas (in 963-969) and John I Tzimisces (in 969) ruled as co-emperors -976). Having reached adulthood, the son of Roman II ascended the throne under the name of Basil II (reigned 976-1025).

Successes in the fight against the Arabs. The military successes of Byzantium under the emperors of the Macedonian dynasty took place mainly on two fronts: in the struggle against the Arabs in the east, and against the Bulgarians in the north. The advance of the Arabs into the interior regions of Asia Minor was stopped by the Isaurian emperors in the 8th century, however, the Muslims fortified themselves in the southeastern mountainous regions, from where they continually raided the Christian regions. The Arab fleet dominated the Mediterranean. Sicily and Crete were captured, and Cyprus was under the complete control of the Muslims. In the middle of the 9th c. the situation has changed. Under pressure from the large landowners of Asia Minor, who wanted to push the borders of the state to the east and expand their possessions at the expense of new lands, the Byzantine army invaded Armenia and Mesopotamia, established control over the Taurus Mountains and captured Syria and even Palestine. Equally important was the annexation of two islands - Crete and Cyprus.
War against the Bulgarians. In the Balkans, the main problem in the period from 842 to 1025 was the threat from the First Bulgarian Kingdom, which took shape in the second half of the 9th century. states of the Slavs and Turkic-speaking Proto-Bulgarians. In 865, the Bulgarian prince Boris I introduced Christianity among the people subject to him. However, the adoption of Christianity in no way cooled the ambitious plans of the Bulgarian rulers. The son of Boris, Tsar Simeon, invaded Byzantium several times, trying to capture Constantinople. His plans were violated by the naval commander Roman Lekapin, who later became co-emperor. Nevertheless, the empire had to be on the alert. At a critical moment, Nikephoros II, who focused on conquests in the east, turned to the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav for help in pacifying the Bulgarians, but found that the Russians themselves were striving to take the place of the Bulgarians. In 971, John I finally defeated and expelled the Russians and annexed the eastern part of Bulgaria to the empire. Bulgaria was finally conquered by his successor Vasily II during several fierce campaigns against the Bulgarian king Samuil, who created a state on the territory of Macedonia with the capital in the city of Ohrid (modern Ohrid). After Basil occupied Ohrid in 1018, Bulgaria was divided into several provinces as part of the Byzantine Empire, and Basil received the nickname Bulgar Slayer.
Italy. The situation in Italy, as had happened before, was less favorable. Under Alberic, "princeps and senator of all the Romans," papal power was unaffected by Byzantium, but from 961 control of the popes passed to the German king Otto I of the Saxon dynasty, who in 962 was crowned in Rome as Holy Roman Emperor. Otto sought to conclude an alliance with Constantinople, and after two unsuccessful embassies in 972, he still managed to get the hand of Theophano, a relative of Emperor John I, for his son Otto II.
Internal achievements of the empire. During the reign of the Macedonian dynasty, the Byzantines achieved impressive success. Literature and art flourished. Basil I created a commission tasked with revising the legislation and formulating it in Greek. Under Basil's son Leo VI, a collection of laws was compiled, known as the Basilicas, partly based on the code of Justinian and in fact replacing it.
Missionary. No less important in this period of development of the country was missionary activity. It was started by Cyril and Methodius, who, as preachers of Christianity among the Slavs, reached Moravia itself (although in the end the region ended up in the sphere of influence of the Catholic Church). The Balkan Slavs who lived in the neighborhood of Byzantium adopted Orthodoxy, although this did not go without a short quarrel with Rome, when the cunning and unprincipled Bulgarian prince Boris, seeking privileges for the newly created church, put either Rome or Constantinople. The Slavs received the right to hold services in their native language (Old Church Slavonic). Slavs and Greeks jointly trained priests and monks and translated religious literature from Greek. About a hundred years later, in 989, the church achieved another success when Prince Vladimir of Kyiv converted to Christianity and established close ties between Kievan Rus and its new Christian church with Byzantium. This union was sealed by the marriage of Vasily's sister Anna and Prince Vladimir.
Patriarchy of Photius. In the last years of the Amorian dynasty and the first years of the Macedonian dynasty, Christian unity was undermined by a major conflict with Rome in connection with the appointment of Photius, a layman of great learning, as Patriarch of Constantinople. In 863, the pope declared the appointment null and void, and in response, in 867, a church council in Constantinople announced the removal of the pope.
DECLINE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE
The collapse of the 11th century After the death of Basil II, Byzantium entered into a period of reign of mediocre emperors that lasted until 1081. At this time, an external threat loomed over the country, which eventually led to the loss of most of the territory by the empire. From the north, the Turkic-speaking nomadic tribes of the Pechenegs advanced, devastating the lands south of the Danube. But far more devastating for the empire were the losses suffered in Italy and Asia Minor. Beginning in 1016, the Normans rushed to southern Italy in search of fortune, serving as mercenaries in endless petty wars. In the second half of the century, they began to wage wars of conquest under the leadership of the ambitious Robert Guiscard and very quickly took possession of all the south of Italy and expelled the Arabs from Sicily. In 1071, Robert Guiscard occupied the last remaining Byzantine fortresses in southern Italy and, having crossed the Adriatic Sea, invaded Greece. Meanwhile, the raids of the Turkic tribes on Asia Minor became more frequent. By the middle of the century, Southwestern Asia was captured by the armies of the Seljuk khans, who in 1055 conquered the weakened Baghdad Caliphate. In 1071, the Seljuk ruler Alp-Arslan defeated the Byzantine army led by Emperor Roman IV Diogenes at the Battle of Manzikert in Armenia. After this defeat, Byzantium was never able to recover, and the weakness of the central government led to the fact that the Turks poured into Asia Minor. The Seljuks created a Muslim state here, known as the Rum ("Roman") Sultanate, with its capital in Iconium (modern Konya). At one time, young Byzantium managed to survive the invasions of Arabs and Slavs into Asia Minor and Greece. To the collapse of the 11th century. gave special reasons that had nothing to do with the onslaught of the Normans and Turks. The history of Byzantium between 1025 and 1081 is marked by the reign of exceptionally weak emperors and the ruinous strife between the civil bureaucracy in Constantinople and the military landed aristocracy in the provinces. After the death of Basil II, the throne passed first to his incompetent brother Constantine VIII (ruled 1025-1028), and then to his two elderly nieces, Zoe (ruled 1028-1050) and Theodora (1055-1056), the last representatives of the Macedonian dynasty. Empress Zoe was not lucky with three husbands and an adopted son, who did not stay in power for long, but nevertheless devastated the imperial treasury. After Theodora's death, Byzantine politics came under the control of a party headed by the powerful Duca family.

The Komnenos dynasty. The further decline of the empire was temporarily suspended with the coming to power of a representative of the military aristocracy, Alexei I Komnenos (1081-1118). The Komnenos dynasty ruled until 1185. Alexei did not have the strength to expel the Seljuks from Asia Minor, but at least he managed to conclude an agreement with them that stabilized the situation. After that, he began to fight with the Normans. First of all, Alexei tried to use all his military resources, and also attracted mercenaries from the Seljuks. In addition, at the cost of significant trading privileges, he managed to buy the support of Venice with its fleet. So he managed to restrain the ambitious Robert Guiscard, who was entrenched in Greece (d. 1085). Having stopped the advance of the Normans, Alexei again took up the Seljuks. But here he was seriously hampered by the crusader movement that had begun in the west. He hoped that mercenaries would serve in his army during campaigns in Asia Minor. But the 1st crusade, which began in 1096, pursued goals that differed from those outlined by Alexei. The crusaders saw their task as simply driving the infidels out of Christian holy places, in particular from Jerusalem, while they often ravaged the provinces of Byzantium itself. As a result of the 1st crusade, the crusaders created new states on the territory of the former Byzantine provinces of Syria and Palestine, which, however, did not last long. The influx of crusaders into the eastern Mediterranean weakened the position of Byzantium. The history of Byzantium under Komnenos can be characterized as a period not of rebirth, but of survival. Byzantine diplomacy, which has always been considered the greatest asset of the empire, succeeded in playing off the crusader states in Syria, the strengthening Balkan states, Hungary, Venice and other Italian cities, as well as the Norman Sicilian kingdom. The same policy was carried out with respect to various Islamic states, which were sworn enemies. Inside the country, the policy of the Komnenos led to the strengthening of large landlords at the expense of weakening the central government. As a reward for military service, the provincial nobility received huge possessions. Even the power of the Komnenos could not stop the slide of the state towards feudal relations and compensate for the loss of income. Financial difficulties were exacerbated by the reduction in revenue from customs duties in the port of Constantinople. After three prominent rulers, Alexei I, John II and Manuel I, in 1180-1185 weak representatives of the Komnenos dynasty came to power, the last of which was Andronicus I Komnenos (reigned 1183-1185), who made an unsuccessful attempt to strengthen the central power. In 1185, Isaac II (reigned 1185-1195), the first of the four emperors of the Angel dynasty, seized the throne. The Angels lacked both the means and the strength of character to prevent the political collapse of the empire or to oppose the West. In 1186 Bulgaria regained its independence, and in 1204 a crushing blow fell upon Constantinople from the west.
4th crusade. From 1095 to 1195, three waves of crusaders passed through the territory of Byzantium, who repeatedly looted here. Therefore, every time the Byzantine emperors were in a hurry to send them out of the empire as soon as possible. Under the Komnenos, Venetian merchants received trade concessions in Constantinople; very soon most of the foreign trade passed to them from the owners. After the accession to the throne of Andronicus Comnenus in 1183, Italian concessions were withdrawn, and Italian merchants were either killed by a mob or sold into slavery. However, the emperors from the dynasty of Angels who came to power after Andronicus were forced to restore trade privileges. The 3rd Crusade (1187-1192) turned out to be a complete failure: the Western barons were completely unable to regain control over Palestine and Syria, which were conquered during the 1st Crusade, but lost after the 2nd Crusade. Pious Europeans cast envious glances at the Christian relics collected in Constantinople. Finally, after 1054, a clear schism emerged between the Greek and Roman churches. Of course, the popes never directly called for the Christians to storm the Christian city, but they sought to use the situation in order to establish direct control over the Greek church. Eventually, the crusaders turned their weapons against Constantinople. The pretext for the attack was the removal of Isaac II Angel by his brother Alexei III. Isaac's son fled to Venice, where he promised the aged Doge Enrico Dandolo money, assistance to the crusaders, and the union of the Greek and Roman churches in exchange for support from the Venetians in restoring his father's power. The 4th crusade, organized by Venice with the support of the French military, was turned against the Byzantine Empire. The crusaders landed at Constantinople, meeting only token resistance. Alexei III, who usurped power, fled, Isaac became emperor again, and his son was crowned as co-emperor Alexei IV. As a result of the outbreak of a popular uprising, a change of power took place, the aged Isaac died, and his son was killed in the prison where he was imprisoned. Enraged crusaders in April 1204 took Constantinople by storm (for the first time since its founding) and betrayed the city to plunder and destruction, after which they created a feudal state here, the Latin Empire, headed by Baldwin I of Flanders. Byzantine lands were divided into fiefs and transferred to the French barons. However, the Byzantine princes managed to maintain control over three regions: the Despotate of Epirus in northwestern Greece, the Empire of Nicaea in Asia Minor, and the Empire of Trebizond on the southeastern coast of the Black Sea.
NEW RISE AND FINAL COLLAPSE
Restoration of Byzantium. The power of the Latins in the Aegean region was, generally speaking, not very strong. Epirus, the Empire of Nicaea, and Bulgaria vied with the Latin Empire and with each other, making attempts by military and diplomatic means to regain control of Constantinople and drive out the western feudal lords who had entrenched themselves in various parts of Greece, in the Balkans and in the Aegean Sea. The Empire of Nicaea became the winner in the struggle for Constantinople. July 15, 1261 Constantinople surrendered without resistance to Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos. However, the possessions of the Latin feudal lords in Greece turned out to be more stable, and the Byzantines did not succeed in putting an end to them. The Byzantine dynasty of Palaiologos, which won the battle, ruled Constantinople until its fall in 1453. The empire's possessions were significantly reduced, partly as a result of invasions from the west, partly as a result of the unstable situation in Asia Minor, in which in the middle of the 13th century. the Mongols invaded. Later, most of it ended up in the hands of small Turkic beyliks (principalities). Greece was dominated by Spanish mercenaries from the Catalan Company, which one of the Palaiologos invited to fight the Turks. Within the significantly reduced borders of the empire split into parts, the Palaiologos dynasty in the 14th century. torn apart by civil unrest and strife on religious grounds. The imperial power turned out to be weakened and reduced to supremacy over a system of semi-feudal appanages: instead of being controlled by governors responsible to the central government, the lands were transferred to members of the imperial family. The financial resources of the empire were so depleted that the emperors depended to a large extent on loans granted by Venice and Genoa, or on the appropriation of wealth in private hands, both secular and ecclesiastical. Most of the trade in the empire was controlled by Venice and Genoa. At the end of the Middle Ages, the Byzantine church was significantly strengthened, and its tough opposition to the Roman church was one of the reasons why the Byzantine emperors failed to obtain military assistance from the West.

Fall of Byzantium. At the end of the Middle Ages, the power of the Ottomans increased, who initially ruled in a small Turkish udzha (border inheritance), only 160 km away from Constantinople. During the 14th century The Ottoman state took over all other Turkish regions in Asia Minor and penetrated into the Balkans, formerly belonging to the Byzantine Empire. A wise internal policy of consolidation, together with military superiority, ensured the dominance of the Ottoman sovereigns over their strife-torn Christian opponents. By 1400, only the cities of Constantinople and Thessaloniki, plus small enclaves in southern Greece, remained from the Byzantine Empire. During the last 40 years of its existence, Byzantium was actually a vassal of the Ottomans. She was forced to supply recruits to the Ottoman army, and the Byzantine emperor had to personally appear at the call of the sultans. Manuel II (reigned 1391-1425), one of the brilliant representatives of Greek culture and Roman imperial tradition, visited the capitals of European states in a vain attempt to secure military assistance against the Ottomans. On May 29, 1453, Constantinople was taken by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II, while the last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI, fell in battle. Athens and the Peloponnese held out for several more years, Trebizond fell in 1461. The Turks renamed Constantinople Istanbul and made it the capital of the Ottoman Empire.

GOVERNMENT
Emperor. Throughout the Middle Ages, the tradition of monarchical power, inherited by Byzantium from the Hellenistic monarchies and imperial Rome, was not interrupted. The basis of the entire Byzantine system of government was the belief that the emperor was the chosen one of God, his viceroy on Earth, and that the imperial power was a reflection in time and space of the supreme power of God. In addition, Byzantium believed that its "Roman" empire had the right to universal power: in accordance with a widely spread legend, all sovereigns in the world formed a single "royal family", headed by the Byzantine emperor. The inevitable consequence was an autocratic form of government. Emperor, from the 7th c. who bore the title of "basileus" (or "basileus"), single-handedly determined the domestic and foreign policy of the country. He was the supreme legislator, ruler, protector of the church, and commander in chief. Theoretically, the emperor was elected by the senate, the people and the army. However, in practice, the decisive vote belonged either to a powerful party of the aristocracy, or, which happened much more often, to the army. The people vigorously approved the decision, and the elected emperor was crowned king by the Patriarch of Constantinople. The emperor, as the representative of Jesus Christ on earth, had a special duty to protect the church. Church and state in Byzantium were closely connected with each other. Their relationship is often defined by the term "caesaropapism". However, this term, implying the subordination of the church to the state or emperor, is somewhat misleading: in fact, it was about interdependence, not subordination. The emperor was not the head of the church, he did not have the right to perform the religious duties of a clergyman. However, the court religious ceremonial was closely connected with worship. There were certain mechanisms that supported the stability of imperial power. Often children were crowned immediately after birth, which ensured the continuity of the dynasty. If a child or an incapable ruler became emperor, it was customary to crown junior emperors, or co-rulers, who might or might not belong to the ruling dynasty. Sometimes commanders or naval commanders became co-rulers, who first acquired control over the state, and then legitimized their position, for example, through marriage. This is how the naval commander Roman I Lekapin and the commander Nicephorus II Phocas (reigned 963-969) came to power. Thus, the most important feature of the Byzantine system of government was the strict succession of dynasties. There were sometimes periods of bloody struggle for the throne, civil wars and mismanagement, but they did not last long.
Right. Byzantine legislation was given a decisive impetus by Roman law, although traces of both Christian and Middle Eastern influences are clearly felt. Legislative power belonged to the emperor: changes in laws were usually introduced by imperial edicts. Legal commissions have been set up from time to time to codify and revise existing laws. Older codices were in Latin, the most famous of them being Justinian's Digests (533) with additions (Novels). Obviously Byzantine in character was the collection of laws of the Basilica compiled in Greek, work on which began in the 9th century. under Basil I. Until the last stage of the country's history, the church had very little influence on law. Basilicas even canceled some of the privileges received by the church in the 8th century. However, gradually the influence of the church increased. In the 14-15 centuries. both laity and clergy were already placed at the head of the courts. The spheres of activity of church and state overlapped to a large extent from the very beginning. Imperial codes contained provisions relating to religion. The Code of Justinian, for example, included rules of conduct in monastic communities and even attempted to define the goals of monastic life. The emperor, like the patriarch, was responsible for the proper administration of the church, and only secular authorities had the means to maintain discipline and carry out punishments, whether in church or secular life.
Control system. The administrative and legal system of Byzantium was inherited from the late Roman Empire. In general, the organs of the central government - the imperial court, the treasury, the court and the secretariat - functioned separately. Each of them was headed by several dignitaries directly responsible to the emperor, which reduced the danger of the appearance of too strong ministers. In addition to actual positions, there was an elaborate system of ranks. Some were assigned to officials, others were purely honorary. Each title corresponded to a certain uniform worn on official occasions; the emperor personally paid the official an annual remuneration. In the provinces, the Roman administrative system was changed. In the late Roman Empire, the civil and military administration of the provinces was separated. However, starting from the 7th century, in connection with the needs of defense and territorial concessions to the Slavs and Arabs, both military and civil power in the provinces was concentrated in one hand. The new administrative-territorial units were called themes (a military term for an army corps). Themes were often named after the corps based in them. For example, the Fem Bukelaria got its name from the Bukelaria Regiment. The system of themes first appeared in Asia Minor. Gradually, during the 8th-9th centuries, the system of local government in the Byzantine possessions in Europe was reorganized in a similar way.
Army and Navy. The most important task of the empire, which almost continuously waged wars, was the organization of defense. The regular military corps in the provinces were subordinate to the military leaders, at the same time - to the governors of the provinces. These corps, in turn, were divided into smaller units, the commanders of which were responsible both for the corresponding army unit and for the order in the given territory. Along the borders, regular border posts were created, headed by the so-called. "Akrits", who have become virtually undivided masters of the borders in a constant struggle with the Arabs and Slavs. Epic poems and ballads about the hero Digenis Akrita, "the lord of the border, born of two peoples," glorified and glorified this life. The best troops were stationed in Constantinople and at a distance of 50 km from the city, along the Great Wall that protected the capital. The imperial guard, which had special privileges and salaries, attracted the best soldiers from abroad: at the beginning of the 11th century. these were warriors from Russia, and after the conquest of England by the Normans in 1066, many Anglo-Saxons expelled from there. The army had gunners, craftsmen who specialized in fortification and siege work, artillery to support the infantry, and heavy cavalry, which formed the backbone of the army. Since the Byzantine Empire owned many islands and had a very long coastline, a fleet was vital to it. The solution of naval tasks was entrusted to the coastal provinces in the south-west of Asia Minor, the coastal districts of Greece, as well as the islands of the Aegean Sea, which were obliged to equip ships and provide them with sailors. In addition, a fleet was based in the area of ​​​​Constantinople under the command of a high-ranking naval commander. Byzantine warships varied in size. Some had two rowing decks and up to 300 rowers. Others were smaller, but developed more speed. The Byzantine fleet was famous for its destructive Greek fire, the secret of which was one of the most important state secrets. It was an incendiary mixture, probably prepared from oil, sulfur and saltpeter, and thrown onto enemy ships with the help of catapults. The army and navy were recruited partly from local recruits, partly from foreign mercenaries. From the 7th to the 11th century in Byzantium, a system was practiced in which residents were provided with land and a small payment in exchange for service in the army or navy. Military service passed from father to eldest son, which provided the state with a constant influx of local recruits. In the 11th century this system was destroyed. The weak central government deliberately ignored the needs of defense and allowed residents to pay off military service. Moreover, local landlords began to appropriate the lands of their poor neighbors, in fact turning the latter into serfs. In the 12th century, during the reign of the Comneni and later, the state had to agree to granting certain privileges to large landowners and exemption from taxes in exchange for the creation of their own armies. Nevertheless, at all times, Byzantium was largely dependent on military mercenaries, although the funds for their maintenance fell on the treasury as a heavy burden. Starting from the 11th century, the support from the navy of Venice, and then Genoa, cost the empire even more expensive, which had to be bought with generous trade privileges, and later with direct territorial concessions.
Diplomacy. The principles of defense of Byzantium gave a special role to its diplomacy. As long as it was possible, they never skimped on impressing foreign countries with luxury or buying potential enemies. Embassies to foreign courts presented magnificent works of art or brocade garments as gifts. Important envoys arriving in the capital were received in the Grand Palace with all the splendor of imperial ceremonials. Young sovereigns from neighboring countries were often brought up at the Byzantine court. When an alliance was important to Byzantine politics, there was always the option of proposing marriage to a member of the imperial family. At the end of the Middle Ages, marriages between Byzantine princes and Western European brides became commonplace, and since the time of the Crusades, Hungarian, Norman or German blood flowed in the veins of many Greek aristocratic families.
CHURCH
Rome and Constantinople. Byzantium was proud to be a Christian state. By the middle of the 5th c. the Christian church was divided into five large regions under the control of the supreme bishops, or patriarchs: Roman in the West, Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria - in the East. Since Constantinople was the eastern capital of the empire, the corresponding patriarchate was considered the second after Rome, while the rest lost their significance after the 7th century. Arabs took over. Thus, Rome and Constantinople turned out to be the centers of medieval Christianity, but their rituals, church politics and theological views gradually moved further and further away from each other. In 1054, the papal legate anathematized Patriarch Michael Cerularius and "his followers", in response he received anathemas from the council that met in Constantinople. In 1089, it seemed to Emperor Alexei I that the schism was easily overcome, but after the 4th Crusade in 1204, the differences between Rome and Constantinople became so clear that nothing could force the Greek Church and the Greek people to abandon the schism.
Clergy. The spiritual head of the Byzantine Church was the Patriarch of Constantinople. The decisive vote in his appointment was with the emperor, but the patriarchs did not always turn out to be puppets of the imperial power. Sometimes the patriarchs could openly criticize the actions of the emperors. Thus, Patriarch Polyeuctus refused to crown Emperor John I Tzimisces until he refused to marry the widow of his rival, Empress Theophano. The patriarch headed the hierarchical structure of the white clergy, which included metropolitans and bishops who headed the provinces and dioceses, "autocephalous" archbishops who did not have bishops under their command, priests, deacons and readers, special cathedral ministers, such as custodians of archives and treasuries, as well as the regents who were in charge of church music.
Monasticism. Monasticism was an integral part of Byzantine society. Originating in Egypt in the early 4th century, the monastic movement has fired the Christian imagination for generations. In organizational terms, it took different forms, and among the Orthodox they were more flexible than among the Catholics. Its two main types were cenobitic ("coenobitic") monasticism and hermitage. Those who chose cenobitic monasticism lived in monasteries under the guidance of abbots. Their main tasks were the contemplation and celebration of the liturgy. In addition to monastic communities, there were associations called laurels, the way of life in which was an intermediate step between kinovia and hermitage: the monks here gathered together, as a rule, only on Saturdays and Sundays to perform services and spiritual communion. The hermits made various kinds of vows on themselves. Some of them, called stylites, lived on poles, others, dendrites, lived on trees. One of the numerous centers of both hermitage and monasteries was Cappadocia in Asia Minor. The monks lived in cells carved into the rocks called cones. The purpose of the hermits was solitude, but they never refused to help the suffering. And the more holy a person was considered, the more peasants turned to him for help in all matters of everyday life. In case of need, both the rich and the poor received help from the monks. Widowed empresses, as well as politically dubious persons, were removed to monasteries; the poor could count on free funerals there; monks surrounded orphans and elders with care in special houses; the sick were nursed in the monastic hospitals; even in the poorest peasant hut, the monks provided friendly support and advice to those in need.
theological disputes. The Byzantines inherited from the ancient Greeks their love of discussion, which in the Middle Ages usually found expression in disputes over theological issues. This propensity for controversy led to the spread of heresies that accompanied the entire history of Byzantium. At the dawn of the empire, the Arians denied the divine nature of Jesus Christ; the Nestorians believed that the divine and human nature existed in it separately and separately, never completely merging into one person of the incarnated Christ; Monophysites were of the opinion that only one nature is inherent in Jesus Christ - divine. Arianism began to lose its positions in the East after the 4th century, but it was never completely possible to eradicate Nestorianism and Monophysitism. These currents flourished in the southeastern provinces of Syria, Palestine and Egypt. The schismatic sects survived under Muslim rule, after these Byzantine provinces had been conquered by the Arabs. In the 8th-9th centuries. iconoclasts opposed the veneration of images of Christ and saints; their teaching was for a long time the official teaching of the Eastern Church, which was shared by emperors and patriarchs. The greatest concern was caused by dualistic heresies, which believed that only the spiritual world is the kingdom of God, and the material world is the result of the activity of the lower devilish spirit. The reason for the last major theological dispute was the doctrine of hesychasm, which split the Orthodox Church in the 14th century. It was about the way in which a person could know God while still alive.
Church cathedrals. All the Ecumenical Councils in the period before the division of the churches in 1054 were held in the largest Byzantine cities - Constantinople, Nicaea, Chalcedon and Ephesus, which testified both to the important role of the Eastern Church and to the wide spread of heretical teachings in the East. The 1st Ecumenical Council was convened by Constantine the Great in Nicaea in 325. Thus, a tradition was created in accordance with which the emperor was responsible for maintaining the purity of the dogma. These councils were primarily ecclesiastical assemblies of bishops, who were responsible for formulating rules concerning doctrine and ecclesiastical discipline.
Missionary activity. The Eastern Church devoted no less energy to missionary work than the Roman Church. The Byzantines converted the southern Slavs and Russia to Christianity, they also began its spread among the Hungarians and the Great Moravian Slavs. Traces of the influence of Byzantine Christians can be found in the Czech Republic and Hungary, their huge role in the Balkans and in Russia is undoubted. Starting from the 9th c. Bulgarians and other Balkan peoples were in close contact with both the Byzantine church and the civilization of the empire, since church and state, missionaries and diplomats acted hand in hand. The Orthodox Church of Kievan Rus was directly subordinate to the Patriarch of Constantinople. The Byzantine Empire fell, but its church survived. As the Middle Ages came to an end, the church among the Greeks and Balkan Slavs gained more and more authority and was not broken even by the domination of the Turks.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC LIFE OF BYZANTIA
Diversity within the empire. The ethnically diverse population of the Byzantine Empire was united by belonging to the empire and Christianity, and was also to some extent influenced by Hellenistic traditions. Armenians, Greeks, Slavs had their own linguistic and cultural traditions. However, the Greek language has always remained the main literary and state language of the empire, and fluency in it was certainly required from an ambitious scientist or politician. There was no racial or social discrimination in the country. Among the Byzantine emperors were Illyrians, Armenians, Turks, Phrygians and Slavs.
Constantinople. The center and focus of the entire life of the empire was its capital. The city was ideally located at the crossroads of two great trade routes: the land route between Europe and Southwest Asia and the sea route between the Black and Mediterranean Seas. The sea route led from the Black to the Aegean Sea through the narrow Bosphorus (Bosporus) Strait, then through the small Sea of ​​Marmara squeezed by land and, finally, another strait - the Dardanelles. Immediately before the exit from the Bosphorus to the Sea of ​​Marmara, a narrow crescent-shaped bay, called the Golden Horn, deeply protrudes into the shore. It was a magnificent natural harbor that protected ships from dangerous oncoming currents in the strait. Constantinople was erected on a triangular promontory between the Golden Horn and the Sea of ​​Marmara. From two sides the city was protected by water, and from the west, from the land side, by strong walls. Another line of fortifications, known as the Great Wall, ran 50 km to the west. The majestic residence of the imperial power was also a trading center for merchants of all conceivable nationalities. The more privileged had their own quarters and even their own churches. The same privilege was given to the Anglo-Saxon Imperial Guard, which at the end of the 11th century. belonged to a small Latin church of St. Nicholas, as well as Muslim travelers, merchants and ambassadors who had their own mosque in Constantinople. Residential and commercial areas mainly adjoined the Golden Horn. Here, and also on both sides of the beautiful, wooded, steep slope that towered over the Bosphorus, residential quarters grew up and monasteries and chapels were erected. The city grew, but the heart of the empire was still a triangle, on which the city of Constantine and Justinian originally arose. The complex of imperial buildings, known as the Grand Palace, was located here, and next to it was the church of St. Sofia (Hagia Sophia) and the Church of St. Irene and St. Sergius and Bacchus. Nearby were the hippodrome and the Senate building. From here Mesa (Middle Street), the main street, led to the western and southwestern parts of the city.
Byzantine trade. Trade flourished in many cities of the Byzantine Empire, for example, in Thessaloniki (Greece), Ephesus and Trebizond (Asia Minor) or Chersonese (Crimea). Some cities had their own specialization. Corinth and Thebes, as well as Constantinople itself, were famous for the production of silk. As in Western Europe, merchants and artisans were organized into guilds. A good idea of ​​trade in Constantinople is given by a 10th-century An eparch's book containing a list of rules for artisans and merchants, both in everyday goods such as candles, bread or fish, and in luxury items. Some luxury items, such as the finest silks and brocades, could not be exported. They were intended only for the imperial court and could only be taken abroad as imperial gifts, for example, to kings or caliphs. The importation of goods could only be carried out in accordance with certain agreements. A number of trade agreements were concluded with friendly peoples, in particular with the Eastern Slavs, who created in the 9th century. own state. Along the great Russian rivers, the Eastern Slavs descended south to Byzantium, where they found ready markets for their goods, mainly furs, wax, honey and slaves. The leading role of Byzantium in international trade was based on income from port services. However, in the 11th c. there was an economic crisis. The gold solidus (known in the West as "bezant", the monetary unit of Byzantium) began to depreciate. In Byzantine trade, the dominance of the Italians, in particular the Venetians and Genoese, began, who achieved such excessive trading privileges that the imperial treasury was seriously depleted, which lost control over most of the customs fees. Even trade routes began to bypass Constantinople. At the end of the Middle Ages, the eastern Mediterranean flourished, but all the riches were by no means in the hands of the emperors.
Agriculture. Even more important than customs duties and trade in handicrafts was agriculture. One of the main sources of income in the state was the land tax: both large land holdings and agricultural communities were subject to it. Fear of tax collectors haunted smallholders who could easily go bankrupt due to poor harvests or the loss of a few heads of livestock. If a peasant abandoned his land and ran away, his share of the tax was usually collected from his neighbors. Many small landowners preferred to become dependent tenants of large landowners. Attempts by the central government to reverse this trend were not particularly successful, and by the end of the Middle Ages, agricultural resources were concentrated in the hands of large landowners or were owned by large monasteries.

Where is Byzantium

The great influence that the Byzantine Empire had on the history (as well as religion, culture, art) of many European countries (including ours) in the era of the gloomy Middle Ages is difficult to cover in one article. But we will still try to do this, and tell you as much as possible about the history of Byzantium, its way of life, culture and much more, in a word, using our time machine to send you to the time of the highest heyday of the Byzantine Empire, so get comfortable and let's go.

Where is Byzantium

But before going on a journey through time, first let's deal with the movement in space, and determine where is (or rather was) Byzantium on the map. In fact, at different points in historical development, the boundaries of the Byzantine Empire were constantly changing, expanding during periods of development and shrinking during periods of decline.

For example, this map shows Byzantium in its heyday and, as we can see at that time, it occupied the entire territory of modern Turkey, part of the territory of modern Bulgaria and Italy, and numerous islands in the Mediterranean Sea.

During the reign of Emperor Justinian, the territory of the Byzantine Empire was even larger, and the power of the Byzantine emperor also extended to North Africa (Libya and Egypt), the Middle East, (including the glorious city of Jerusalem). But gradually they began to be forced out of there first, with whom Byzantium was in a state of permanent war for centuries, and then the warlike Arab nomads, carrying in their hearts the banner of a new religion - Islam.

And here the map shows the possessions of Byzantium at the time of its decline, in 1453, as we see at that time its territory was reduced to Constantinople with the surrounding territories and part of modern Southern Greece.

History of Byzantium

The Byzantine Empire is the successor of another great empire -. In 395, after the death of the Roman Emperor Theodosius I, the Roman Empire was divided into Western and Eastern. This division was caused by political reasons, namely, the emperor had two sons, and probably, so as not to deprive any of them, the eldest son Flavius ​​became the emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, and the youngest son Honorius, respectively, the emperor of the Western Roman Empire. At first, this division was purely nominal, and in the eyes of millions of citizens of the superpower of antiquity, it was still the same one big Roman Empire.

But as we know, the Roman Empire gradually began to lean towards its death, which was largely facilitated by both the decline in morals in the empire itself and the waves of warlike barbarian tribes that now and then rolled onto the borders of the empire. And now, in the 5th century, the Western Roman Empire finally fell, the eternal city of Rome was captured and plundered by the barbarians, the end of antiquity came, the Middle Ages began.

But the Eastern Roman Empire, thanks to a happy coincidence, survived, the center of its cultural and political life was concentrated around the capital of the new empire, Constantinople, which became the largest city in Europe in the Middle Ages. The waves of barbarians passed by, although, of course, they also had their influence, but for example, the rulers of the Eastern Roman Empire prudently preferred to pay off gold rather than fight from the ferocious conqueror Attila. Yes, and the destructive impulse of the barbarians was directed precisely at Rome and the Western Roman Empire, which saved the Eastern Empire, from which, after the fall of the Western Empire in the 5th century, a new great state of Byzantium or the Byzantine Empire was formed.

Although the population of Byzantium consisted mainly of Greeks, they always felt themselves to be the heirs of the great Roman Empire and called them accordingly - "Romans", which in Greek means "Romans".

Since the 6th century, during the reign of the brilliant emperor Justinian and his no less brilliant wife (our website has an interesting article about this “first lady of Byzantium”, follow the link), the Byzantine Empire begins to slowly recapture the territories once occupied by barbarians. So the Byzantines from the barbarians of the Lombards captured significant territories of modern Italy, which once belonged to the Western Roman Empire, the power of the Byzantine emperor extends to northern Africa, the local city of Alexandria becomes an important economic and cultural center of the empire in this region. The military campaigns of Byzantium extend to the East, where for several centuries there have been continuous wars with the Persians.

The very geographical position of Byzantium, which spread its possessions on three continents at once (Europe, Asia, Africa), made the Byzantine Empire a kind of bridge between the West and the East, a country in which the cultures of different peoples were mixed. All this left its mark on social and political life, religious and philosophical ideas and, of course, art.

Conventionally, historians divide the history of the Byzantine Empire into five periods, we give a brief description of them:

• The first period of the initial heyday of the empire, its territorial expansion under the emperors Justinian and Heraclius lasted from the 5th to the 8th century. During this period, there is an active dawn of the Byzantine economy, culture, and military affairs.
• The second period began with the reign of the Byzantine emperor Leo III the Isaurian and lasted from 717 to 867. At this time, the empire, on the one hand, reaches the greatest development of its culture, but on the other hand, it is overshadowed by numerous turmoils, including religious ones (iconoclasm), which we will write about in more detail later.
• The third period is characterized on the one hand by the end of unrest and the transition to relative stability, on the other hand by constant wars with external enemies, it lasted from 867 to 1081. Interestingly, during this period, Byzantium was actively at war with its neighbors, the Bulgarians and our distant ancestors, the Russians. Yes, it was during this period that the campaigns of our Kyiv princes Oleg (Prophetic), Igor, Svyatoslav against Constantinople (as the capital of Byzantium Constantinople was called in Russia) took place.
• The fourth period began with the reign of the Komnenos dynasty, the first emperor Alexei Komnenos ascended the Byzantine throne in 1081. Also, this period is known as the “Komnenian Revival”, the name speaks for itself, during this period Byzantium revives its cultural and political greatness, somewhat faded after unrest and constant wars. The Komnenos turned out to be wise rulers, skillfully balancing in those difficult conditions in which Byzantium found itself at that time: from the East, the borders of the empire were increasingly pressed by the Seljuk Turks, from the West, Catholic Europe was breathing, considering the Orthodox Byzantines apostates and heretics, which is little better than infidel Muslims.
• The fifth period is characterized by the decline of Byzantium, which, as a result, led to its death. It lasted from 1261 to 1453. During this period, Byzantium is waging a desperate and unequal struggle for survival. The growing strength of the Ottoman Empire, the new, this time the Muslim superpower of the Middle Ages, finally swept away Byzantium.

Fall of Byzantium

What are the main reasons for the fall of Byzantium? Why did an empire that owned such vast territories and such power (both military and cultural) fall? First of all, the most important reason was the strengthening of the Ottoman Empire, in fact, Byzantium became one of their first victims, subsequently the Ottoman Janissaries and Sipahs would shake many other European nations on their nerves, even reaching Vienna in 1529 (from where they were knocked out only by the combined efforts of the Austrian and the Polish troops of King Jan Sobieski).

But in addition to the Turks, Byzantium also had a number of internal problems, constant wars exhausted this country, many territories that it owned in the past were lost. The conflict with Catholic Europe also had an effect, resulting in the fourth crusade, directed not against infidel Muslims, but against the Byzantines, these “wrong Orthodox Christian heretics” (from the point of view of Catholic crusaders, of course). Needless to say, the fourth crusade, which resulted in the temporary conquest of Constantinople by the crusaders and the formation of the so-called "Latin Republic" was another important reason for the subsequent decline and fall of the Byzantine Empire.

Also, the fall of Byzantium was greatly facilitated by the numerous political unrest that accompanied the final fifth stage in the history of Byzantium. So, for example, the Byzantine emperor John Palaiologos V, who ruled from 1341 to 1391, was overthrown from the throne three times (it is interesting that first by his father-in-law, then by his son, then by his grandson). The Turks, on the other hand, skillfully used the intrigues at the court of the Byzantine emperors for their own selfish purposes.

In 1347, the most terrible epidemic of the plague swept through the territory of Byzantium, black death, as this disease was called in the Middle Ages, the epidemic claimed about a third of the inhabitants of Byzantium, which was another reason for the weakening and fall of the empire.

When it became clear that the Turks were about to sweep away Byzantium, the latter began again to seek help from the West, but relations with the Catholic countries, as well as the Pope of Rome, were more than strained, only Venice came to the rescue, whose merchants traded profitably with Byzantium, and in Constantinople itself even had a whole Venetian merchant quarter. At the same time, Genoa, the former trade and political opponent of Venice, on the contrary, helped the Turks in every possible way and was interested in the fall of Byzantium (primarily with the aim of causing problems to its commercial competitors, the Venetians). In a word, instead of uniting and helping Byzantium resist the attack of the Ottoman Turks, the Europeans pursued their own interests, a handful of Venetian soldiers and volunteers, yet sent to help Constantinople besieged by the Turks, could no longer do anything.

On May 29, 1453, the ancient capital of Byzantium, the city of Constantinople, fell (later renamed Istanbul by the Turks), and the once great Byzantium fell with it.

Byzantine culture

The culture of Byzantium is the product of a mixture of cultures of many peoples: Greeks, Romans, Jews, Armenians, Egyptian Copts and the first Syrian Christians. The most striking part of Byzantine culture is its ancient heritage. Many traditions from the time of ancient Greece were preserved and transformed in Byzantium. So the spoken written language of the citizens of the empire was precisely Greek. The cities of the Byzantine Empire retained Greek architecture, the structure of Byzantine cities, again borrowed from ancient Greece: the heart of the city was the agora - a wide square where public meetings were held. The cities themselves were lavishly decorated with fountains and statues.

The best masters and architects of the empire built the palaces of the Byzantine emperors in Constantinople, the most famous among them is the Grand Imperial Palace of Justinian.

The remains of this palace in a medieval engraving.

Ancient crafts continued to develop actively in Byzantine cities, the masterpieces of the local jewelers, craftsmen, weavers, blacksmiths, artists were valued throughout Europe, the skills of Byzantine masters were actively adopted by representatives of other peoples, including the Slavs.

Of great importance in the social, cultural, political and sports life of Byzantium were hippodromes, where chariot races were held. For the Romans, they were about the same as football is for many today. There were even their own, in modern terms, fan clubs rooting for one or another team of chariot hounds. Just as modern ultras football fans who support different football clubs from time to time arrange fights and brawls among themselves, the Byzantine fans of chariot racing were also very eager for this matter.

But besides just unrest, various groups of Byzantine fans also had a strong political influence. So once an ordinary brawl of fans at the hippodrome led to the largest uprising in the history of Byzantium, known as "Nika" (literally "win", this was the slogan of the rebellious fans). The uprising of Nika's supporters almost led to the overthrow of Emperor Justinian. Only thanks to the determination of his wife Theodora and the bribery of the leaders of the uprising, he was able to suppress.

Hippodrome in Constantinople.

In the jurisprudence of Byzantium, Roman law, inherited from the Roman Empire, reigned supreme. Moreover, it was in the Byzantine Empire that the theory of Roman law acquired its final form, such key concepts as law, law, and custom were formed.

The economy in Byzantium was also largely driven by the legacy of the Roman Empire. Each free citizen paid taxes to the treasury from his property and labor activity (a similar tax system was also practiced in ancient Rome). High taxes often became the cause of mass discontent, and even unrest. Byzantine coins (known as Roman coins) circulated throughout Europe. These coins were very similar to the Roman ones, but the Byzantine emperors made only a number of minor changes to them. The first coins that began to be minted in the countries of Western Europe, in turn, were an imitation of Roman coins.

This is what coins looked like in the Byzantine Empire.

Religion, of course, had a great influence on the culture of Byzantium, about which read on.

Religion of Byzantium

In religious terms, Byzantium became the center of Orthodox Christianity. But before that, it was on its territory that the most numerous communities of the first Christians were formed, which greatly enriched its culture, especially in terms of the construction of temples, as well as in the art of icon painting, which originated precisely in Byzantium.

Gradually, Christian churches became the center of the public life of Byzantine citizens, pushing aside the ancient agoras and hippodromes with their violent fans in this regard. Monumental Byzantine churches, built in the 5th-10th centuries, combine both ancient architecture (from which Christian architects borrowed a lot of things) and already Christian symbolism. The most beautiful temple creation in this regard can rightfully be considered the Church of St. Sophia in Constantinople, which was later converted into a mosque.

Art of Byzantium

The art of Byzantium was inextricably linked with religion, and the most beautiful thing that it gave to the world was the art of icon painting and the art of mosaic frescoes, which adorned many churches.

True, one of the political and religious unrest in the history of Byzantium, known as Iconoclasm, was connected with icons. This was the name of the religious and political trend in Byzantium, which considered icons to be idols, and therefore subject to extermination. In 730 Emperor Leo III the Isaurian officially banned the veneration of icons. As a result, thousands of icons and mosaics were destroyed.

Subsequently, the power changed, in 787 Empress Irina ascended the throne, who returned the veneration of icons, and the art of icon painting was revived with the same strength.

The art school of Byzantine icon painters set the traditions of icon painting for the whole world, including its great influence on the art of icon painting in Kievan Rus.

Byzantium, video

And finally, an interesting video about the Byzantine Empire.

The end has come. But at the beginning of the 4th c. the center of the state moved to the calmer and richer eastern, Balkan and Asia Minor provinces. Soon Constantinople, founded by Emperor Constantine on the site of the ancient Greek city of Byzantium, became the capital. True, the West also had its own emperors - the administration of the empire was divided. But it was the sovereigns of Constantinople who were considered elders. In the 5th century The Eastern, or Byzantine, as they said in the West, the empire withstood the attack of the barbarians. Moreover, in the VI century. its rulers conquered many lands of the West occupied by the Germans and held them for two centuries. Then they were Roman emperors, not only in title, but also in essence. Having lost by the IX century. a large part of the western possessions, Byzantine Empire nevertheless continued to live and develop. She existed before 1453., when the last stronghold of her power - Constantinople fell under the pressure of the Turks. All this time, the empire remained in the eyes of its subjects as a legitimate successor. Its inhabitants called themselves Romans, which in Greek means "Romans", although the main part of the population were Greeks.

The geographical position of Byzantium, which spread its possessions on two continents - in Europe and Asia, and sometimes extended power to the regions of Africa, made this empire, as it were, a link between East and West. The constant bifurcation between the eastern and western worlds became the historical destiny of the Byzantine Empire. The mixture of Greco-Roman and Eastern traditions left its mark on public life, statehood, religious and philosophical ideas, culture and art of Byzantine society. However, Byzantium went on its own historical way, in many respects different from the fate of the countries of both the East and the West, which determined the features of its culture.

Map of the Byzantine Empire

History of the Byzantine Empire

The culture of the Byzantine Empire was created by many nations. In the first centuries of the existence of the Roman state, all the eastern provinces of Rome were under the rule of its emperors: Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, southern Crimea, Western Armenia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, northeast Libya. The creators of the new cultural unity were the Romans, Armenians, Syrians, Egyptian Copts and the barbarians who settled within the borders of the empire.

The most powerful cultural layer in this cultural diversity was the ancient heritage. Long before the emergence of the Byzantine Empire, thanks to the campaigns of Alexander the Great, all the peoples of the Middle East were subjected to the powerful unifying influence of ancient Greek, Hellenic culture. This process is called Hellenization. Adopted Greek traditions and immigrants from the West. So the culture of the renewed empire developed as a continuation of the mainly ancient Greek culture. Greek language already in the 7th century. reigned supreme in the written and oral speech of the Romans (Romans).

The East, unlike the West, did not experience devastating barbarian raids. Because there was no terrible cultural decline. Most of the ancient Greco-Roman cities continued to exist in the Byzantine world. In the first centuries of the new era, they retained their former appearance and structure. As in Hellas, the agora remained the heart of the city - a vast square where public meetings were previously held. Now, however, people increasingly gathered at the hippodrome - a place of performances and races, announcements of decrees and public executions. The city was decorated with fountains and statues, magnificent houses of local nobility and public buildings. In the capital - Constantinople - the best masters erected monumental palaces of emperors. The most famous of the early ones - the Great Imperial Palace of Justinian I, the famous conqueror of the Germans, who ruled in 527-565 - was erected over the Sea of ​​Marmara. The appearance and decoration of the capital's palaces reminded of the times of the ancient Greek-Macedonian rulers of the Middle East. But the Byzantines also used the Roman urban experience, in particular the plumbing system and baths (terms).

Most of the major cities of antiquity remained centers of trade, crafts, science, literature and art. Such were Athens and Corinth in the Balkans, Ephesus and Nicaea in Asia Minor, Antioch, Jerusalem and Berytus (Beirut) in Syro-Palestines, Alexandria in ancient Egypt.

The collapse of many cities in the West led to the shift of trade routes to the east. At the same time, barbarian invasions and conquests made land roads unsafe. Law and order were preserved only in the possessions of the emperors of Constantinople. Therefore, the "dark" centuries filled with wars (V-VIII centuries) became sometimes heyday of Byzantine ports. They served as transit points for military detachments sent to numerous wars, and as stations for the strongest Byzantine fleet in Europe. But the main meaning and source of their existence was maritime trade. The commercial relations of the Romans stretched from India to Britain.

Ancient crafts continued to develop in the cities. Many products of early Byzantine masters are real works of art. The masterpieces of Roman jewelers - made of precious metals and stones, colored glass and ivory - aroused admiration in the countries of the Middle East and barbarian Europe. Germans, Slavs, Huns adopted the skills of the Romans, imitated them in their own creations.

Coins in the Byzantine Empire

For a long time, only Roman coins circulated throughout Europe. The emperors of Constantinople continued to mint Roman money, making only minor changes to their appearance. The right of the Roman emperors to power was not questioned even by fierce enemies, and the only mint in Europe was proof of this. The first in the West to dare to start minting his own coin was the Frankish king in the second half of the 6th century. However, even then the barbarians only imitated the Roman model.

Legacy of the Roman Empire

The Roman heritage of Byzantium is even more noticeable in the system of government. Politicians and philosophers of Byzantium did not get tired of repeating that Constantinople is the New Rome, that they themselves are Romans, and their state is the only empire protected by God. The ramified apparatus of the central government, the tax system, the legal doctrine of the inviolability of the imperial autocracy remained in it without fundamental changes.

The life of the emperor, furnished with extraordinary splendor, admiration for him were inherited from the traditions of the Roman Empire. In the late Roman period, even before the Byzantine era, palace rituals included many elements of Eastern despotisms. Basileus, the emperor, appeared before the people only accompanied by a brilliant retinue and an impressive armed guard, who followed in a strictly defined order. They prostrated before the basileus, during the speech from the throne he was covered with special curtains, and only a few received the right to sit in his presence. Only the highest ranks of the empire were allowed to eat at his meal. The reception of foreign ambassadors, whom the Byzantines tried to impress with the greatness of the emperor's power, was especially pompously arranged.

The central administration was concentrated in several secret departments: the Shvaz department of the logotheta (steward) of the genikon - the main tax institution, the department of the military cash desk, the department of mail and external relations, the department for managing the property of the imperial family, etc. In addition to the staff of officials in the capital, each department had officials sent on temporary assignments to the provinces. There were also palace secrets that controlled the institutions that directly served the royal court: food, wardrobe, stables, repairs.

Byzantium retained Roman law and foundations of Roman judiciary. In the Byzantine era, the development of the Roman theory of law was completed, such theoretical concepts of jurisprudence as law, law, custom were finalized, the difference between private and public law was clarified, the foundations for regulating international relations, the norms of criminal law and process were determined.

The legacy of the Roman Empire was a clear tax system. A free citizen or peasant paid taxes and duties to the treasury from all types of his property and from any kind of labor activity. He paid for the possession of land, and for a garden in the city, and for a mule or sheep in a barn, and for a room for rent, and for a workshop, and for a shop, and for a ship, and for a boat. Practically not a single product on the market passed from hand to hand, bypassing the watchful eye of officials.

Warfare

Byzantium also preserved the Roman art of waging a "correct war." The empire carefully kept, copied and studied ancient strategons - treatises on martial arts.

Periodically, the authorities reformed the army, partly because of the emergence of new enemies, partly to meet the capabilities and needs of the state itself. The basis of the Byzantine army became the cavalry. Its number in the army ranged from 20% in late Roman times to more than one third in the 10th century. An insignificant part, but very combat-ready, became cataphracts - heavy cavalry.

navy Byzantium was also a direct inheritance of Rome. The following facts speak of his strength. In the middle of the 7th century Emperor Constantine V was able to send 500 ships to the mouth of the Danube to conduct military operations against the Bulgarians, and in 766 - even more than 2 thousand. The largest ships (dromons) with three rows of oars took on board up to 100-150 soldiers and about the same rowers.

An innovation in the fleet was "greek fire"- a mixture of oil, combustible oils, sulfur asphalt, - invented in the 7th century. and terrified enemies. He was thrown out of the siphons, arranged in the form of bronze monsters with open mouths. Siphons could be turned in different directions. The ejected liquid spontaneously ignited and burned even on water. It was with the help of "Greek fire" that the Byzantines repulsed two Arab invasions - in 673 and 718.

Military construction was excellently developed in the Byzantine Empire, based on a rich engineering tradition. Byzantine engineers - builders of fortresses were famous far beyond the borders of the country, even in distant Khazaria, where a fortress was built according to their plans

The large seaside cities, in addition to the walls, were protected by underwater breakwaters and massive chains that blocked the entrance of the enemy fleet to the bays. Such chains closed the Golden Horn in Constantinople and the Gulf of Thessaloniki.

For the defense and siege of fortresses, the Byzantines used various engineering structures (ditches and palisades, tunnels and embankments) and all kinds of tools. Byzantine documents mention rams, movable towers with bridges, stone-throwing ballistas, hooks for capturing and destroying enemy siege devices, cauldrons from which boiling tar and molten lead were poured onto the heads of the besiegers.