Alexander III Alexandrovich Romanov
Years of life: February 26, 1845, Anichkov Palace, St. Petersburg - October 20, 1894, Livadia Palace, Crimea.

Son of Maria Alexandrovna, recognized daughter of Grand Duke Ludwig II of Hesse and Emperor.

Emperor of All Russia (1 (13) March 1881 - October 20 (November 1), 1894), Tsar of Poland and Grand Duke of Finland from March 1, 1881

From the Romanov dynasty.

He was awarded a special epithet in pre-revolutionary historiography - the Peacemaker.

Biography of Alexander III

He was the 2nd son of the imperial family. Born February 26 (March 10), 1845 in Tsarskoye Selo His elder brother was preparing to inherit the throne.

The mentor who had a strong influence on his worldview was K.P. Pobedonostsev.

As a prince, he became a member of the State Council, commander of the guards and chieftain of all Cossack troops.

During the Russian-Turkish war of 1877–1878. he was the commander of the Separate Ruschuk Detachment in Bulgaria. He created the Volunteer Fleet of Russia (since 1878), which became the core of the country's merchant fleet and the reserve of the Russian military fleet.

After the death of his elder brother Nicholas in 1865, he became the heir to the throne.

In 1866, he married the bride of his deceased brother, the daughter of the Danish king Christian IX, Princess Sophia Frederica Dagmar, who adopted the name Maria Feodorovna in Orthodoxy.

Emperor Alexander 3

Having ascended the throne after the assassination of Alexander II on March 1 (13), 1881 (his father's legs were blown off by a terrorist bomb, and his son spent the last hours of his life nearby), canceled the draft constitutional reform signed by his father just before his death. He stated that Russia would pursue a peaceful policy and deal with internal problems - strengthening the autocracy.

His manifesto of April 29 (May 11), 1881 reflected the program of domestic and foreign policy. The main priorities were: maintaining order and power, strengthening church piety and ensuring the national interests of Russia.

Reforms of Alexander 3

The tsar created the State Peasants' Land Bank for issuing loans to peasants for the purchase of land, and also issued a number of laws to alleviate the situation of the workers.

Alexander 3 pursued a tough policy of Russification, which faced opposition from some Finns and Poles.
After Bismarck's resignation from the post of Chancellor of Germany in 1893, Alexander III Alexandrovich concluded an alliance with France (Franco-Russian alliance).

In foreign policy, for years of reign of Alexander 3 Russia has firmly taken a leading position in Europe. Possessing enormous physical strength, the tsar symbolized for other states the power and invincibility of Russia. Once the Austrian ambassador began to threaten him during dinner, promising to move a couple of army corps to the borders. The king listened in silence, then took a fork from the table, tied it in a knot and threw it on the ambassador's plate. “This is what we will do with your couple of hulls,” the king replied.

Domestic policy of Alexander 3

Court etiquette and ceremonial became much simpler. He significantly reduced the staff of the Ministry of the Court, the number of servants was reduced and strict control over the spending of money was introduced. At the same time, a lot of money was spent on the acquisition of art objects by him, since the emperor was a passionate collector. Gatchina Castle under him turned into a storehouse of priceless treasures, which later became a true national treasure of Russia.

Unlike all his predecessors-rulers on the Russian throne, he adhered to strict family morality and was an exemplary family man - a loving husband and a good father. He was one of the most pious Russian sovereigns, firmly adhered to the Orthodox canons, willingly donated to monasteries, to build new churches and restore ancient ones.
Passionately fond of hunting and fishing, boating. Belovezhskaya Pushcha was the Emperor's favorite hunting ground. He participated in archaeological excavations, loved to play the trumpet in a brass band.

The family had very warm relations. Every year the date of marriage was celebrated. Evenings for children were often arranged: circus and puppet performances. Everyone was attentive to each other and gave gifts.

The emperor was very hardworking. And yet, despite a healthy lifestyle, he died young, before reaching the age of 50, quite unexpectedly. In October 1888, the tsar's train crashed near Kharkov. There were many victims, but the royal family remained intact. Alexander, with incredible efforts, held the collapsed roof of the car on his shoulders until help arrived.

But soon after this incident, the emperor began to complain of back pain. Doctors came to the conclusion that a terrible concussion during the fall served as the onset of kidney disease. At the insistence of the Berlin doctors, he was sent to the Crimea, to Livadia, but the disease progressed.

On October 20, 1894, the emperor died. He was buried in St. Petersburg, in the Peter and Paul Cathedral.
The death of Emperor Alexander III caused an echo all over the world, flags were lowered in France, memorial services were held in all churches in England. Many foreign figures called him a peacemaker.

The Marquess of Salisbury said: “Alexander III saved Europe many times from the horrors of war. According to his deeds, the sovereigns of Europe should learn how to manage their peoples.

He was married to the daughter of the Danish king Christian IX Dagmar of Denmark (Maria Feodorovna). They had children:

• Nicholas II (May 18, 1868 - July 17, 1918),
• Alexander (May 20, 1869 – April 21, 1870),
• Georgy Alexandrovich (April 27, 1871 - June 28, 1899),
• Xenia Alexandrovna (April 6, 1875 - April 20, 1960, London), also Romanova by her husband,
• Mikhail Alexandrovich (December 5, 1878 - June 13, 1918),
• Olga Alexandrovna (June 13, 1882 - November 24, 1960).

He had a military rank - general of infantry, general of cavalry (Russian Imperial Army). The Emperor was of enormous stature.

In 1883, the so-called "coronation ruble" was issued in honor of the coronation of Alexander III.

Accession to the throne. After the death on March 1, 1881 of Alexander II from a terrorist bomb, his son Alexander III Alexandrovich took the throne. He was the second son of Alexander II and was originally intended for military service. At the age of 18, he already had the rank of colonel.
Initially, the eldest son of Alexander II, Nikolai Alexandrovich, was the heir to the throne. But in 1865 in Nice he died of kidney disease. The second son, twenty-year-old Alexander, was urgently prepared for the throne. The upbringing of Alexander Alexandrovich took place under the general supervision of Adjutant General B.A. Perovsky, education was headed by Professor of Moscow University A.I. Chivilev, a specialist in political economy. Russian and German languages, history and geography were taught to him by the famous academician Ya.P. Grotto. He was the first to instill in Alexander a love for his native history and culture. Then the famous scientist S.M. taught history. Solovyov. After that, the Tsarevich's love for his native history was finally formed. None of the predecessors of Alexander III was engaged in the study of native history and culture as much as Alexander III. Jurisprudence was taught to the Grand Duke by a famous scientist, professor of civil law K.P. Pobedonostsev . After finishing teaching the course K.P. Pobedonostsev was appointed Chief Procurator of the Synod. Captain M.I. taught tactics and military history to Alexander Alexandrovich. Dragomirov, later a general and one of the founders of the national military theory. In general, Alexander Alexandrovich received a fundamental education.
In 1866, the crown prince married the daughter of the Danish king, Dagmar, who was named Maria Feodorovna in Orthodoxy. It was originally intended for the first son of Alexander II, Nikolai Alexandrovich. The death of the heir shocked his fiancee Dagmar and his brother Alexander. But at the deathbed of Nicholas, both met their fate. Both will carry the admiration for the memory of Nikolai through their whole lives and they will name their eldest son after him.
Alexander III was well educated, hardworking, intelligent. Great growth and good health allowed him to break horseshoes. His favorite food was Guryev porridge, his favorite pastime was fishing. "Europe can wait while the Russian emperor fishes," he once said, wanting to emphasize Russia's weight and importance in world politics.
On March 1, 1881, he ascended the throne. He inherited a heavy legacy. After the comprehensive reforms of the 60-70s. and the Russian-Turkish war of 1877 - 1878. the country's finances were upset, economic development slowed down, and stagnation was observed in agriculture. The peasantry everywhere showed dissatisfaction with the reform carried out, tension grew in society, murders and attempts on the lives of statesmen were constantly taking place.
But Alexander III immediately took matters of government into his firm hand.
On March 2, 1881, he swore allegiance to the Council of State and declared that in politics he would follow his father's precepts. In 1881, under Alexander II, the Minister of the Interior M.T. Loris-Melikov developed a project for the introduction of representatives of zemstvo and city institutions into government commissions for the development of bills. This project immediately began to be called the "constitution" at the court. On the morning of his death, Alexander II generally approved this project, and a discussion of this project was scheduled for March 4 at a meeting of the Council of Ministers. Due to the assassination of the emperor, the meeting of the Council of Ministers was postponed to March 8. Immediately after the death of his father, Alexander III told M.T. Loris-Melikov: "Do not change anything in the orders of the father. They will be his testament." But on March 6, the emperor received a letter from the chief prosecutor of the Synod, K.P. Pobedonostsev, in which he called for abandoning the liberal course of Alexander II. "It will be the death of both Russia and yours," K.P. Pobedonostsev. The chief prosecutor of the Synod by this time had become the main adviser to Alexander III. The king valued his opinion.
On March 8, 1881, a meeting of the Council of Ministers was held under the chairmanship of Alexander III, at which the question of the further direction of domestic policy was discussed. M.T. Loris-Melikov insisted on the approval of his project. He was supported by the Minister of War D.A. Milyutin and Minister of Finance A.A. Abaza. Their main opponent was K.P. Pobedonostsev. He called for abandoning the policy of liberal reforms, arguing that Russia would perish, as great Poland had once perished. Save Russia only unlimited autocracy. Reforms and concessions only undermine the state. The project of the Minister of Internal Affairs is an attempt to "arrange an all-Russian supreme talking shop." MPs will not express the opinion of the country. It is necessary not to carry out reforms, but to repent, since the body of a liberal-minded sovereign has not yet been buried.
The chief prosecutor's speech made a strong impression on those present. Alexander III began to hesitate. Project M.T. Loris-Melikova was referred to the Special Commission for consideration, but it never met. Alexander III hesitated for about a month, then sided with K.P. Pobedonostsev. All prominent terrorists of the "Narodnaya Volya" who participated in the assassination of Alexander II were arrested. And then, by a court verdict in April 1881, they were hanged.
On April 29, 1881, Alexander III issued a manifesto "On the inviolability of autocracy", prepared by K.P. Pobedonostsev. (See Supplementary Textbook) The manifesto spoke of the new emperor's commitment to the principles of unlimited autocracy, and formulated the basic principles of the government's domestic and foreign policy. In the field of domestic policy, "Russia for the Russians" became the main slogan; in foreign policy, the emperor was guided by the principle of maintaining peace with all states.
The next day, liberal-minded M.T. Loris-Melikov, A.A. Abaza, D.A. Milyutin submitted a letter of resignation to the tsar. The resignation was accepted. Soon, the composition of government officials was updated by the tsar's manifesto. Conservative-minded D.A. came to the government. Tolstoy, V.P. Meshchersky, G.S. Stroganov and others. The priority measures of the government were aimed at preventing the revolution.
N.P. was appointed Minister of the Interior. Ignatiev, former ambassador to Turkey. The new minister tried to combine police and administrative measures to eradicate "sedition" with the liberal course of M.T. Loris-Melikova. On August 14, 1881, he issued the "Regulations on Measures for the Preservation of State Order and Public Peace." Initially, the provision extended to the territory of 10 provinces in full and 2 in part. According to this decree, any locality could be declared in a state of emergency. The governors received the right to arrest under administrative procedure for up to 3 months, to fine from 500 to 5000 rubles, to refer the case to a military court, to confiscate property. Censorship was activated. The local administration could close educational institutions, trade and industrial enterprises, suspend the activities of zemstvos and city dumas, and close the press. In 1882, an interdepartmental commission was created to work out measures to strengthen supervision of the youth. At the same time, measures were taken to improve the economic situation of the peasants. In 1881 N.P. Ignatiev instructed his assistant M.S. Kakhanov to develop a local government reform aimed at expanding the powers of local governments. An important step in the political transformation of Russia N.P. Ignatiev considered the convocation of the deliberative Zemsky Sobor as a form of interaction between the emperor and the people, historically inherent in Russia. Secret from K.P. Pobedonostseva N.P. Ignatiev developed a project for convening a Zemsky Sobor and presented it to the emperor. On May 27, 1882, the Zemsky Sobor was supposed to open for the coronation of Alexander III and demonstrate the unity of the people with the emperor. However, the project of N.P. Ignatiev received a sharp assessment from K.P. Pobedonostsev, and N.P. Ignatiev on May 30, 1882 received his resignation.
After that, the domestic policy of Alexander III became more and more conservative and protective. In the 80s - early 90s. in the field of education, the press, local government, courts and confessional politics, a series of legislative acts followed, which earlier in the scientific research and educational literature were not quite successfully defined as "counter-reforms". In fact, the government took a number of measures aimed at limiting the nature and effect of the reforms of the 60s and 70s. There was an adjustment of the liberal course of Alexander II, taking into account Russian realities.

Censorship policy. After the resignation of N.P. Ignatiev, D.A. became the Minister of Internal Affairs. Tolstoy. At the same time, he was appointed chief of the gendarmes. On August 27, 1882, new "Provisional Rules on the Press" were approved. The government created a Special Conference of four ministers - internal affairs, justice, public education and the chief prosecutor of the Synod, which established strict administrative supervision over newspapers and magazines. From now on, editors, at the request of the Minister of the Interior, had to report the names of the authors of articles published under pseudonyms. Any printed organ after a three-fold warning could be closed by the decision of the Special Meeting. In 1883 - 1884. all radical and many liberal-minded publications were closed. In particular, "Domestic notes" by M.E. were closed. Saltykov - Shchedrin. Magazine "Delo" N.V. Shelgunov, the newspapers "Voice", "Moscow Telegraph", "Zemstvo", "Strana" themselves stopped their publications. The government provided support and subsidized "right" publications, in particular, the newspaper "Moskovskie Vedomosti" M.N. Katkova, "Citizen" V.P. Meshchersky.

Government policy in the field of education. In 1884, the liberal university charter was abolished, which allowed the election of rectors, deans, professors and granted autonomy to universities. The appointment of rectors and professors by the Minister of Education was introduced. When appointing to a position, more attention was paid to the political reliability of applicants. Supervision of the behavior of students was organized, uniforms were reintroduced. For admission to the university, a characteristic of the school was required, as well as a certificate from the police about the reliability of the university applicant. Tuition fees at universities increased from 10 rubles. up to 50 rubles in year. In case of disobedience, the student was expelled from the university, and he found himself under the law on universal military service in the army as a private. A number of professors who promoted revolutionary ideas were fired from universities: lawyer S.A. Muromtsev, sociologist M.M. Kovalevsky, philologist F.G. Mishchenko, historian V.I. Semevsky and others. In 1882 - 1883. Women's higher education was practically eliminated: higher women's courses were closed in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kyiv, and Kazan. Activity was resumed only in 1889. Bestuzhev women's courses in St. Petersburg. Parish schools were transferred to the jurisdiction of the Synod. In 1887, a circular was issued, called the decree "on the cook's children." The circular ordered not to accept in the gymnasium "the children of coachmen, lackeys, laundresses, small shopkeepers and the like, whose children, with the exception of perhaps gifted with extraordinary abilities, should not at all be taken out of the environment to which they belong." Gymnasium tuition fees increased sharply. Real schools were transformed into technical schools, the completion of which did not give the right to enter the university.

Introduction of the institute of zemstvo chiefs. The government has taken steps to strengthen state power in the field. In 1889, the "Regulations on zemstvo district chiefs" were published, according to which 2,200 zemstvo sections were created in 40 provinces of Russia, headed by zemstvo chiefs. Zemsky chiefs were appointed by the Minister of the Interior on the proposal of the governors and provincial marshals of the nobility from local hereditary nobles - landowners. The Zemstvo chief was endowed with the broadest rights and completely controlled the life of the village entrusted to him. He could cancel any decision of the gathering, received the right to trial the peasants, at his own discretion he could subject the peasant to corporal punishment, arrest him without any trial for up to 3 days and fine him up to 6 rubles, gave permission for the division of the family, for the redistribution of land. The zemstvo chief also appointed members of the volost court from the candidates proposed by the peasants, could cancel any decision of the volost court, and arrest the judges themselves, subject them to corporal punishment, and fine them. Decrees and decisions of zemstvo chiefs were considered final and not subject to appeal. The position of zemstvo chiefs was introduced in order to bring government power closer to the people.

Changes in the field of local government and courts. In the zemstvo and city local governments created as a result of the reforms of Alexander II, soon - at the turn of the 70s - 80s - liberal sentiments prevailed. Zemstvos basically stood in opposition to the government. Increasingly, zemstvo leaders came forward with constitutional claims. The government began to take measures to limit the effect of the urban and zemstvo reforms of Alexander II.
The government tried to strengthen the role of the nobility in the zemstvos and limit the representation of non-noble elements in them, limit the competence of the zemstvos and put the zemstvos under strict government control. In 1890, a new "Regulations on provincial and zemstvo institutions" was approved. It retained the principle of estates and electiveness of zemstvos. Landowning curia , on which all landowners previously ran, now became only the curia of the nobles - landowners. For the nobles, the electoral qualification was halved, the number of vowels in the landowning curia increased even more, and accordingly the number of vowels in other curia - urban and rural - decreased. Peasants were actually deprived of zemstvo representation. Now they could only choose candidates for zemstvo vowels, and this list was considered by the district congress of zemstvo chiefs. According to the approval of this congress, the governor approved the vowels. The electoral qualification for the city curia increased sharply, as a result of which more than half of the city residents were deprived of the right to participate in elections to the zemstvos. At the same time, the government went to limit the rights of zemstvos. Now the activities of the zemstvos were placed under the strict control of the local administration. From now on, the governor could cancel any resolution of the zemstvo and submit any issue for consideration by the zemstvo, based on the principle of expediency.
In 1892, a new "City Regulation" was issued, which limited the electoral rights of the urban population. The electoral qualification was significantly increased, as a result of which the petty bourgeoisie, small merchants, clerks, etc., were deprived of their voting rights. As a result, the number of voters in city dumas has sharply decreased. For example, in St. Petersburg the number of voters decreased from 21,000 to 6,000, in Moscow from 23,000 to 7,000. In other cities, the number of voters decreased by 5-10 times. City dumas were also placed under the control of the local governor. Mayors and members of city councils henceforth began to be considered state officials.
The judiciary has also undergone some changes. Already in 1881, publicity in legal proceedings in political cases was significantly limited, publication of reports on political trials ceased. In 1887, a decree was issued, according to which the Minister of Justice was given the right to prohibit the public hearing of any case in court. In 1889, a decree was issued that limited the role of jurors. A number of cases were withdrawn from their jurisdiction, and the qualification for jurors was increased.

national question. The government's national policy was aimed at strengthening official Orthodoxy, at Russification of the outskirts, and at restricting the rights of some nationalities. The slogan "Russia for the Russians and the Orthodox" appeared. On the territory of Russia, the intensive construction of Orthodox churches began. During the 11 years of the reign of Alexander III, 5,000 churches were built, the most famous of them are the Church of the Resurrection of Christ on the site of the death of Alexander II, the Church of St. Vladimir Equal-to-the-Apostles in Kyiv. During the reign of Alexander III, the construction of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior was completed in memory of the deliverance of Russia from the Napoleonic invasion. In religious policy, the government began to persecute the followers of Christian non-Orthodox sects, Old Believers, and Catholics. The Buryats and Kalmyks were forbidden to build Buddhist temples. In the east of the empire, the government strongly encouraged the conversion of the local population to Orthodoxy.
The rights of Jews and Poles - Catholics were significantly constrained in their rights. Back in the 18th century for the Jews was introduced "Pale of Settlement" within which they were allowed to live. The Pale of Settlement included Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Right-bank Ukraine, Bessarabia, Chernihiv and Poltava regions. This restriction did not apply to Jewish merchants of the 1st guild, persons with higher education, artisans and soldiers. In 1882, "Provisional Rules" were issued, according to which Jews were deprived of the right to settle outside the cities and towns defined by the "Pale of Settlement", they were also prohibited from acquiring and renting real estate. In 1887, for Jews, the percentage rate for admission to higher educational institutions was determined - 3% in the capitals, 5% - outside the Pale of Settlement. Since 1889, the admission of Jews to the positions of sworn attorneys (lawyers) was suspended.
The government pursued an active policy of "russification" of Poland. Russians were appointed to all important posts in Poland, the Russian language was strongly planted in schools and in the office work of Polish administrative institutions. A number of measures were taken to further integrate the Polish economy into the Russian economy. So, in 1885, the Polish Bank was transformed into the Warsaw office of the St. Petersburg Bank. The Polish coin stopped its circulation. Support for Russian landowners began to be carried out in the Western Territory. The Noble Land Bank in the Western Territory provided loans only to Russian landowners.
Russification was carried out in the territories where the population related to the Russians lived. Thus, in Ukraine in 1881 the restriction of 1875 was confirmed, which forbade the publication of books in Ukrainian in Ukraine. As a result, the center of the Ukrainianophile movement moved to Galicia, which was part of Austria-Hungary. This led to an increase in anti-Russian sentiment in Ukraine.
In the Baltic States, the government waged a "fight against Germanization." Three Baltic provinces - Estonia, Livonia, Courland - lived a life isolated from the rest of the empire. The land here mainly belonged to the "Ostsee Germans" - the descendants of noble German and Swedish-Danish families. They occupied all important positions in the local administration, the German language dominated in educational institutions, courts. The Orthodox paid fees for the benefit of the Lutheran churches and the Lutheran clergy. Historically, in the Baltics there was a confrontation between the "Ostsee Germans" and the rest of the Latvian and Estonian population. Not only the Russians, but also the local population suffered from this "German" dominance. The government began to translate educational institutions, the judicial system, and local governments into Russian. In 1887, teaching in Russian was introduced in all higher educational institutions. This met with the approval of the local population.
At the same time, Finland's autonomy was significantly expanded. The Grand Duchy of Finland became part of the Russian Empire in 1809. By tradition, it had the widest autonomy: it had its own diet, its own troops, and its own monetary system. Under Alexander III, the Finnish Sejm received the right of legislative initiative, which it had been seeking for two decades. The official language was still Swedish, although only 5% of the population spoke it, and Finnish. Since 1890, the government began to take measures to bring Finland closer to Russia. In 1890, a manifesto was published, according to which Russian coins were introduced at post offices and railways. Under Nicholas II, the Finnish army was abolished.

economic policy of the government. In the 80s. 19th century Russia began a decline in economic growth. Therefore, from the very beginning of his reign, Alexander III set the task for the government - to bring the Russian economy out of a crisis state.
To stimulate economic growth, it was decided to attract the scientific forces of the country. Outstanding financiers, economists, lawyers, historians, lawyers, mathematicians, and statisticians were appointed to key positions in the government.

Finance. In May 1881, an outstanding scientist and economist, rector of Kyiv University, was appointed to the post of Minister of Finance N.Kh. Bunge . The country's finances were in disarray. On January 1, 1881, the state debt was 6 billion rubles. N.Kh. Bunge decided to improve the country's finances by reforming the tax collection system. In 1887, the poll tax (direct tax) was abolished in Russia. Instead, in 1881 - 1886. indirect taxes are introduced: excise taxes on vodka, sugar, tobacco, oil. The land tax was increased, from real estate in cities, from the gold mining industry, layout fees from commercial and industrial enterprises, from income from money capital, taxes were introduced on inheritance and on foreign passports. From 1882 to 1885 customs duties were increased by 30%. This automatically reduced the import of goods into Russia, but increased the import of capital. The government has refused direct financing of the majority of enterprises, the number of patronized enterprises has sharply decreased. The government continued to support strategically important industries - mining and weapons factories, locomotive building. The government strengthened state control over the turnover of railways to stop large-scale speculation, bought out the least profitable private railways. At the initiative of N.Kh. Bunge began publishing the Bulletin of Finance, Industry and Trade, where publications of the state budget began for the first time. N.Kh. Bunge opposed benefits to the local nobility, was a supporter of private capital, and advocated the reduction of the armed forces. His activities as Minister of Finance met with opposition from K.P. Pobedonostsev, was sharply criticized on the pages of conservative publications - Moskovskie Vedomosti and Grazhdanin. Measures N.H. Bunge did not eliminate the state budget deficit and inflation. On January 1, 1887, N.Kh. Bunge was fired.
The largest scientist - mathematician, entrepreneur became the Minister of Finance I.A. Vyshnegradsky. He vigorously began to eliminate the budget deficit, but going for tough measures in relation to the masses. Direct taxes were sharply increased: state land taxes, from urban real estate, trade and fishing. Indirect taxes on basic necessities were also sharply increased: on matches and lighting oils, and on drinking excise. The protectionist direction of customs policy intensified: in 1891 a new customs tariff was issued, which was already 1/3 more than the previous one. The export of bread and other foodstuffs was significantly increased. The government has established even tighter control over the activities of private railway companies. The state was even more active in buying up private railways. By 1894, the state already owned 52% of all railways. Thanks to these measures, the country's railways began to represent a single organism. I.A. Vyshnegradsky managed to increase the revenue side of the budget from 958 million to 1167 million rubles. The budget deficit was eliminated, and revenues even slightly exceeded expenditures. I.A. Vyshnegradsky created a gold reserve of more than 500 million rubles, began the preparation of a wine and tobacco monopoly. As Minister of Finance, he doubled his personal fortune and brought it up to 25 million rubles. In 1892 he was appointed Minister of Finance S.Yu. Witte .

Development of Russian industry. The government has taken important steps to attract domestic capital to the industry. In the 90s. a noticeable revival of all sectors of the economy begins, especially metallurgical, machine-building, chemical, textile, food. Industries associated with new types of fuel - coal and oil - developed rapidly. In the Donets Basin, where until 1887 there were 2 metallurgical plants, in 1887 there were already 17 of them. The oil industry in the Caucasus experienced rapid growth. In 1900, Russia ranked first in the world in oil production - 600 million poods. New methods of extraction, storage, processing of oil and oil products, which are in increasing demand all over the world, were successfully introduced here. The mining industry also successfully developed in Transcaucasia. At the enterprises created in the 1990s, large-scale production forms, advanced equipment, and the latest technologies were introduced.
During the reign of Alexander III, great attention was paid to the development of transport, especially railway. From 1880 to 1888 was built Transcaspian railway linking Central Asia with the shores of the Caspian Sea. Construction began in 1891 Siberian railway linking the center of Russia with the Far East. The laying of the Ussuri section of this route in 1891 in Vladivostok was made by the heir to the throne, Nikolai Alexandrovich. In the 90s. was put into operation Transcaucasian Railway linking Baku, Tiflis, Erivan with the cities of Central Russia. If in the 60s. 19th century the length of railways in Russia was 2 thousand miles, then by the end of the 19th century. - 53 thousand miles.
A new issue in economic policy is the labor issue. In the reign of Alexander III, the beginning of labor legislation was laid. So, the working day of young children from 12 to 15 years old was limited to 8 hours, the work of children under 12 years old was generally prohibited. A law was passed on fines, on factory inspection. Fines were regulated and could not exceed 1/3 of the salary, and the fine money had to be spent on the needs of the workers. Russian labor legislation soon outstripped that of Western Europe.

Agriculture. Agriculture continued to be a backward branch of the economy. The evolution of capitalist relations in agriculture proceeded very slowly.
After the reform of 1861, the situation of many landlord households worsened. Part of the landlords could not adapt to the new conditions and went bankrupt. The other ran the household the old fashioned way. The government was concerned about this situation and began to take measures to support the landowners' farms. In 1885, the Noble Bank was established. He issued loans to landlords for a period of 11 to 66.5 years at the rate of 4.5% per annum. In order to provide the landowners' farms with a labor force, in 1886 severe penalties were established for the departure of farm laborers from the landowner ahead of schedule.
The situation of a significant number of peasant farms worsened. Before the reform, the peasants were in the care of the landowner, after the reform they were left to their own devices. The bulk of the peasantry had neither money to purchase land nor agronomic knowledge to develop their farms. The debts of the peasants on redemption payments grew. The peasants went bankrupt, sold their land and left for the cities.
The government took measures to reduce the taxation of the peasantry. In 1881, redemption payments for land were lowered and arrears accumulated on redemption payments were forgiven for the peasants. In the same year, all temporarily liable peasants were transferred to compulsory redemption. In the countryside, the peasant community became the main problem for the government. It held back the development of capitalism in agriculture. The government had both supporters and opponents of the further preservation of the community. In 1893, a law was passed to suppress the permanent redistribution of land in the communities, as this led to an increase in tension in the countryside. In 1882, the Peasants' Bank was established. He provided the peasants on favorable terms with credits and loans for transactions with land.

• Thanks to these and other measures, new features appeared in agriculture. In the 80s. the specialization of agriculture in certain regions has noticeably increased:
• farms in the Polish and Baltic provinces switched to the production of industrial crops and milk production;
• the center of grain farming moved to the steppe regions of Ukraine, the South-East and the Lower Volga region;
• animal husbandry was developed in the Tula, Ryazan, Oryol and Nizhny Novgorod provinces.

Grain farming dominated the country. From 1861 to 1891 sown area increased by 25%. But agriculture developed mainly by extensive methods - by plowing new lands. Yields increased very slowly, the vast majority of peasants cultivated the fields using old methods, without using advanced technologies: improved varieties, fertilizers, modern equipment. Natural disasters - drought, prolonged rains, frosts - continued to lead to dire consequences. So, due to the famine of 1891-1892. over 600 thousand people died.

Development of science. During the reign of Alexander III, further development of Russian science is observed. The personal merit of the emperor was very significant in this. Local history developed actively. In the natural, technical, and mathematical sciences, original schools are being formed. The geological, geographical, mineralogical, and soil science school of V.V. Dokuchaev. In 1882, Alexander III issued a decree on the opening of the first university in Siberia in the city of Tomsk. None of the Russian rulers attached as much importance to the development of historical science as Alexander III. He was one of the initiators of the creation of the Russian Historical Society and its chairman. The emperor was an expert in Russian archeology. He encouraged the publication of the Russian Biographical Dictionary, works on the study of monuments of national history, and scientific research by individual researchers.

Foreign policy. Head of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs N.K. Gears . Experienced diplomats of the Gorchakov school remained at the head of many departments of the ministry and in the Russian embassies of the leading countries of the world.

• The main directions of the foreign policy of Alexander III:
• strengthening influence in the Balkans;
• search for allies;
• establishment of borders in the south of Central Asia;
• consolidation of Russia in the new territories of the Far East.

1. Russian policy in the Balkans. After the Berlin Congress, Austria-Hungary significantly strengthened its influence in the Balkans. Having occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina, she began to seek to extend her influence to other Balkan countries. Germany supported Austria-Hungary in its aspirations. Austria-Hungary began to try to weaken Russia's influence in the Balkans. Bulgaria became the center of the struggle between Austria-Hungary and Russia.
As a result of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. after five centuries of Turkish yoke, in 1879 Bulgaria gained its statehood. Petersburg, a constitution was drawn up for Bulgaria. In the spirit of the times, Bulgaria became a constitutional monarchy. According to the constitution, the power of the ruler of Bulgaria was somewhat limited, but the head of government was endowed with broader powers. But the Bulgarian throne was vacant. According to the Berlin Treaty of 1878, the pretender to the Bulgarian throne had to receive the approval of the Russian Tsar. On the recommendation of Alexander II, the 22-year-old Hessian prince A. Battenberg, the nephew of Empress Maria Alexandrovna, became the Prince of Bulgaria in 1879. Russia hoped that Bulgaria would become its ally. At first, the Bulgarian prince pursued a policy friendly to Russia. He put L.N. at the head of the Bulgarian government. Sobolev, appointed Russian military men to all important ministerial posts. Russian officers and generals began to actively create the Bulgarian army. Then the Bulgarian prince came under Austrian influence. In May 1881, A. Battenberg carried out a coup d'état: he abolished the constitution and became an unlimited ruler. The Bulgarian prince did not take into account the Russophile sentiments of the masses of Bulgaria and began to pursue a pro-Austrian policy. In order to keep Bulgaria under his influence, Alexander III forced A. Battenberg to restore the constitution. A. Battenberg after that became an implacable enemy of Russia.
Austria-Hungary did not leave its intention to withdraw Bulgaria from the influence of Russia and began to incite the Serbian king Milan Obrenovic to start a war against Bulgaria. In 1885, Serbia declared war on Bulgaria, but the Bulgarian army defeated the Serbs and entered the territory of Serbia.
By this time, an uprising broke out in Eastern Rumelia (Southern Bulgaria as part of Turkey) against Turkish rule. Turkish officials were expelled from Eastern Rumelia. The accession of Eastern Rumelia to Bulgaria was announced.
The unification of Bulgaria caused an acute Balkan crisis . The war between Bulgaria and Turkey, with the involvement of Russia and other countries in it, could break out at any moment. Alexander III was angry. The unification of Bulgaria took place without the knowledge of Russia, this led to the complication of Russia's relations with Turkey and Austria-Hungary. Russia suffered the heaviest human losses in the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. and was not ready for a new war. And Alexander III for the first time retreated from the traditions of solidarity with the Balkan peoples: he advocated strict observance of the articles of the Berlin Treaty. Alexander III invited Bulgaria to solve its own foreign policy problems, recalled Russian officers and generals, and did not interfere in Bulgarian-Turkish affairs. Nevertheless, the Russian ambassador to Turkey announced to the Sultan that Russia would not allow a Turkish invasion of Eastern Rumelia.
In the Balkans, Russia has turned from an opponent of Turkey into its de facto ally. Russia's positions were undermined in Bulgaria, as well as in Serbia and Romania. In 1886 diplomatic relations between Russia and Bulgaria were severed. Alexander Battenberg was forced to abdicate. In 1887, Ferdinand I, Prince of Coburg, who had previously been an officer in the Austrian service, became the new Bulgarian prince. The new Bulgarian prince understood that he was the ruler of an Orthodox country. He tried to reckon with the deep Russophile sentiments of the broad masses of the people, and even in 1894 he elected the Russian Tsar Nicholas II as godfather to his heir, son Boris. But the former officer of the Austrian army was never able to overcome "a feeling of insurmountable antipathy and a certain fear" in relation to Russia. Russia's relations with Bulgaria remained strained.
2. Search for allies. In the 80s. complicated relations between Russia and England. The clash of interests of the two European states takes place in the Balkans, Turkey, and Central Asia. At the same time, relations between Germany and France are becoming more complicated. Both states were on the brink of war with each other. In this situation, both Germany and France began to seek an alliance with Russia in case of war with each other. In 1881, German Chancellor O. Bismarck proposed that Russia and Austria-Hungary renew the "Union of Three Emperors" for six years. The essence of this alliance was that the three states pledged to comply with the decisions of the Berlin Congress, not to change the situation in the Balkans without the consent of each other and to remain neutral in relation to each other in case of war. It should be noted that the effectiveness of this union for Russia was insignificant. At the same time, O. Bismarck, secretly from Russia, in 1882 concluded the Tripartite Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) against Russia and France, which provided for the provision of military assistance by the participating countries to each other in case of hostilities with Russia or France. The conclusion of the Triple Alliance did not remain a secret for Alexander III. The Russian Tsar began to look for other allies.
In 1887, relations between Germany and France escalated to the limit. But Alexander III did not support the aggressive aspirations of Germany against France. Using family ties, he directly turned to the German Emperor Wilhelm I and kept him from attacking France. But the war between Germany and France with the aim of completely defeating the latter was in the plans of Chancellor O. Bismarck. Because of the Russians, his plans were thwarted. Then O. Bismarck decided to punish Russia and took economic measures against her. The deterioration of relations was reflected in the "customs war". In 1887, Germany did not grant a loan to Russia and increased duties on Russian bread, while at the same time it created favorable conditions for the import of American grain into Germany. In Russia, duties were increased on imported German goods: iron, coal, ammonia, steel.
In this situation, the rapprochement between Russia and France began, which was the only way for France to avoid war with Germany. In 1887, the French government provided large loans to Russia. In the summer of 1891, the French squadron arrived in Kronstadt on a "visit of friendship." French sailors were met by Alexander III himself. In 1893, the French received Russian sailors in Toulon. In 1891, the actions of Russia and France were agreed upon in case of a military threat to one of the parties, and a year later a secret military convention was signed. The Russian-French alliance became a counterbalance to the Triple Alliance concluded by Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.

Central Asian politics. In Central Asia, after the annexation of Kazakhstan, the Kokand Khanate, the Emirate of Bukhara, the Khanate of Khiva, the annexation of the Turkmen tribes continued. During the reign of Alexander III, the territory of the Russian Empire increased by 430 thousand square meters. km. This was the end of the expansion of the borders of the Russian Empire. Russia managed to avoid a military clash with England. In 1885, an agreement was signed on the creation of Russian-English military commissions to determine the final borders of Russia and Afghanistan.

Far East direction. At the end of the XIX century. Japan expanded rapidly in the Far East. Japan before the 60s 19th century was a feudal country, but in 1867 - 1868. a bourgeois revolution took place there, and the Japanese economy began to develop dynamically. With the help of Germany, Japan created a modern army, with the help of England and the United States, it actively built its fleet. At the same time, Japan pursued an aggressive policy in the Far East. In 1876, the Japanese began to take over Korea. In 1894, a war broke out between Japan and China over Korea, in which China was defeated. Korea became dependent on Japan, the Liaodong Peninsula retreated to Japan. Japan then captured Taiwan (a Chinese island) and the Penghuledao Islands. China paid a huge indemnity, the Japanese received the right to free navigation on the main Chinese Yangtze River. But Russia, Germany and France made an official protest and forced Japan to abandon the Liaodong Peninsula. Under an agreement with Russia, Japan received the right to keep troops in Korea. Japan's rival in the Far East was Russia. The war between Russia and Japan was becoming inevitable. Due to the lack of roads, the weakness of the military forces in the Far East, Russia was not ready for military clashes and tried to avoid them.
In the 80-90s of the XIX century, despite the weakening of influence in the Balkans, Russia managed to maintain the status of a great power. During the reign of Alexander III, Russia did not wage a single war. For the maintenance of European peace, Alexander III was named peacemaker.

From the first days of the reign, the domestic and foreign policy of Alexander 3 was aimed at revising the main undertakings of Alexander 2. And the main engine of this policy was D. A. Tolstoy, once a liberal bureaucrat, and now a newly minted minister of internal affairs. His actions, called "counter-reforms", aimed to strengthen the power of the king and preserve the privileges of the nobles. But although these transformations were supported by Alexander 3, his domestic policy was nevertheless represented not only by them. The emperor participated in all matters relating to his empire. Alexander 3 knew the history of Russia well, loved it, believed in the connection of ordinary people with their monarch. And at the same time, he did not want to hear about the Constitution and taking an oath to "some kind of cattle" (the people).

The internal policy of Alexander 3 as a truly "muzhik king" was aimed at improving the situation in the countryside. By carrying out activities, he sought to improve the conditions for managing the peasants. A year after ascension to the throne, he established which issued loans to both peasant associations and independent peasants for the purchase of land. The bank was also involved in the regulation of the transition to the peasants of some landowners' lands. In 1886 it was canceled and which was installed by

Also, the internal policy of Alexander 3 was manifested in the conduct of such, perhaps, the most important event as the establishment of the institute of zemstvo chiefs in 1889. From the hereditary nobles, a local zemstvo chief was chosen according to a specific educational and property criterion. He was supposed to oversee the activities of rural institutions, as well as volost ones. It was in his power to change the decision taken by the village assembly, to punish the peasant with a whip, a fine, and arrest. Moreover, the decree was not subject to appeal. That is, the police power over the peasant was restored, which was canceled by the previous ruler in 1861.

Domestic policy was actually directed in favor of the nobles. And this was once again confirmed by the next reform in 1890 (zemstvo). According to it, in the city curia, from now on, there were half as many voters, the number of peasants who had the right to participate in elections was limited, thereby ensuring the predominance of nobles in zemstvo institutions.

In 1892, a counter-reform was also carried out in the city. From now on, the city lower classes could not take part in local self-government. The property criterion has also increased significantly. As a result, even in such large cities as St. Petersburg and Moscow, only about 1% of the population participated in the elections. Such a reform was in sharp contradiction with the rapidly developing process of urbanization.

The internal policy of Alexander 3 in the direction was limited to the elimination of the irremovability of investigators and judges, narrowing the range of cases considered by jurors. However, the judicial charter was not completely changed in 1864.

The reforms of the new government also affected public education. The autonomy of the university was eliminated by the very fact of the adoption of a new university charter. Students were now required to wear uniforms. Tuition fees have gone up significantly. With the approval of I. D. Dilyanov, the Minister of Public Education, many women's courses were closed. And the children of lackeys, coachmen, laundresses and other small people were generally forbidden to be admitted to study at the gymnasium.

But all the reforms carried out as a whole did not change the political and social picture of the empire. This happened for the reason that, trying to break the social structure that had developed under Alexander 2, the new reformers acted inconsistently and contradictory in relation to the course of economic development. As a result, a deceptive impression of the inviolability of the monarchical system was created.

The domestic policy of Alexander III, who ruled in 1881-1894, was reactionary in contrast to the previous emperor, Alexander II. The government of Alexander III sought to suppress the revolutionary movement in Russia and secure the foundations of the state system. To do this, it pursued an appropriate legislative policy within the country. But, in addition, the Russian leadership supported the layers of the population loyal to the authorities - primarily the nobility. In this direction, various measures were also taken and laws were adopted. Also, Alexander III and his entourage pursued a reactionary religious policy, supporting Orthodoxy in everything. You will learn more about all this in this lesson.

Rice. 2. N.P. Ignatiev - Minister of the Interior of Russia in 1881-1882. ()

Rice. 3. D.A. Tolstoy - Minister of the Interior and chief of the gendarmes of Russia in 1882-1889. ()

Through the efforts of D.A. Tolstoy in 1884 a new university charter was introduced. According to its provisions, universities were deprived of the right of autonomy, i.e. independence. After that, the rectors and teachers were appointed by the Russian government, thereby taking control of the educational process. Very high tuition fees were introduced. In order to combat the student revolutionary movement, any student associations were prohibited. Dissatisfied people were instantly expelled from the university.

Even more clearly Alexander's domestic policyIIIwas reflected in the law "On Cook's Children" issued in 1887. Its author was the new Minister of Public Education I.D. Delyanov (Fig. 4). The essence of the law was to make as difficult as possible the process of admission of lower-class children to secondary educational institutions - gymnasiums. In addition, the curriculum in the gymnasiums changed - the emphasis was now on church education and ancient languages. The level of parochial schools also increased, although the level of education there was very low.

Rice. 4. I.D. Delyanov - Minister of Public Education of Russia in 1882-1897. ()

The general idea of ​​education laws was to limit the number of educated people in Russia, who could potentially become revolutionaries, dangerous to the authorities.

The struggle against the revolutionary movement was reflected in other areas of the life of the Russian Empire of that period. So, in 1882, the Meeting of the Four Ministers was created, headed by the Chief Procurator of the Holy Synod K.P. Pobedonostsev (Fig. 5). This state body had the right, at its own discretion, to close any printed publications that it actively used. Many printed Russian organs were closed, such as A.A. Kraevsky (Fig. 6), “Domestic Notes” by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (Fig. 7) and others.

Rice. 5. K.P. Pobedonostsev - the main ideologist of the counter-reforms of Alexander III, head of the Meeting of the Four Ministers ()

Rice. 7. Russian literary magazine "Domestic Notes" M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin ()

Another event under AlexanderIIIaimed at strengthening censorship was the purge of libraries in 1884. Of these, more than a hundred titles of books were seized, which were considered dangerous.

However, it is worth noting that the main burden of the fight against the revolutionary movement fell on the shoulders of the police departments. Already in 1881, the "Regulations on Measures to Preserve Order and State Tranquility" were published. According to this document, various state structures received greater rights in order to fight the revolutionary movement and people dangerous to the tsarist regime. For example, governors-general could declare entire regions of the country under a state of emergency. Exclusive rights were given to local authorities - the closure of educational institutions, the suspension of the publication of newspapers, the expulsion of undesirable persons without a court decision, etc. Cases of revolutionaries were transferred from the jurisdiction of civil courts to military ones. In the 1880s Gaining momentum is such a state body as the Security Department, which was in charge of political investigation and engaged in the fight against revolutionaries. The Shlisselburg prison had a special section for political prisoners (Fig. 8).

Rice. 8. Shlisselburg fortress ()

All of the above facts give reason to assume that under AlexanderIIIRussia was acquiring the features of a police state.

At the same time, the emperor considered it necessary to support those sections of the population that had established themselves as loyal to the authorities. First of all, this refers to the nobility, which suffered greatly during the time of Alexander II. To support the nobility AlexanderIIIa number of legislative measures have been taken.

So, in 1885, the State Noble Land Bank was opened, which issued special loans to the nobles for the maintenance and management of landlord farms (Fig. 9). It is also worth noting the law "On zemstvo district chiefs" of 1889. Only a nobleman who received great powers in the field could become a zemstvo chief. Including zemstvo chiefs controlled the peasant communities. They could decide on the punishment of peasants (even corporal ones) without a court decision.

Rice. 9. State Noble Land Bank in Voronezh ()

In the same spirit, the regulations on city provincial uyezd zemstvo institutions were maintained.Their goal was to promote the growth of the influence of the nobility in local governments. The property qualification for representatives of the urban class increased. For the nobles, on the contrary, it decreased. Thus, the advantage of the nobles in various self-government bodies increased.

A number of other measures have also been taken. For example, vowels from the peasant class were now obligatorily approved by the governor. Members of councils and mayors became state officials. All these measures made local governments under the control of the state.

The policy of Alexander should also be recognized as reactionary.III in religious matters. Largely thanks to K.P. Pobedonostsev significantly strengthened the position of the Orthodox Church to the detriment of others. So, during the reign of Alexander III, the persecution of Buddhists - Buryats and Kalmyks - began; Catholics - Poles; Jews who professed Judaism. This was done through various restrictions: a ban on the purchase of private property, bans on education and government positions, etc. At the same time, if a representative of another religious community converted to Orthodoxy, all such restrictions were removed from him. However, the state closely monitored the new converts and severely punished them if they deviated from the principles of Orthodoxy.

In general, it should be noted that such a policy was carried out with the aim of Russifying the outskirts of the Russian Empire. It was believed that in this way the state would maintain its unity.

In general, the reign of Alexander III is the time when the Russian government resolutely abandoned the reforms initiated by Alexander II. This was done for the sole purpose of preserving autocracy.

Bibliography

1. Bokhanov A.N. Emperor Alexander III. - M., 2001.
2. Lazukova N.N., Zhuravleva O.N. Russian history. 8th grade. - M.: "Ventana-Count", 2013.
3. Lyashenko L.M. Russian history. 8th grade. - M .: "Drofa", 2012.
4. Troitsky N. Counter-reforms 1889-1892. Preparation, Content of counter-reforms, Consequences // Russia in the 19th century: Course of lectures. - M.: Higher. school, 1997.
5. Chernukha V.G. Alexander III // Alexander the Third. Diaries. Memories. Letters. - SPb., 2001.

1. Akeksander 3.ru ().
2. Az.lib.ru().
3. Studopedia.ru ().

Homework

1. What are the main methods of struggle of the government of Alexander III against the revolution. What laws were passed in this direction and what did they lead to?
2. How did the state under Alexander III support the strata of the population loyal to the authorities? What measures were taken for this and what laws were adopted in this direction?
3. What was the religious policy aimed at under Alexander III?