The International Space Station is the result of the joint work of specialists from a number of fields from sixteen countries of the world (Russia, the USA, Canada, Japan, the states that are members of the European community). The grandiose project, which in 2013 celebrated the fifteenth anniversary of the start of its implementation, embodies all the achievements of the technical thought of our time. An impressive part of the material about the near and far space and some terrestrial phenomena and processes of scientists is provided by the international space station. The ISS, however, was not built in one day; its creation was preceded by almost thirty years of astronautical history.

How it all began

The predecessors of the ISS were Soviet technicians and engineers. Work on the Almaz project began at the end of 1964. Scientists were working on a manned orbital station, which could accommodate 2-3 astronauts. It was assumed that "Diamond" will serve for two years and all this time will be used for research. According to the project, the main part of the complex was the OPS - manned orbital station. It housed the working areas of the crew members, as well as the household compartment. The OPS was equipped with two hatches for spacewalks and dropping special capsules with information to Earth, as well as a passive docking station.

The efficiency of the station is largely determined by its energy reserves. The developers of Almaz found a way to increase them many times over. The delivery of astronauts and various cargo to the station was carried out by transport supply ships (TKS). They, among other things, were equipped with an active docking system, a powerful energy resource, and an excellent traffic control system. TKS was able to supply the station with energy for a long time, as well as manage the entire complex. All subsequent similar projects, including the international space station, were created using the same method of saving OPS resources.

First

Rivalry with the United States forced Soviet scientists and engineers to work as quickly as possible, so another orbital station, Salyut, was created in the shortest possible time. She was taken into space in April 1971. The basis of the station is the so-called working compartment, which includes two cylinders, small and large. Inside the smaller diameter there was a control center, sleeping places and recreation areas, storage and eating. The larger cylinder contained scientific equipment, simulators, which no such flight can do without, as well as a shower cabin and a toilet isolated from the rest of the room.

Each next Salyut was somehow different from the previous one: it was equipped with the latest equipment, had design features that corresponded to the development of technology and knowledge of that time. These orbital stations marked the beginning of a new era in the study of space and terrestrial processes. "Salutes" were the base on which a large amount of research was carried out in the field of medicine, physics, industry and agriculture. It is also difficult to overestimate the experience of using the orbital station, which was successfully applied during the operation of the next manned complex.

"World"

The process of accumulating experience and knowledge was a long one, the result of which was the international space station. "Mir" - a modular manned complex - its next stage. The so-called block principle of creating a station was tested on it, when for some time the main part of it increases its technical and research power through the addition of new modules. It will subsequently be “borrowed” by the international space station. Mir became a model of our country's technical and engineering prowess and actually provided it with one of the leading roles in the creation of the ISS.

Work on the construction of the station began in 1979, and it was delivered into orbit on February 20, 1986. During the entire existence of the Mir, various studies were carried out on it. The necessary equipment was delivered as part of additional modules. The Mir station allowed scientists, engineers and researchers to gain invaluable experience in using this scale. In addition, it has become a place of peaceful international interaction: in 1992, an Agreement on Cooperation in Space was signed between Russia and the United States. It actually began to be implemented in 1995, when the American Shuttle went to the Mir station.

Completion of the flight

The Mir station has become the site of a variety of studies. Here they analyzed, refined and opened data in the field of biology and astrophysics, space technology and medicine, geophysics and biotechnology.

The station ended its existence in 2001. The reason for the decision to flood it was the development of an energy resource, as well as some accidents. Various versions of the object's rescue were put forward, but they were not accepted, and in March 2001 the Mir station was submerged in the waters of the Pacific Ocean.

Creation of the international space station: preparatory stage

The idea of ​​creating the ISS arose at a time when no one had yet thought of flooding the Mir. The indirect reason for the emergence of the station was the political and financial crisis in our country and economic problems in the United States. Both powers realized their inability to cope alone with the task of creating an orbital station. In the early nineties, a cooperation agreement was signed, one of the points of which was the international space station. The ISS as a project united not only Russia and the United States, but also, as already noted, fourteen more countries. Simultaneously with the selection of participants, the approval of the ISS project took place: the station will consist of two integrated units, American and Russian, and will be completed in orbit in a modular way similar to Mir.

"Dawn"

The first international space station began its existence in orbit in 1998. On November 20, with the help of a Proton rocket, a Russian-made functional cargo block Zarya was launched. It became the first segment of the ISS. Structurally, it was similar to some of the modules of the Mir station. It is interesting that the American side proposed to build the ISS directly in orbit, and only the experience of Russian colleagues and the example of Mir persuaded them towards the modular method.

Inside, Zarya is equipped with various instruments and equipment, docking, power supply, and control. An impressive amount of equipment, including fuel tanks, radiators, cameras and solar panels, is located on the outside of the module. All external elements are protected from meteorites by special screens.

Module by module

On December 5, 1998, the Endeavor shuttle with the American Unity docking module headed for Zarya. Two days later, the Unity was docked to the Zarya. Further, the international space station “acquired” the Zvezda service module, which was also manufactured in Russia. Zvezda was a modernized base unit of the Mir station.

The docking of the new module took place on July 26, 2000. From that moment on, Zvezda took over control of the ISS, as well as all life support systems, and it became possible for the cosmonaut team to stay permanently on the station.

Transition to manned mode

The first crew of the International Space Station was delivered by Soyuz TM-31 on November 2, 2000. It included V. Shepherd - the expedition commander, Yu. Gidzenko - the pilot, - the flight engineer. From that moment, a new stage in the operation of the station began: it switched to a manned mode.

Composition of the second expedition: James Voss and Susan Helms. She changed her first crew in early March 2001.

and earthly phenomena

The International Space Station is a venue for various activities. The task of each crew is, among other things, to collect data on some space processes, study the properties of certain substances under weightless conditions, and so on. Scientific research carried out on the ISS can be presented in the form of a generalized list:

• observation of various remote space objects;
• study of cosmic rays;
• observation of the Earth, including the study of atmospheric phenomena;
• study of the features of physical and bioprocesses under weightlessness;
• testing of new materials and technologies in outer space;
• medical research, including the creation of new drugs, testing of diagnostic methods in weightlessness;
• production of semiconductor materials.

Future

Like any other object subjected to such a heavy load and so intensively exploited, the ISS will sooner or later cease to function at the required level. Initially, it was assumed that its “shelf life” would end in 2016, that is, the station was given only 15 years. However, already from the first months of its operation, assumptions began to sound that this period was somewhat underestimated. Today, hopes are expressed that the international space station will operate until 2020. Then, probably, the same fate awaits her as the Mir station: the ISS will be flooded in the waters of the Pacific Ocean.

Today, the international space station, the photo of which is presented in the article, successfully continues to orbit around our planet. From time to time in the media you can find references to new research done on board the station. The ISS is also the only object of space tourism: only at the end of 2012 it was visited by eight amateur astronauts.

It can be assumed that this type of entertainment will only gain strength, since the Earth from space is a bewitching view. And no photograph can be compared with the opportunity to contemplate such beauty from the window of the international space station.

Forerunner: Salyut-7 long-term orbital station with Soyuz T-14 docked (from below)

Rocket "Proton-K" - the main carrier that delivered into orbit all the modules of the station, except for the docking

1993: Progress M truck approaching the station. Shooting from the neighboring manned spacecraft "Soyuz TM"

"Mir" at the top of its development: the basic module and 6 additional

Visitors: American shuttle docked at Mir station

Bright finale: the wreckage of the station falls into the Pacific Ocean

In general, “Mir” is a civil name. This station became the eighth in the Salyut series of Soviet long-term orbital stations (DOS), which performed both research and defense tasks. The first Salyut was launched in 1971 and worked in orbit for half a year; quite successful were the launches of the Salyut-4 stations (about 2 years of operation) and Salyut-7 (1982-1991). Salyut-9 is currently operating as part of the ISS. But the most famous and, without exaggeration, legendary was the Salyut-8 station of the third generation, which became famous under the name Mir.

The development of the station took about 10 years and was carried out by two legendary enterprises of the Soviet and now Russian cosmonautics at once: RSC Energia and the Khrunichev State Research and Production Center. The main project for Mir was the Salyut-7 DOS project, which was modernized, equipped with new docking units, a control system ... In addition to the head designers, the creation of this wonder of the world required the participation of more than a hundred enterprises and institutions. The digital equipment here was Soviet and consisted of two Argon-16 computers that could be reprogrammed from Earth. The energy system was updated and became more powerful, a new Electron water electrolysis system was used to produce oxygen, and communication was to be carried out through a repeater satellite.

The main carrier was also chosen, which should ensure the delivery of the station modules into orbit - the Proton rocket. These heavy 700-ton rockets are so successful that, having first launched in 1973, they made their last flight only in 2000, and today the upgraded Proton-Ms are in service. Those old rockets were capable of lifting over 20 tons of payload into low orbit. For the modules of the Mir station, this turned out to be completely enough.

The basic module of DOS "Mir" was sent into orbit on February 20, 1986. Years later, when the station was equipped with additional modules, together with a pair of docked ships, its weight exceeded 136 tons, and its length in the longest dimension was almost 40 m.

The design of the Mir is organized precisely around this base unit with six docking nodes - this gives the principle of modularity, which is also implemented on the modern ISS and allows assembling stations of quite impressive size in orbit. Following the launch of the Mir base unit into space, 5 additional modules and one additional improved docking compartment were connected to it.

The base unit was launched into orbit by the Proton launch vehicle on February 20, 1986. Both in size and design, it largely repeats the previous Salyut stations. Its main part is a completely sealed working compartment, where the station controls and a communication point are located. There were also 2 single cabins for the crew, a common wardroom (it is also a kitchen and a dining room) with a treadmill and an exercise bike. A highly directional antenna outside the module was connected to a repeater satellite, which already provided the reception and transmission of information from the Earth. The second part of the module is the modular one, where the propulsion system, fuel tanks are located and there is a docking station for one additional module. The base module also had its own power supply system, including 3 solar panels (2 of them rotated and 1 fixed) - naturally, they were already mounted during the flight. Finally, the third part is the transition compartment, which served as a gateway for spacewalks and included a set of the very docking nodes to which additional modules were attached.

The Kvant astrophysical module appeared on Mir on April 9, 1987. Module weight: 11.05 tons, maximum dimensions - 5.8 x 4.15 m. It was he who occupied the only docking unit of the aggregate block on the base module. "Quantum" consists of two compartments: a sealed, air-filled laboratory and a block of equipment located in an airless space. Cargo ships could dock to it, and there is a couple of its own solar panels. And most importantly, a set of instruments for various studies, including biotechnological ones, was installed here. However, the main specialization of Kvant is the study of distant X-ray sources of radiation.

Unfortunately, the X-ray complex located here, like the entire Kvant module, was rigidly attached to the station and could not change its position relative to the Mir. This means that in order to change the direction of X-ray sensors and explore new areas of the celestial sphere, it was necessary to change the position of the entire station - and this is fraught with unfavorable placement of solar panels, and other difficulties. In addition, the station’s orbit itself is located at such an altitude that twice during its orbit around the Earth it passes through radiation belts that are quite capable of “blinding” sensitive X-ray sensors, which is why they had to be turned off periodically. As a result, "X-ray" rather quickly studied everything that was available to him, and then for several years turned on only brief sessions. However, despite all these difficulties, many important observations were made thanks to the X-ray.

The 19-ton Kvant-2 retrofit module was docked on December 6, 1989. A lot of additional equipment for the station and its inhabitants was located here, and a new spacesuit storage was located here. In particular, gyroscopes, motion control and power supply systems, installations for oxygen production and water regeneration, household appliances, and new scientific equipment were placed on Kvant-2. To do this, the module is divided into three sealed compartments: instrument-cargo, instrument-scientific and airlock.

The large docking and technological module "Kristall" (weight - almost 19 tons) was attached to the station in 1990. Due to the failure of one of the orienting engines, the docking took place only on the second attempt. It was planned that the main task of the module would be the docking of the Soviet Buran reusable spacecraft, but for obvious reasons this did not happen. (You can read more about the sad fate of this wonderful project in the article "Soviet Shuttle".) However, Kristall successfully completed other tasks. It worked out technologies for obtaining new materials, semiconductors and biologically active substances in microgravity. The American shuttle Atlantis docked to it.

In January 1994, Kristall became a participant in a “transport accident”: leaving the Mir station, the Soyuz TM-17 spacecraft turned out to be so overloaded with “souvenirs” from orbit that, due to reduced controllability, it collided a couple of times with this module. The worst thing is that there was a crew on the Soyuz, which was under the control of automation. The astronauts urgently had to switch to manual control, but the impact occurred, and fell on the descent vehicle. If it had been even a little stronger, thermal insulation could have been damaged, and the astronauts would hardly have returned alive from orbit. Fortunately, everything worked out, and the event was the first ever collision in space.

The Spektr geophysical module was docked in 1995 and carried out environmental monitoring of the Earth, its atmosphere, land surface and ocean. This one-piece capsule is quite impressive in size and weighs 17 tons. The development of Spektr was completed back in 1987, but the project was “frozen” for several years due to well-known economic difficulties. To complete it, I had to turn to the help of American colleagues - and the module also took over NASA medical equipment. With the help of Spektr, the Earth's natural resources and processes in the upper layers of the atmosphere were studied. Here, together with the Americans, some biomedical research was also carried out, and in order to be able to work with samples, taking them into outer space, it was planned to install the Pelican manipulator on the outer surface.

However, an accident interrupted the work ahead of schedule: in June 1997, the Progress M-34 unmanned spacecraft that arrived at Mir went off course and damaged the module. There was a depressurization, the solar panels were partially destroyed, and the Spektr was decommissioned. It is also good that the station crew managed to quickly close the hatch leading from the base module to the Spektr and thereby save both their lives and the operation of the station as a whole.

A small additional docking module was installed in the same 1995 specifically so that American shuttles could visit the Mir, and adapted to the appropriate standards.

The last in the order of launch is the 18.6-ton scientific module "Nature". It, like Spektr, was intended for joint geophysical and medical research, materials science, the study of cosmic radiation, and processes occurring in the Earth's atmosphere with other countries. This module was a one-piece hermetic compartment where instruments and cargo were located. Unlike other large additional modules, Priroda did not have its own solar panels: it was powered by 168 lithium batteries. And here it was not without problems: right before docking, there was a failure in the power supply system, and the module lost half of the power supply. This meant that there was only one attempt at docking: without solar panels, it was impossible to make up for the losses. Fortunately, everything went well, and Priroda became part of the station on April 26, 1996.

The first people at the station were Leonid Kizim and Vladimir Solovyov, who arrived at Mir on the Soyuz T-15 spacecraft. By the way, on the same expedition, the cosmonauts managed to “look” at the Salyut-7 station that was then in orbit, becoming not only the first on the Mir, but also the last on the Salyut.

From the spring of 1986 to the summer of 1999, the station was visited by about 100 cosmonauts not only from the USSR and Russia, but also from many countries of the then socialist camp, and from all the leading "countries of capitalism" (USA, Japan, Germany, Great Britain, France , Austria). Continuously "Mir" was inhabited for a little over 10 years. Many found themselves here more than once, and Anatoly Solovyov visited the station as many as 5 times.

For 15 years of work, 27 manned Soyuz, 18 Progress automatic trucks and 39 Progress-M flew to Mir. More than 70 spacewalks were made from the station with a total duration of 352 hours. In fact, the "Mir" has become a storehouse of records for the national cosmonautics. An absolute record for the duration of stay in space is set here - continuous (Valery Polyakov, 438 days) and total (aka, 679 days). About 23 thousand scientific experiments were delivered.

Despite various difficulties, the station worked three times longer than the expected service life. In the end, the burden of accumulated problems became too high - and the end of the 1990s was not the time when Russia had the financial means to support such an expensive project. March 23, 2001 "Mir" was sunk in the non-navigable part of the Pacific Ocean. The wreckage of the station fell in the area of ​​the Fiji Islands. The station remained not only in memories, but also in astronomical atlases: one of the objects of the Main asteroid belt, Mirstation, was named after it.

Finally, let's remember how the creators of Hollywood science fiction films like to portray the "World" as a rusty tin can with an eternally drunk and feral astronaut on board ... Apparently, it happens so simply out of envy: until now, no other country in the world is not only incapable, but even did not dare to take on a space project of this magnitude and complexity. Both China and the United States have similar developments, but so far no one is capable of creating their own station, and even - alas! - Russia.

On February 20, 1986, the first module of the Mir station was launched into orbit, which for many years became a symbol of Soviet and then Russian space exploration. For more than ten years it has not existed, but the memory of it will remain in history. And today we will tell you about the most significant facts and events related to the Mir orbital station.

base unit

The BB base unit is the first component of the Mir space station. It was assembled in April 1985, since May 12, 1985 it has been subjected to numerous tests on the assembly stand. As a result, the unit has been significantly improved, especially its on-board cable system.
On February 20, 1986, this “foundation” of the station was similar in size and appearance to the orbital stations of the series " Salyut", as it is based on the Salyut-6 and Salyut-7 projects. At the same time, there were many cardinal differences, which included more powerful solar panels and advanced, at that time, computers.
The basis was a sealed working compartment with a central control post and communications facilities. Comfort for the crew was provided by two individual cabins and a common wardroom with a work table, devices for heating water and food. Nearby was a treadmill and a bicycle ergometer. A portable lock chamber was mounted in the wall of the case. On the outer surface of the working compartment there were 2 rotary panels of solar batteries and a fixed third one, mounted by the cosmonauts during the flight. In front of the working compartment there is a sealed transitional compartment capable of serving as a gateway for spacewalks. It had five docking ports to connect with transport ships and science modules. Behind the working compartment is an unpressurized aggregate compartment. It contains a propulsion system with fuel tanks. In the middle of the compartment there is a hermetic transition chamber ending in a docking station, to which the Kvant module was connected during the flight.
The base module had two aft thrusters that were designed specifically for orbital maneuvers. Each engine was capable of pushing 300 kg. However, after the Kvant-1 module arrived at the station, both engines could not fully function, since the aft port was busy. Outside the aggregate compartment, on a rotary rod, there was a highly directional antenna that provides communication through a relay satellite in geostationary orbit.
The main purpose of the Basic Module was to provide conditions for the life of astronauts on board the station. The astronauts could watch films that were delivered to the station, read books - the station had an extensive library

"Quantum-1"

In the spring of 1987, the Kvant-1 module was launched into orbit. It has become a kind of space station for Mir. Docking with Kvant was one of the first emergency situations for Mir. In order to securely attach Kvant to the complex, the cosmonauts had to make an unplanned spacewalk. Structurally, the module was a single pressurized compartment with two hatches, one of which is a working port for receiving transport ships. Around it was located a complex of astrophysical instruments, mainly for the study of X-ray sources inaccessible to observations from the Earth. On the outer surface, the cosmonauts mounted two attachment points for rotary reusable solar panels, as well as a working platform where large-sized trusses were mounted. At the end of one of them was located a remote propulsion system (VDU).

The main parameters of the Quant module are as follows:
Weight, kg 11050
Length, m 5.8
Maximum diameter, m 4.15
Volume under atmospheric pressure, cu. m 40
Solar panel area, sq. m 1
Output power, kW 6

The Kvant-1 module was divided into two sections: a laboratory filled with air, and equipment placed in an unpressurized airless space. The laboratory room, in turn, was divided into a compartment for instruments and a living compartment, which were separated by an internal partition. The laboratory compartment was connected to the premises of the station through an airlock. In the department, not filled with air, voltage stabilizers were located. The astronaut can control observations from a room inside the module filled with air at atmospheric pressure. This 11-ton module contained astrophysical instruments, a life support system, and altitude control equipment. The quantum also allowed for biotechnological experiments in the field of antiviral drugs and fractions.

The complex of scientific equipment of the X-ray observatory was controlled by commands from the Earth, however, the mode of operation of scientific instruments was determined by the peculiarities of the operation of the Mir station. The near-earth orbit of the station was low apogee (height above the earth's surface is about 400 km) and almost circular, with a period of revolution of 92 minutes. The plane of the orbit is inclined to the equator by approximately 52°; therefore, twice during the period the station passed through the radiation belts - high-latitude regions where the Earth's magnetic field retains charged particles with energies sufficient for registration by the sensitive detectors of the observatory's instruments. Due to the high background they created during the passage of the radiation belts, the complex of scientific instruments was always turned off.

Another feature was the rigid connection of the "Kvant" module with the other blocks of the "Mir" complex (astrophysical instruments of the module are directed towards the -Y axis). Therefore, the aiming of scientific instruments at sources of cosmic radiation was carried out by turning the entire station, as a rule, with the help of electromechanical gyrodines (gyroscopes). However, the station itself must be oriented in a certain way with respect to the Sun (usually the position is maintained with the -X axis towards the Sun, sometimes with the +X axis), otherwise the energy production by solar panels will decrease. In addition, station turns at large angles led to an inefficient consumption of the working fluid, especially in recent years, when modules docked to the station gave it significant moments of inertia due to its 10-meter length in a cruciform configuration.

In March 1988, the star sensor of the TTM telescope failed, as a result of which information about the pointing of astrophysical instruments during observations ceased to arrive. However, this breakdown did not significantly affect the operation of the observatory, since the guidance problem was solved without replacing the sensor. Since all four instruments are rigidly interconnected, the efficiency of the GEKSE, PULSAR X-1, and GPSS spectrometers began to be calculated from the location of the source in the field of view of the TTM telescope. Mathematical software for constructing the image and spectra of this device was prepared by young scientists, now Doctors of Physics and Mathematics. Sciences M.R. Gilfanrv and E.M. Churazov. After the launch of the Granat satellite in December 1989, K.N. Borozdin (now - Candidate of Physical and Mathematical Sciences) and his group. The joint work of "Grenade" and "Kvant" made it possible to significantly increase the efficiency of astrophysical research, since the scientific tasks of both missions were determined by the Department of High Energy Astrophysics.
In November 1989, the operation of the Kvant module was temporarily interrupted for a period of changing the configuration of the Mir station, when two additional modules, Kvant-2 and Kristall, were successively docked to it at intervals of six months. Since the end of 1990, regular observations of the Roentgen observatory have been resumed, however, due to the increase in the volume of work at the station and more stringent restrictions on its orientation, the average annual number of sessions after 1990 has significantly decreased and more than 2 sessions in a row were not carried out, whereas in 1988 - In 1989, up to 8-10 sessions were sometimes organized per day.
The 3rd module (retrofitting, Kvant-2) was launched into orbit by the Proton launch vehicle on November 26, 1989, 13:01:41 (UTC) from the Baikonur cosmodrome, from launch complex No. 200L. This block is also called the retrofitting module; it contains a significant amount of equipment necessary for the life support systems of the station and creating additional comfort for its inhabitants. The airlock compartment is used as a storage for space suits and as a hangar for an autonomous means of moving an astronaut.

The spacecraft was launched into orbit with the following parameters:

circulation period - 89.3 minutes;
the minimum distance from the Earth's surface (at perigee) is 221 km;
the maximum distance from the Earth's surface (at apogee) is 339 km.

On December 6, it was docked to the axial docking unit of the transition compartment of the base unit, then, using the manipulator, the module was transferred to the side docking unit of the transition compartment.
It was intended to equip the Mir station with life support systems for cosmonauts and increase the power supply of the orbital complex. The module was equipped with motion control systems using power gyroscopes, power supply systems, new plants for oxygen production and water regeneration, household appliances, retrofitting the station with scientific equipment, equipment and providing crew spacewalks, as well as for conducting various scientific research and experiments. The module consisted of three hermetic compartments: instrument-cargo, instrument-scientific and airlock special with an outward-opening exit hatch with a diameter of 1000 mm.
The module had one active docking unit installed along its longitudinal axis on the instrument-cargo compartment. The Kvant-2 module and all subsequent modules docked to the axial docking assembly of the transfer compartment of the base unit (X-axis), then, using the manipulator, the module was transferred to the side docking assembly of the transition compartment. The standard position of the Kvant-2 module as part of the Mir station is the Y axis.

:
Registration number 1989-093A / 20335
Date and time of launch (UTC) 13h01m41s. 11/26/1989
Launch vehicle Proton-K Mass of the ship (kg) 19050
The module is also designed for biological research.

Source:

Module “Crystal”

The 4th module (docking-technological, Kristall) was launched on May 31, 1990 at 10:33:20 (UTC) from the Baikonur cosmodrome, launch complex No. 200L, by a Proton 8K82K launch vehicle with a DM2 upper stage . The module housed mainly scientific and technological equipment for studying the processes of obtaining new materials under weightlessness (microgravity). In addition, two nodes of androgynous-peripheral type are installed, one of which is connected to the docking compartment, and the other is free. On the outer surface there are two rotary reusable solar batteries (both will be transferred to the Kvant module).
Spacecraft type "CM-T 77KST", ser. No. 17201 was launched into orbit with the following parameters:
orbital inclination - 51.6 degrees;
circulation period - 92.4 minutes;
the minimum distance from the Earth's surface (at perigee) is 388 km;
maximum distance from the Earth's surface (at apogee) - 397 km
On June 10, 1990, on the second attempt, Kristall was docked with Mir (the first attempt failed due to the failure of one of the module's orientation engines). Docking, as before, was carried out to the axial node of the transition compartment, after which the module was transferred to one of the side nodes using its own manipulator.
In the course of work under the Mir-Shuttle program, this module, which has a peripheral docking unit of the APAS type, was again moved to the axle unit with the help of a manipulator, and solar panels were removed from its body.
The Soviet space shuttles of the Buran family were supposed to dock to Kristall, but work on them had already been practically curtailed by that time.
The "Crystal" module was intended for testing new technologies, obtaining structural materials, semiconductors and biological products with improved properties under weightless conditions. The androgynous docking port on the Kristall module was intended for docking with Buran and Shuttle-type reusable spacecraft equipped with androgynous-peripheral docking units. In June 1995, it was used for docking with the USS Atlantis. The docking and technological module "Crystal" was a single hermetic compartment of a large volume with equipment. On its outer surface there were remote control units, fuel tanks, battery panels with autonomous orientation to the sun, as well as various antennas and sensors. The module was also used as a supply cargo ship to deliver fuel, consumables and equipment into orbit.
The module consisted of two pressurized compartments: instrument-cargo and transition-docking. The module had three docking units: an axial active one - on the instrument-cargo compartment and two androgynous-peripheral types - on the transition-docking compartment (axial and lateral). Until May 27, 1995, the Kristall module was located on the side docking assembly intended for the Spektr module (Y axis). Then it was transferred to the axial docking unit (-X axis) and on 05/30/1995 moved to its regular place (-Z axis). On 06/10/1995, it was again transferred to the axial unit (X-axis) to ensure docking with the American spacecraft Atlantis STS-71, on 07/17/1995 it was returned to its regular place (-Z axis).

Brief characteristics of the module
Registration number 1990-048A / 20635
Start date and time (UTC) 10h33m20s. 05/31/1990
Launch site Baikonur, platform 200L
Launch vehicle Proton-K
Ship mass (kg) 18720

Spectrum module

The 5th module (geophysical, Spektr) was launched on May 20, 1995. The module equipment made it possible to carry out environmental monitoring of the atmosphere, ocean, earth's surface, medical and biological research, etc. To bring the experimental samples to the outer surface, it was planned to install the Pelican copying manipulator, which works in conjunction with the lock chamber. On the surface of the module, 4 rotary solar panels were installed.
"SPEKTR", the research module, was a single sealed compartment of a large volume with equipment. On its outer surface there were remote control units, fuel tanks, four battery panels with autonomous orientation to the sun, antennas and sensors.
The production of the module, which began in 1987, was practically completed (without the installation of equipment intended for programs of the Ministry of Defense) by the end of 1991. However, since March 1992, due to the beginning of the crisis in the economy, the module was "mothballed".
To complete work on Spectrum in mid-1993, the M.V. Khrunichev and RSC Energia named after S.P. The Queen came up with a proposal to re-equip the module and turned to their foreign partners for this. As a result of negotiations with NASA, a decision was quickly made to install American medical equipment used in the Mir-Shuttle program on the module, as well as to equip it with a second pair of solar panels. At the same time, according to the terms of the contract, the refinement, preparation and launch of the Spektr should have been completed before the first docking of the Mir and the Shuttle in the summer of 1995.
Tight deadlines required hard work from specialists of the Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center to correct design documentation, manufacture batteries and spacers for their placement, conduct the necessary strength tests, install US equipment and repeat complex checks of the module. At the same time, specialists from RSC Energia were preparing a new workplace at Baikonur in the MIK of the Buran orbital spacecraft at pad 254.
On May 26, on the first attempt, it was docked with the Mir, and then, similarly to the predecessors, it was transferred from the axial to the side node, freed for it by the Kristall.
The Spektr module was designed to conduct research on the Earth's natural resources, the upper layers of the Earth's atmosphere, the orbital complex's own outer atmosphere, geophysical processes of natural and artificial origin in near-Earth outer space and in the upper layers of the Earth's atmosphere, to conduct biomedical research on joint Russian- American programs "Mir-Shuttle" and "Mir-NASA", to equip the station with additional sources of electricity.
In addition to the tasks listed above, the Spektr module was used as a cargo supply ship and delivered fuel supplies, consumables and additional equipment to the Mir orbital complex. The module consisted of two compartments: pressurized instrument-cargo and non-pressurized, on which two main and two additional solar arrays and scientific instruments were installed. The module had one active docking unit located along its longitudinal axis in the instrument-cargo compartment. The standard position of the "Spektr" module as part of the "Mir" station is the -Y axis. On June 25, 1997, as a result of a collision with the Progress M-34 cargo ship, the Spektr module was depressurized and practically "turned off" from the operation of the complex. The Progress unmanned spacecraft veered off course and crashed into the Spektr module. The station lost its tightness, the Spektra solar batteries were partially destroyed. The team managed to pressurize the Spektr by closing the hatch leading into it before the pressure on the station dropped to critically low. The internal volume of the module was isolated from the living compartment.

Brief characteristics of the module
Registration number 1995-024A / 23579
Start date and time (UTC) 03h.33m.22s. 05/20/1995
Launch vehicle Proton-K
Ship mass (kg) 17840

docking module

The 6th module (docking) was docked on November 15, 1995. This relatively small module was created specifically for the docking of the Atlantis spacecraft and was delivered to Mir by the American Space Shuttle.
Docking compartment (SO) (316GK) - was intended to ensure the docking of the MTKS of the Shuttle series with the Mir OK. The CO was a cylindrical structure with a diameter of about 2.9 m and a length of about 5 m and was equipped with systems that made it possible to ensure the work of the crew and monitor its condition, in particular: systems for providing temperature control, television, telemetry, automation, lighting. The space inside the SO allowed the crew to work and place the equipment during the delivery of the SO to the Mir OC. Additional solar arrays were fixed on the surface of the SO, which, after docking it with the Mir spacecraft, were transferred by the crew to the Kvant module, the means of capturing the SO by the Shuttle-series MTKS manipulator, and the docking means. The CO was delivered to the Atlantis MTCS (STS-74) orbit and, using its own manipulator and the axial androgynous peripheral docking unit (APAS-2), was docked to the docking unit on the Atlantis MTCS lock chamber, and then, the latter, together with The CO was docked to the docking unit of the Kristall module (axis “-Z”) using an androgynous peripheral docking unit (APAS-1). SO 316GK, as it were, lengthened the Kristall module, which made it possible to dock the American MTKS series with the Mir spacecraft without re-docking the Kristall module to the axial docking unit of the base unit (axis "-X"). the power supply of all SO systems was provided from OK "Mir" through the connectors in the APAS-1 node.

Module “Nature”

The 7th module (scientific, "Priroda") was launched into orbit on April 23, 1996 and docked on April 26, 1996. This block concentrates instruments for high-precision observation of the earth's surface in various spectral ranges. The module also included about a ton of American equipment for studying human behavior in long-term space flight.
The launch of the "Nature" module completed the assembly of OK "Mir".
The "Nature" module was intended for carrying out scientific research and experiments to study the natural resources of the Earth, the upper layers of the earth's atmosphere, cosmic radiation, geophysical processes of natural and artificial origin in near-Earth outer space and the upper layers of the earth's atmosphere.
The module consisted of one sealed instrument-cargo compartment. The module had one active docking unit located along its longitudinal axis. The standard position of the "Priroda" module as part of the "Mir" station is the Z axis.
Equipment for Earth exploration from space and experiments in the field of materials science was installed on board the Priroda module. Its main difference from other "cubes" from which the "Mir" was built is that "Priroda" was not equipped with its own solar panels. The research module "Nature" was a single hermetic compartment of a large volume with equipment. On its outer surface were located remote control units, fuel tanks, antennas and sensors. It did not have solar panels and used 168 lithium current sources installed inside.
In the course of its creation, the "Nature" module has also undergone significant changes, especially in equipment. Instruments from a number of foreign countries were installed on it, which, under the terms of a number of concluded contracts, rather severely limited the time for its preparation and launch.
At the beginning of 1996, the "Priroda" module arrived at site 254 of the Baikonur Cosmodrome. His intensive four-month pre-launch preparation was not easy. Particularly difficult was the work to find and eliminate the leakage of one of the lithium batteries of the module, which is capable of releasing very harmful gases (sulphurous anhydride and hydrogen chloride). There were also a number of other comments. All of them were eliminated and on April 23, 1996, with the help of Proton-K, the module was successfully launched into orbit.
Before docking with the Mir complex, a failure occurred in the module's power supply system, depriving it of half of its electricity supply. The impossibility of recharging the onboard batteries due to the lack of solar panels significantly complicated the docking, giving only one chance to complete it. Nevertheless, on April 26, 1996, on the first attempt, the module was successfully docked with the complex and, after re-docking, occupied the last free side node on the transition compartment of the base unit.
After the docking of the Priroda module, the Mir orbital complex acquired its full configuration. Its formation, of course, moved more slowly than desired (the launches of the base block and the fifth module are separated by almost 10 years). But all this time, intensive work was going on on board in a manned mode, and the Mir itself was systematically "re-equipped" with more "small" elements - trusses, additional batteries, remote controls and various scientific instruments, the delivery of which was successfully provided by cargo ships of the "Progress" type. .

Brief characteristics of the module
Registration number 1996-023A / 23848
Start date and time (UTC) 11h.48m.50s. 04/23/1996
Launch site Baikonur, site 81L
Launch vehicle Proton-K
Ship mass (kg) 18630

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Briefly about the article: The ISS is the most expensive and ambitious project of mankind on the way to space exploration. However, the construction of the station is in full swing, and it is not yet known what will happen to it in a couple of years. We talk about the creation of the ISS and plans for its completion.

space house

international space station

You remain in charge. But don't touch anything.

A joke by Russian cosmonauts about the American Shannon Lucid, which they repeated every time they went out into outer space from the Mir station (1996).

Back in 1952, the German rocket scientist Wernher von Braun said that humanity would need space stations very soon: as soon as it went into space, it would be unstoppable. And for the systematic development of the Universe, orbital houses are needed. On April 19, 1971, the Soviet Union launched the Salyut 1 space station, the first in the history of mankind. It was only 15 meters long, and the volume of habitable space was 90 square meters. By today's standards, the pioneers flew into space on unreliable scrap metal stuffed with radio tubes, but then it seemed that there were no more barriers to man in space. Now, 30 years later, only one habitable object hangs above the planet - "International Space Station".

It is the largest, most advanced, but at the same time the most expensive station among all that have ever been launched. Increasingly, questions are being asked - do people need it? Like, what do we need in space, if there are so many problems left on Earth? Perhaps it is worth understanding - what is this ambitious project?

The roar of the spaceport

The International Space Station (ISS) is a joint project of 6 space agencies: the Federal Space Agency (Russia), the National Aeronautics and Space Agency (USA), the Japan Aerospace Research Authority (JAXA), the Canadian Space Agency (CSA / ASC), the Brazilian Space Agency (AEB) and the European Space Agency (ESA).

However, not all members of the latter took part in the ISS project - Great Britain, Ireland, Portugal, Austria and Finland refused this, while Greece and Luxembourg joined later. In fact, the ISS is based on a synthesis of failed projects - the Russian Mir-2 station and the American Svoboda.

Work on the creation of the ISS began in 1993. The Mir station was launched on February 19, 1986 and had a warranty period of 5 years. In fact, she spent 15 years in orbit - due to the fact that the country simply did not have the money to launch the Mir-2 project. The Americans had similar problems - the Cold War ended, and their Svoboda station, which had already spent about 20 billion dollars on one design, was out of work.

Russia had a 25-year practice of working with orbital stations, unique methods of long-term (over a year) human stay in space. In addition, the USSR and the USA had a good experience of working together on board the Mir station. In conditions when no country could independently pull an expensive orbital station, the ISS became the only alternative.

On March 15, 1993, representatives of the Russian Space Agency and the scientific and production association Energia approached NASA with a proposal to create the ISS. On September 2, a corresponding government agreement was signed, and by November 1, a detailed work plan was prepared. Financial issues of interaction (supply of equipment) were resolved in the summer of 1994, and 16 countries joined the project.

What's in your name? The name "ISS" was born in controversy. The first crew of the station, at the suggestion of the Americans, gave it the name "Station Alpha" and used it for some time in communication sessions. Russia did not agree with this option, since “Alpha” figuratively meant “first”, although the Soviet Union had already launched 8 space stations (7 “Salyuts” and “Mir”), and the Americans were experimenting with their “Skylab”. From our side, the name “Atlantis” was proposed, but the Americans rejected it for two reasons - firstly, it was too similar to the name of their shuttle “Atlantis”, and secondly, it was associated with the mythical Atlantis, which, as you know, drowned . It was decided to stop at the phrase "International Space Station" - not too sonorous, but a compromise.

Go!

The deployment of the ISS was launched by Russia on November 20, 1998. The Proton rocket launched the Zarya functional cargo block into orbit, which, along with the American NODE-1 docking module, delivered into space on December 5 of the same year by the Endevere shuttle, formed the backbone of the ISS.

"Dawn"- the heir to the Soviet TKS (supply transport ship), designed to serve Almaz combat stations. At the first stage of the ISS assembly, it became a source of electricity, an equipment warehouse, a means of navigation and orbit correction. All other modules of the ISS now have a more specific specialization, while Zarya is practically universal and in the future will serve as a storage facility (food, fuel, instruments).

Officially, Zarya is owned by the United States - they paid for its creation - however, in fact, the module was assembled from 1994 to 1998 at the Khrunichev State Space Center. It was included in the ISS instead of the Bus-1 module, designed by the American corporation Lockheed, since it cost $450 million compared to $220 million for Zarya.

Zarya has three docking airlocks - one at each end and one on the side. Its solar panels are 10.67 meters long and 3.35 meters wide. In addition, the module has six nickel-cadmium batteries capable of delivering about 3 kilowatts of power (at first, there were problems with charging them).

Along the outer perimeter of the module there are 16 fuel tanks with a total volume of 6 cubic meters (5700 kilograms of fuel), 24 large rotary jet engines, 12 small ones, as well as 2 main engines for serious orbital maneuvers. Zarya is capable of autonomous (unmanned) flight for 6 months, but due to delays with the Russian service module Zvezda, it had to fly empty for 2 years.

Unity module(created by the Boeing Corporation) went into space after the Zarya in December 1998. Being equipped with six docking locks, it became the central connecting node for the subsequent modules of the station. Unity is vital to the ISS. The working resources of all station modules - oxygen, water and electricity - pass through it. The Unity also has a basic radio communications system installed to allow Zarya's communication capabilities to communicate with the Earth.

Service module “Zvezda”- the main Russian segment of the ISS - was launched on July 12, 2000 and docked with Zarya 2 weeks later. Its frame was built back in the 1980s for the Mir-2 project (the design of the Zvezda is very reminiscent of the first Salyut stations, and its design features are of the Mir station).

Simply put, this module is housing for astronauts. It is equipped with life support systems, communications, control, data processing, as well as a propulsion system. The total mass of the module is 19050 kilograms, the length is 13.1 meters, the span of the solar panels is 29.72 meters.

Zvezda has two beds, an exercise bike, a treadmill, a toilet (and other hygienic facilities), and a refrigerator. External view is provided by 14 windows. The Russian electrolytic system "Electron" decomposes waste water. Hydrogen is taken overboard, and oxygen enters the life support system. Paired with Electron, the Air system works, absorbing carbon dioxide.

Theoretically, waste water can be cleaned and reused, but this is rarely practiced on the ISS - fresh water is delivered on board by cargo Progress. It must be said that the Electron system malfunctioned several times and the cosmonauts had to use chemical generators - the same “oxygen candles” that once caused a fire at the Mir station.

In February 2001, a laboratory module was attached to the ISS (to one of the Unity gateways). "Destiny"(“Destiny”) - an aluminum cylinder weighing 14.5 tons, 8.5 meters long and 4.3 meters in diameter. It is equipped with five mounting racks with life support systems (each weighs 540 kilograms and can produce electricity, cool water and control the composition of the air), as well as six racks of scientific equipment delivered a little later. The remaining 12 empty slots will be occupied over time.

In May 2001, the Quest Joint Airlock, the main airlock compartment of the ISS, was attached to Unity. This six-ton ​​cylinder, measuring 5.5 by 4 meters, is equipped with four high-pressure cylinders (2 - oxygen, 2 - nitrogen) to compensate for the loss of air released to the outside, and is relatively inexpensive - only 164 million dollars.

Its working space of 34 cubic meters is used for spacewalks, and the dimensions of the airlock allow the use of spacesuits of any type. The fact is that the design of our "Orlans" involves their use only in Russian transfer compartments, a similar situation with American EMUs.

In this module, astronauts going into space can also rest and breathe pure oxygen to get rid of decompression sickness (with a sharp change in pressure, nitrogen, the amount of which in the tissues of our bodies reaches 1 liter, goes into a gaseous state).

The last of the assembled ISS modules is the Russian Pirs docking compartment (SO-1). The creation of SO-2 was discontinued due to funding problems, so the ISS now has only one module, to which the Soyuz-TMA and Progress spacecraft can be easily docked - and three of them at once. In addition, cosmonauts dressed in our spacesuits can go outside from it.

And, finally, one more module of the ISS cannot be mentioned - the baggage multi-purpose support module. Strictly speaking, there are three of them - "Leonardo", "Raffaello" and "Donatello" (artists of the Renaissance, as well as three of the four ninja turtles). Each module is an almost equilateral cylinder (4.4 by 4.57 meters) transported on shuttles.

It can store up to 9 tons of cargo (tare weight - 4082 kilograms, with a maximum load - 13154 kilograms) - supplies delivered to the ISS, and waste taken away from it. All of the module's baggage is in normal air, so astronauts can get to it without using space suits. The baggage modules were manufactured in Italy by order of NASA and belong to the American segments of the ISS. They are used in sequence.

Useful little things

In addition to the main modules, the ISS has a large amount of additional equipment. It is inferior in size to the modules, but without it, the operation of the station is impossible.

The working “arms”, or rather, the “hand” of the station, is the “Canadarm2” manipulator, mounted on the ISS in April 2001. This high-tech machine worth 600 million dollars is capable of moving objects weighing up to 116 tons - for example, helping to assemble modules, docking and unloading shuttles (their own “hands” are very similar to “Canadarm2”, only smaller and weaker).

Own length of the manipulator - 17.6 meters, diameter - 35 centimeters. It is controlled by astronauts from the laboratory module. The most interesting thing is that "Canadarm2" is not fixed in one place and is able to move around the surface of the station, providing access to most of its parts.

Unfortunately, due to differences in connection ports located on the surface of the station, “Canadarm2” cannot move around our modules. In the near future (presumably 2007), it is planned to install ERA (European Robotic Arm) on the Russian segment of the ISS - a shorter and weaker, but more accurate manipulator (positioning accuracy - 3 millimeters), capable of operating in semi-automatic mode without constant control of astronauts.

In accordance with the safety requirements of the ISS project, a rescue ship is constantly on duty at the station, capable of delivering the crew to Earth if necessary. Now this function is performed by the good old Soyuz (TMA model) - it is able to take on board 3 people and provide them with life support for 3.2 days. "Unions" have a short warranty period in orbit, so they are changed every 6 months.

The workhorses of the ISS are currently the Russian Progresses, the brothers of the Soyuz, operating in unmanned mode. During the day, an astronaut consumes about 30 kilograms of cargo (food, water, hygiene products, etc.). Consequently, for a regular six-month duty at the station, one person needs 5.4 tons of supplies. It is impossible to carry so much on the Soyuz, so the station is mainly supplied by shuttles (up to 28 tons of cargo).

After the termination of their flights, from February 1, 2003 to July 26, 2005, the entire load on the station's clothing support lay on Progress (2.5 tons of load). After unloading the ship, it was filled with waste, undocked automatically and burned up in the atmosphere somewhere over the Pacific Ocean.

Crew: 2 people (as of July 2005), maximum - 3

Orbit height: From 347.9 km to 354.1 km

Orbital inclination: 51.64 degrees

Daily revolutions around the Earth: 15.73

Distance covered: About 1.5 billion kilometers

Average speed: 7.69 km/s

Current weight: 183.3 tons

Fuel weight: 3.9 tons

Living space: 425 square meters

Average temperature on board: 26.9 degrees Celsius

Estimated Completion: 2010

Planned life: 15 years

The complete assembly of the ISS will require 39 shuttle flights and 30 Progress flights. In finished form, the station will look like this: airspace volume - 1200 cubic meters, weight - 419 tons, power-to-weight ratio - 110 kilowatts, total length of the structure - 108.4 meters (74 meters in modules), crew - 6 people.

At the crossroads

Until 2003, the construction of the ISS went on as usual. Some modules were canceled, others were delayed, sometimes there were problems with money, faulty equipment - in general, things were going tight, but nevertheless, over the 5 years of its existence, the station became habitable and scientific experiments were periodically conducted on it.

On February 1, 2003, the space shuttle Columbia was lost while entering the dense layers of the atmosphere. The American manned flight program was suspended for 2.5 years. Given that the station modules waiting for their turn could only be launched into orbit by shuttles, the very existence of the ISS was in jeopardy.

Fortunately, the United States and Russia were able to agree on a redistribution of costs. We took over the provision of the ISS with cargo, and the station itself was transferred to the standby mode - two cosmonauts were constantly on board to monitor the serviceability of the equipment.

Shuttle launches

After the successful flight of the Discovery shuttle in July-August 2005, there was hope that the construction of the station would continue. First in line for launch is Unity's connector module twin, Node 2. The preliminary date of its launch is December 2006.

The European Science Module Columbus will be the second, scheduled for launch in March 2007. This lab is ready and waiting in the wings to be attached to Node 2. It boasts good anti-meteorite protection, a unique device for the study of fluid physics, as well as the European Physiological Module (a comprehensive medical examination right on board the station).

Following the "Columbus" will go Japanese laboratory "Kibo" ("Hope") - its launch is scheduled for September 2007. It is interesting because it has its own mechanical manipulator, as well as a closed "terrace" where you can conduct experiments in open space without actually leaving the ship.

The third connecting module - “Node 3” is to go to the ISS in May 2008. In July 2009 it is planned to launch a unique rotating centrifuge module CAM (Centrifuge Accommodations Module), on board of which artificial gravity will be created in the range from 0.01 to 2 g. It is designed mainly for scientific research - the permanent residence of astronauts in the conditions of gravity, which is so often described by science fiction writers, is not provided.

In March 2009, the ISS will fly "Cupola" ("Dome") - an Italian development, which, as its name implies, is an armored observation dome for visual control over the station's manipulators. For safety, the portholes will be equipped with external shutters to protect against meteorites.

The last module delivered to the ISS by American shuttles will be the Science and Force Platform, a massive block of solar panels on an openwork metal truss. It will provide the station with the energy necessary for the normal functioning of the new modules. It will also feature ERA's mechanical arm.

Launches on Protons

Russian Proton rockets are supposed to carry three large modules to the ISS. So far, only a very approximate flight schedule is known. Thus, in 2007 it is planned to add to the station our spare functional cargo block (FGB-2 - the twin of Zarya), which will be turned into a multifunctional laboratory.

In the same year, the European ERA manipulator arm is to be deployed by Proton. And, finally, in 2009 it will be necessary to put into operation a Russian research module, functionally similar to the American "Destiny".

It is interesting

Space stations are frequent guests in science fiction. The two most famous are “Babylon 5” from the television series of the same name and “Deep Space 9” from the Star Trek series. The textbook look of the space station in SF was created by director Stanley Kubrick. His film 2001: A Space Odyssey (screenplay and book by Arthur C. Clarke) showed a large ring station rotating on its axis and thus creating artificial gravity. The longest human stay on the space station is 437.7 days. The record was set by Valery Polyakov at the Mir station in 1994-1995. The Soviet Salyut stations were originally supposed to bear the name Zarya, but it was left for the next similar project, which, in the end, became the functional cargo block of the ISS. In one of the expeditions to the ISS, a tradition arose to hang three banknotes on the wall of the residential module - 50 rubles, a dollar and a euro. For luck. The first space marriage in the history of mankind was concluded on the ISS - on August 10, 2003, cosmonaut Yuri Malenchenko, while on board the station (she flew over New Zealand), married Ekaterina Dmitrieva (the bride was on Earth, in the USA).

* * *

The ISS is the largest, most expensive and long-term space project in the history of mankind. While the station is not yet completed, its cost can be estimated only approximately - over 100 billion dollars. Criticism of the ISS most often boils down to the fact that this money can be used to carry out hundreds of unmanned scientific expeditions to the planets of the solar system.

There is some truth in such accusations. However, this is a very limited approach. First, it does not take into account the potential profit from the development of new technologies in the creation of each new module of the ISS - and after all, its instruments are really at the forefront of science. Their modifications can be used in everyday life and can bring huge income.

We must not forget that thanks to the ISS program, humanity gets the opportunity to preserve and increase all the precious technologies and skills of manned space flights, which were obtained in the second half of the 20th century at an incredible price. In the “space race” of the USSR and the USA, big money was spent, many people died - all this may be in vain if we stop moving in the same direction.