Instruction

The difficulties in learning the Russian language are largely due to the fact that the spelling in it does not correspond to the pronunciation. You must understand that there can be a letter, a hyphen, or a space. These are the spellings that need to be checked by applying one or another rule.

Writing an unstressed vowel, i.e. in a weak position, almost always does not match the pronunciation, and it needs to be checked. This can be done by changing the form of the word or choosing a related one so that it is under .

They often make mistakes in spelling "n" and "nn" in and adjectives. In order to highlight this spelling, you need to graphically explain your choice. This can be done, for example, by showing with the help of an auxiliary question the presence of a dependent word or prefix other than "not". You can indicate from which aspect the participle is formed. Be sure to note if the word is an exception.

If you need to highlight the spelling in the spelling of the personal ending of the verb, highlight this ending and indicate the conjugation.

Orthogram can also be a hyphen. For example, an explanation of its spelling in indefinite pronouns and adverbs is required. In this case, you need to highlight that part of the word, the presence of which requires a hyphen. For example, in the pronoun "someone" you need to highlight the prefix "some", and in the adverb "somewhere" - the suffix "that".

If the spelling is a space, underline the separate spelling and indicate the part of speech. For example, it is necessary to write prepositions separately with other parts of speech.

Related videos

Spelling (from the Greek orthos - "correct" and gramma - "letter") is the spelling in a word, which is determined by the rules of spelling. Orthograms can be contained in any parts of a word, between parts of a word, or even between words.

If we give a more simplified term, then the spelling is the place in which you can make a mistake when writing, since it is in a weak position. You can find out how to correctly write a word containing a spelling by either choosing in which this place in the word will be in a strong position, or by referring to the spelling rule.

Spelling is called the whole set of rules of a given language, which regulates the correct words.

The main principle of orthography is the morphological principle. It lies in the fact that the same spelling of spellings is preserved in related ones. True, there are exceptions to this rule. Another important rule is the phonetic principle - to write as it is heard. For example, in the prefix of the word "gratuitous" a voiced consonant is heard, and you need to write "z", and in the word "wordless" - vice versa. However, this principle is not always respected.

The spelling consists of two components: variants of the correct spelling of the word and the situation that characterizes this spelling.

The same spelling can obey several rules at once. For example, in the word "windy" one "n" will be written if the word does not have a prefix, and in addition there is no dependent word.

In the event that the correct spelling of a word cannot be checked by placing the spelling in a strong position, it is necessary to refer to the spelling dictionary - a dictionary that suggests the normative spelling of words. For example, the placement of vowels in the word "vinaigrette" cannot be verified either by selecting a single-root word or by changing the form of an existing one. So, the correct spelling must be found in the dictionary.

Basic spelling rules are included in the Russian language curriculum.

Sections and principles of Russian spelling in teaching methods

Read also:

The proposed method of mastering the rules is suitable for an advanced level of learning spelling. Such tables can be compiled with high school students in the humanities classes.

The basic orthograms of the Russian language are studied at school. A little more than seventy rules should be remembered by the student in order not to make spelling mistakes. But if everything was so simple, then spelling lessons would be needed a little. In fact, it is required to learn a lot of theoretical material, including the concepts of parts of speech and parts of words, as well as an understanding of the principles of Russian spelling.

Principles of Russian spelling

Linguists do not have a single coherent theory regarding the principles of spelling. Different authors talk about different numbers of them. Summarizing the studies of L. L. Kasatkin, L. V. Shcherba, Yu. S. Maslov and others allows us to distinguish four groups of requirements that justify the choice of spelling.

1. Phonetic principle. It is supposed to spell the word in accordance with the sound. For example, the spelling of prefixes bes- and bez-.

2. Morphological principle. It relies on the uniform spelling of the morpheme with different pronunciations. This includes orthograms: an unstressed vowel at the root of a word, unpronounceable consonants, etc.

3. Traditional principle. The word is spelled in accordance with historical conditions, while it is impossible to choose a test word or explain the spelling from the point of view of modern Russian. These are spellings such as vowel alternation in roots or double consonants in borrowings.

4. Differentiating principle. The difference in spelling delimits parts of speech and displays different semantic content. On and on, burn and burn, etc.

The sections of spelling studied at school are also divided into several groups. They relate to the representation of sounds by letters, the use of capital letters, continuous, hyphenated or separate spelling, word wrapping, as well as abbreviation rules (complex abbreviated words, abbreviations, graphic abbreviations).

Each spelling belongs to its own section and is based on one or another principle of writing. All these generalizing concepts are needed for structuring and systematizing knowledge and, ultimately, for solid spelling literacy when creating texts. A good help in remembering the stated theory about the principles and sections of spelling can be a table that the student will fill out, referring each new rule to one category or another.

10 spellings of the Russian language

As you understand, any rule can be placed in a table by adding rows. Practical work on compiling such tables can help students who are interested in the theory and history of spelling to delve deeply into the subject.

Sections of orthography and principles of writing	Morphological principle	Phonetic principle	Traditional principle	differentiating principle
Transmission of speech sounds in writing	Unstressed checked vowels in the root of words. In an unstressed position at the root of the word, the same letter is written as in the test word under stress: fade - fade, forestry - forest.	Writing A / O in prefixes raz- / ras- / ros- / rose-. O is written under stress, A is written in an unstressed position. Reflect, search, painting, mailing.	Unchecked unstressed vowels. Spelling is checked in the dictionary: dog, kalach, periphery.	Writing b to distinguish between feminine and masculine: night, sword, lie, knife.
Capitalization			Each new line in the poem is capitalized, regardless of the punctuation mark at the end of the preceding line. Ring, ring, golden Russia, Worry, indefatigable wind! Blessed is he who celebrates with joy Your shepherd's sadness. (Yesenin)
Continuous, hyphenated and separate spelling		· Continuous spelling of prepositions and adverbs formed by the fusion of a preposition and a noun: below, instead, towards.	· Hyphenated writing of particles: something, koi-, -ka, -either, -something, -that, -tka, -s, -de. Somehow, some, we are waiting, sir.	· Writing homophones with different lexical and grammatical meanings: on and about.
Transfer Rules	You cannot break a monosyllabic prefix if it is followed by a consonant: horseshoe, once-carrier.
Reduction Rules		With doubled consonants before a vowel, only the first one should be left in the reduction: gram. error, class differences.

Not all rules are easy to enter into the proposed table, however, the very reasoning on the topic of which section of spelling it belongs to and on what or what principles it relies on helps to better understand the spelling of the Russian language. Such "entertaining gymnastics" in the Russian language is available to high school students, students and specialists. For younger students, you can offer another spelling workshop, such as learning it online. For this, special exercises have been developed on the site mogupisat.ru.

Tags: spelling, high school
Elena Mazur
Publication Certificate No. 203452 dated August 9, 2015

spelling- this is the spelling in the word that corresponds to the spelling rule. Simply put, this is the part of the word in which it is easy to make a mistake. Translated from Greek spelling means "correct letter", where the word orthos translated as "correct" gramma- "letter".

An example is the spelling, the basis of which is the distinction between voiceless and voiced paired consonants that are at the root of the word. For its correct spelling, it is necessary to change the form or choose a suitable single-root word.

Consider the word oak, highlighting its root (i.e., in this case, the whole word). Here you can make a mistake by writing instead of a letter b letter P. Therefore, the letter b is in a weak position, which means it is a spelling. By underlining this letter, you highlight the spelling. This case refers to "Writing voiceless consonants at the root of a word."

By changing the form of the word and choosing a single root for it, we will see the following:

Oak - Oaks

The spelling now matches the pronunciation. Spelling in a word Oak trees no.

The spelling can be in different parts of the word, both in the prefix and root, and in the suffix and ending. If you need to highlight the spelling, then also indicate the part of the word in which it is located.

For example, if you come across a spelling related to "Alternating unstressed vowels at the root of a word", highlight the root and underline the vowel in the root, which is the spelling.

In the word located often make a mistake lodges, here the spelling is considered to be the spelling of the letter about. It is necessary to highlight the root, underline the letter about one stroke and a letter well two, because after an alternating unstressed vowel about followed by a consonant well on which the spelling depends.

It happens that in the word located make a mistake when writing a prefix. It is necessary to highlight the prefix, underline the letter with followed by a consonant P, since the spelling in this case depends on whether the consonant after the prefix is ​​voiced or deaf. letter with one thing to emphasize P— two.

In the same word, it is necessary to note the spelling in the prefix on. To do this, select the prefix by underlining the letter about.

Thus it becomes clear that in the word located it is necessary to single out not one spelling, but several at once.

How to recognize spelling?

To be able to write correctly, you need to learn how to detect spelling. First of all, you should pay attention to:

unstressed vowels in the root, prefix, suffix and ending (it is important to know the composition of the word and understand the principles of word formation well);

vowel following after hissing and letters c;

a soft sign located after hissing words at the end;

spelling not in different parts of speech.

The literal translation of the term "spelling" from the Greek language means the correct recording or correct writing. The corresponding section of the Russian language is responsible for spelling, which we are introduced to already in elementary school. The ability to write correctly is the basis for obtaining a higher education and building a successful career, even in modern conditions of computerization and the predominance of printed text.

Let's take a closer look at the question of what a spelling is, based on the wording from the school curriculum.

From the Russian language course, you can find out that spelling is called a certain spelling of a word in strict accordance with generally accepted rules. The whole set of such spelling rules forms, perhaps, the most difficult section - the spelling of the Russian language.

Knowing what spelling is is not enough for competent writing. You need to be able to accurately recognize the spelling of the Russian language and check their spelling using the rules, which you also need to be able to apply correctly.

The spelling has the following structure: the first component is a variant of the correct spelling of this part of the word; the second component is a situation that characterizes a particular orthogram.

Spelling rules have not always been preserved unchanged. With the development of the socio-cultural sphere, new words appear, phonetic norms change and, as a result, spelling rules are simplified or modified. After the latest reforms of the Russian language, to the delight of schoolchildren, only 27 rules remained. However, in addition to memorizing the rules, you will need to learn all dictionary words containing unchecked spellings, and exception words.

In Russian, words with orthograms are found along with simple words. Also, one word can contain several spellings at once.

To apply a suitable rule for the correct spelling of a word, you first need to find the spelling itself. In practice, the spelling is considered to be that part of the word that does not have the correct sound during pronunciation, that is, it is in a weak position. It is at this point in the word that there is the greatest probability of making a mistake. To check the correct spelling, test words are selected, if possible, or spelling rules are applied. In addition, a hyphen or a space can act as a spelling (example: separate spelling “not” with a verb).

When the position of the spelling in the word (spelling in the root, spelling in the suffix, spelling in prefixes, spelling in endings) is determined, it will be necessary to analyze the conditions for its correct spelling.

Let's analyze the principle of spelling designation using the example of the word "oak". In this word, the letter “b” occupies a weak position, which in sound can be confused with the double consonant “p”. In addition, this is an example of a spelling in the root. To highlight it, you need to underline the letter "b" and highlight the root. Such a spelling will be called "the spelling of deaf consonants at the root of the word."

If the spelling depends on consonants or vowels coming after or in front, then these letters should be underlined with two lines.

Orthograms are divided into types in accordance with their position in the word, the belonging of the word to a certain part of speech and the semantic meaning of the word.

The most complex types of spelling, in which errors are most often made, are as follows:

1. the presence of unstressed vowels in any part of the word;
2. the presence of vowels after hissing and "c";
3. "b" at the end of the word after hissing;
4. the presence of "not" in different parts of the word.

In order to correctly determine which letter is written in a particular orthogram, it is necessary to apply the appropriate rule.

The unstressed vowel at the root of the word delivers the most problems to schoolchildren. The correct spelling of the word can be found in the spelling dictionary, but the teacher will not provide such an opportunity on the dictation. There are different methods of memorizing vocabulary words and words that do not obey the general rule, including reading classical literature for visual perception of spelling. An unstressed sound at the root of a word can sometimes be checked by choosing a single-root word in which it will be stressed.

There are exceptions in almost every rule. Let's analyze an example of a spelling at the root "vowel after hissing". According to the spelling rule, the letter “y” should be written after “sh” and “u”, but there are several exceptions (example: parachute).

Spelling is closely related to other sections of the Russian language. So, for the correct spelling of many words, it is necessary to put the stress correctly when pronouncing them. Example: writing the letter "o" under stress after hissing in the suffix and the end of a noun or adjective (cockerel, powder, canvas, reed).

If you have learned to identify words with spelling and have learned all the rules, then now everything will depend on the correct analysis of the word and the ability to choose the appropriate rule for the situation.

In Russian, there are words that, when moving to different parts of speech, change the consonant at the root (example: friend - friends - be friends).

The spelling of "s" and "z" in the prefix depends on which letter follows it (an example of a spelling in prefixes). So, if the root of the word begins with a voiced consonant, then “z” is written, and if with a deaf consonant, then “s” (winnow - dispel; paint - paint).

To decide on the spelling of "yo" or "o" in the root after hissing, you need to choose a single-root word with a clear sound of this syllable. Example: silk - silks; wives - wife. In the words gooseberry, seam, rustle, it is written "o".

With the letter “c” at the root of the word, you need to write “and”, and at the end - “s” (circus, cylinder, knitting needles, scissors). But there are also exception words that are easier to remember in the form of a comic rhyme: the gypsy poked the chicken “tsyts” on tiptoe.

To check the unstressed vowel in the root of the verb, it is required to convert it into another form, where the spelling will be stressed (throw - throw).

Spelling analysis of the word

Competent writing is largely determined by the ability to parse the word of all parts of speech. Spelling analysis includes the following steps:

• put down the missing letters or open the brackets and underline the spelling;
• designate phonemes in a weak position (unstressed vowels, voiceless/voiced consonants, unpronounceable signs);
• we determine the part of the word containing the spelling (prefix, root, suffix, ending), and mark it graphically;
• we select a test word and indicate it in brackets;
• We justify the choice of the rule and give its formulation.

Before applying this or that rule, you need to figure out what spelling is present in the word. If a student cannot distinguish between a prefix and part of a root, or a suffix and an ending, then spelling problems cannot be avoided. It is also important to understand word formation and the rules for composing complex words (bright red, dark blue, four-tiered, five-month-old, etc.).

The Russian language is difficult to learn, it is constantly changing, supplemented by words of foreign origin and new scientific terms. Therefore, to be literate, you need to read a lot of classics and writers of our time, monitor the emergence of new norms and not be lazy to clarify the correct spelling of a word in a spelling dictionary.

Video about what is spelling

All factors affecting the ability to survive can be divided into 4 groups:

Anthropological;

Natural and environmental;

Logistics;

Ecological.

Anthropological factors characterize the state of human health, the constancy of its internal environment, the reserve capabilities of the body. Anthropological factors include:

Psychological readiness;

Moral-volitional qualities;

Active-transformative activity that affects the predominance of positive or negative emotions;

Ability to work independently.

For an unprepared person, the environment is a source of all kinds of dangers, he is in constant anxiety. This state lasts from several minutes to several days.

Thus, an important task of training is to psychologically prepare a person to overcome a possible emergency, increase his emotional-volitional stability, teach him to correctly perceive and evaluate the current situation and act in accordance with the situation.

Natural and environmental factors- temperature, air humidity, solar radiation, precipitation, atmospheric pressure level, wind, etc.
People are able to endure even the most severe natural conditions for a long time. However, getting into them for the first time, they are poorly adapted to life in an unfamiliar environment. Therefore, the harsher the conditions of the external environment, the greater the effort required by the struggle for survival, the more strictly the rules of conduct must be followed and the more expensive the price paid for each mistake.

Logistical factors provide protective materials in conditions of autonomous existence: clothing, emergency equipment, food and water supplies, improvised means used for various purposes, etc.

Environmental factors risks arise as a result of human interaction with the environment (accidents, injuries, etc.).

Physiological risk factors- diseases, natural disasters, heat, cold, hunger, thirst, fear, overwork, loneliness, improper organization of relations within the emergency group. For a person who finds himself in emergency circumstances, factors acquire special significance. It is for these reasons that most of the tragic outcomes of accidents occur.

Consider main physiological risk factors.
Hunger. In medical literature, the feeling of hunger is understood as a set of sensations that express the physiological need of the body for food. Accordingly, starvation is a state of the body in the complete absence or insufficiency of the intake of nutrients. Conditionally There are several types of fasting:
absolute - a person is deprived of food and water;

Complete - a person is deprived of food, but is not limited in water consumption;

Incomplete - food is consumed by a person in limited quantities, insufficient to restore energy costs;

Partial - with sufficient quantitative nutrition, a person does not receive one or more substances (vitamins, proteins, carbohydrates, etc.) with food.

With complete and absolute starvation, the body is forced to switch to internal self-sufficiency. It is estimated that in a person weighing 70 kg, the energy reserves of the body are approximately 160 thousand kcal;

% of these reserves (65-70 thousand kcal) the body can use up without a direct threat to its existence.
In a state of absolute rest, a person needs one kilocalorie per hour per kilogram of mass to maintain the vital activity of the body (the work of the heart, lungs, brain and other organs). With a mass of 70 kg, a person's energy consumption will be 70 kcal / h or 1680 kcal / day. These are inevitable internal energy costs. The rest of the body's energy reserve is enough for an average man for 30-40 days of fasting without much damage to his health.

Providing food and water. Temporary shelters.