Exactly 70 years ago on this day, March 15, 1939 year, the Wehrmacht entered the territory of the remainder of Czechoslovakia, cut off by the Munich Agreement. There was no resistance from the Czechs. Neither England nor France made any attempts to save the remnants of the former capable ally state, although only half a year in Munich solemnly gave her guarantees in case of aggression. On March 16, Hitler proclaimed a German protectorate over this territory under the name of Bohemia and Moravia. Thus, the Czech Republic was included in the Third Reich and ceased to exist as a state; Slovakia seceded and became its satellite.
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Photographer Karel Hajek took pictures on the streets of Zlatna Prague so familiar to many on that gloomy March day - and these pictures ended up in the Life archive after the war. Many places, I think, are familiar to those who have been there (there are also Wenceslas Square and the Castle, etc. on the shots), and you can easily recognize them.
German troops entered Prague defiantly, in columns, and moved along the main streets, with a large crowd of Praguers looking at this spectacle.

1. German technology on Wenceslas Square.

2. On Wenceslas Square an official ceremony took place - a parade of the Wehrmacht with the passage of equipment and an orchestra.

3. Motorcyclists on the streets of Prague.

4. Whether the trams ran during the period of passing the equipment, I still did not understand. On many frames they even block the movement (see the previous picture).

5. Here the tram is visible (on the left). On the right are foot columns, light vehicles are driving along the street.

6. Wehrmacht military traffic controllers control the traffic.

7. Although, I must say, there is a variety of vehicles, including those that drive in from side streets.

8. There are traces of snow on the equipment, which, apparently, fell on the march.

9. Traces of snow are also visible here. In the foreground - the Czech police?

10. Wehrmacht car, tram on the other side of the traffic and in the same place - a civilian car.

11. The Germans near the Malostransk bridge tower at the entrance to the Charles Bridge. They were surrounded by city dwellers.

12. German motorcyclist on Wenceslas Square. Nearby are people in uniform (probably Czechs).

13. A huge crowd of Praguers and a narrow passage between them. Are they waiting for something?

14. Wehrmacht parade on Wenceslas Square, party and military flags of the Third Reich are hung. The host of the parade is General Keitel.

15. However, here's what's interesting: the military flag at the parade is framed not only by the party (on the right), but also by the Czechoslovak two (on the left).

16. The orchestra accompanied the passage of troops with music.

17. Parking lot near Prague Castle.

[from here]
The outcome of Gakhi's negotiations with Hitler in Berlin was, in fact, a foregone conclusion. It was about one thing - whether the Czechoslovak army would resist, or whether the occupation would pass peacefully. The Nazi leadership staged a real performance, exerting severe mental pressure on the elderly president, who felt unwell (Gakhi had a hypertensive crisis). Gakh himself, in a conversation with journalist Karel Gorkiy, later described the end of his nightly audience with Hitler and Goering as follows: to the side and supposedly gently began to persuade me - they say, is it really necessary that in a couple of hours this beautiful Prague be razed to the ground, so that everything would fly into the air, and only because we do not want to understand the Fuhrer, who does not want thousands young Czechs laid down their lives in a senseless struggle.

Emil Hacha returned to Prague a broken man. In a radio address to the people, he, sometimes with difficulty choosing words, said:
“...Our duty is to accept what happened with courageous calmness, but also with the awareness of a serious task: to do everything to preserve for our future generations what is left to us from our, perhaps, too rich heritage... that is approaching, I decided, with the consent of the government, at the last moment to ask Reich Chancellor Adolf Hitler for a meeting... leader of the German people.

All pictures - (c)

The Munich Agreement is an agreement concluded in 1938 by the ruling elite of England, France, Italy, Germany and Czechoslovakia to please the wishes of the Nazi leader and German Fuhrer Adolf Hitler. The treaty destroyed the integrity of Czechoslovakia, transferring its resources and industrial potential to the possession of Nazi Germany, for which it entered the history of the USSR as the Munich Agreement.

Prerequisites for the capture of Czechoslovakia

Czechoslovakia was very attracted to the Fuhrer of Germany, Adolf Hitler. The reasons for her attraction were simple:

• accommodation in the center of Europe;
• natural resources of the country;
• developed industry;
• the prospect of capturing Hungary and Romania.

Therefore, after, the Nazi leader did not postpone the attack on Czechoslovakia for a long time. On April 21, 1938, he discussed Operation Grun, adjusted in March. The plan was to annex the Sudetenland to the Reich, and later to capture all of Czechoslovakia.

However, some points could prevent German aggression:

• the Czechs had a good army;
• Franco-Soviet-Czechoslovak Treaty of Mutual Assistance.

For this reason, Hitler decided to rely on the Sudeten German party and German intelligence in the state apparatus. He emphasized the problem of the Sudetenland, where 3.25 million Germans lived. With the support of the Fuhrer and under the leadership of physical education teacher Konrad Henlein, the Sudeten German Party operated here. The activities of Henlein's Free Corps included:

• financing - the German Foreign Ministry allocated 15,000 marks every month for the work of party members);
• collecting weapons and supplies;
• disorganization of the Czechoslovak army, destruction of communication centers, bridges, etc. (with the support of sabotage and terrorist Einsatz groups and 4 SS battalions “Dead Head”) deployed from Germany.

Sudeten Crisis of 1938

In the spring of 1938, a political crisis erupted in the Sudetenland. It was caused by a number of factors:

1. Activities of the Sudeten German Party

In order to get concessions from the President of Czechoslovakia, Eduard (Edward) Benes, the Sudeten German Party constantly put pressure on the Anglo-French representatives, describing to them the atrocities of the Czechs against the Germans. In addition, Hitler believed that if the attack on the Czechs across the unfortified border with the former Austria was lightning fast, then Britain and France would not have time to defend it.

1. German military intelligence

Having infiltrated the state apparatus and government institutions, she worked so successfully that the intelligence chief, Nicolai, assured Hitler that there were no secrets in Czechoslovakia at all.

1. Support from fascists in other countries

Active assistance in the implementation of the plans of the Fuhrer was provided by the Polish fascists, who dreamed of the lands of Cieszyn Silesia. In January 1938, the Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs, Jozef Beck, visited Berlin to negotiate on this issue. During the conversation, the Fuhrer emphasized the need to combat the "threat of communism", and assured the minister that Poland's circle of interests would not be violated.

In May 1938, the Poles concentrated troops near the Czech border in the Teszyn region. They were ready to fight with the Soviet Union if his aid to Czechoslovakia would pass through their lands.

Anti-government activities in Czechoslovakia were also carried out by fascists from other countries, incl. Hungary and Ukraine. The German secret services kept in touch with them and encouraged them in every possible way, eventually uniting them into a single bloc with the Sudeten German party at the head.

Feeling supported, Hitler tried to put pressure on the Czechoslovak president, as was the case with the Austrian Chancellor Schuschnigg. Thus, Ward-Price (correspondent for the British Daily Mail newspaper), while in Prague in March 1938, "confidentially" informed the employees of the Czechoslovak Foreign Ministry about the essence of Hitler's claims to her government. At the same time, the granting of autonomy to the German minority was the most insignificant among them. Otherwise, Czechoslovakia was waiting for destruction. At the same time, the correspondent hinted that the best way out for Edvard Benes would be a personal audience with the Fuhrer.

Henlein's Free Corps Demands: The Beginning of the Crisis

Hitler instructed the leader of the Sudeten German Party, Konrad Henlein, to provoke a political crisis in Czechoslovakia by making demands unacceptable to the government. If they were fulfilled, the party had to put forward new claims.

Henlein's party was instructed to:

• Establish full control of fascist agents over the border region of Czechoslovakia. For this, rumors were spread in the Czechoslovak army that German resistance was pointless.
• Hold a referendum. The municipal elections to be held on 22 May were called by a plebiscite. It was supposed to raise the question of joining the Sudetenland to the Reich.

The work of the Henleinites did not take place in isolation: the Nazi troops had already begun to concentrate on the borders of Czechoslovakia.

Upon learning of the presence of Nazi troops in Saxony, Edvard Benes:

• announced partial mobilization, conscripting about 180 thousand people into the army;
• enlisted the support of the Western powers and the USSR.

This situation forced Hitler to retreat: the Czech ambassador was informed that Germany had no plans for Czechoslovakia.

The attitude of the leading powers to the crisis in the Sudetenland

Britain believed that nothing could save Czechoslovakia from Germany and that her fate was sealed.

On May 10, 1938, Kirkpatrick (counselor to the British Embassy) in a conversation with Bismarck (an employee of the German Foreign Ministry) emphasized that their countries could cooperate in solving the Czechoslovak problem and reach an agreement regarding the future of all of Europe.

Hitler skillfully played on Britain's desire to avoid war at all costs: he assured the British leadership that he would negotiate only after the settlement of the Sudetenland problem. To this, London replied that he wanted to see the Fuhrer next to the King of Britain on the balcony of Buckingham Palace.

The USA was in solidarity with England. The American Ambassador Bullitt reported that his country considered it impossible to prevent the annexation of the border regions of Czechoslovakia to the Reich.

France, led by Edouard Daladier, who came to power in April 1938, declared that she would be faithful to all the pacts and treaties concluded. With this, she confirmed her obligations in Franco-Czechoslovak:

• friendship treaty of 1924;
• Mutual Assistance Pact 1925

In fact, the French government really wanted to get rid of these obligations. Therefore, Daladier assured London of its determination to fulfill the treaties. It was a tricky move, because if France entered into a conflict with the Reich, then Britain would also be involved in the war.

The plans of Neville Chamberlain (Prime Minister of Great Britain) did not include a conflict with Germany, which means that Czechoslovakia had to part with part of its territory.

• demanded to satisfy the claims of the Sudeten Germans;
• put before the fact that in an armed conflict that may arise due to "intransigence", Czechoslovakia will not be assisted.

In addition, assistance to Czechoslovakia was denied by:

• Hungary and Poland, who were interested in the border lands - Slovakia and Transcarpathia;
• Romania and Yugoslavia, who emphasized that their military obligations did not apply to a possible conflict with the Reich.

Moscow's attempt to establish interaction between its army and the French and Czechoslovak ones failed. On this occasion, M. I. Kalinin (Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR) stated that the Franco-Soviet-Czechoslovak treaty does not prohibit providing assistance alone, without France.

Ultimatum to Benes: the position of England, France and the USSR

The Fuhrer considered the retreat from the intended goal in the spring of 1938 to be temporary, so he ordered that military preparations for the capture of Czechoslovakia be completed no later than November 1938.

The situation on the eve of the Sudeten revolt

In the summer of 1938, Hitler signed a number of directives regarding the preparation of the attack. He wanted the Western powers not to interfere with the invasion and destruction of Czechoslovakia as a state.

Great importance was given to the Siegfried line (western rampart). According to the project, it was supposed to stretch for 35 km and have 17 thousand structures placed in 3-4 rows. Behind them, an air defense zone was provided.

This building also had an ideological significance. So, on June 30, 1938, General Karl Heinrich Bodenschatz (adjutant of Hermann Goering) “confidentially” shared with Stelen (French air force attache) that Germany needed the shaft so that its southern flank was safe when the “Soviet threat” was eliminated. At the same time, he hinted that the powers of the West should not worry about him.

At this time, disagreements arose within the government of Czechoslovakia about:

• concessions to Germany;
• rupture of relations with the USSR;
• reorientation towards Western powers.

They were supplemented by constant clashes between Czechs and Germans.

Edvard Benes clearly understood that Czechoslovakia was at the epicenter of the war between Bolshevism and Nazism.

Revolt in the Sudetenland

On September 12, the Fuhrer ordered that all negotiations between Henlein and Benes be interrupted and demanded that the Sudeten Germans be allowed to decide their own fate. After that, a real uprising of the Germans began in the Sudetenland.

The Czechoslovak government tried to suppress the rebellion with the help of troops and the declaration of martial law in the Sudetenland.

In turn, the Henleinites demanded:

• withdraw Czechoslovak troops from the Sudetenland within 6 hours;
• cancel the martial law order;
• Entrust law enforcement to local authorities.

Hitler's meeting with Chamberlain at Berchtesgaden

To prevent a war, England, represented by the British leader Neville Chamberlain, and France, represented by Prime Minister Edouard Daladier, tried to find a way out of this situation.

Hitler agreed to the meeting, fixing the date and place of September 15 at his mountain villa in Berchtesgaden. Chamberlain flew there for 7 hours, which was already a sign of the humiliation of the West. The hope of the British leader was a peaceful resolution of the crisis.

The Fuhrer, referring to a fictitious report that clashes in the Sudetenland led to the death of 300 people (hundreds were injured), demanded an immediate solution to the Czechoslovak problem. At the same time, he stressed that the further cooperation of their countries will depend on this decision.

Chamberlain agreed to the incorporation of the Sudetenland into the Reich, subject to approval of this:

• your office;
• France;
• Lord Runciman (head of the unofficial mission of the British government in Czechoslovakia)

Chamberlain did not even mention Prague. This meant that England provided Germany with both the coveted "freedom of hands" in the East and the Sudetenland.

• transfer the border areas to the Reich for the security and interests of the country;
• cancel the mutual assistance treaties with the Soviet Union and France.

Thus, Britain and France did all the “dirty work” for Germany on the way to its goals (in fact, the ultimatum was supposed to come from the Reich).

Beneš understood that giving in to the ultimatum meant completely subordinating Czechoslovakia to Germany. Therefore, through Kamil Kroft, the country's foreign minister, the Czechoslovak government:

• refused to comply with the terms of the Anglo-French ultimatum;
• proposed to resolve issues based on the German-Czechoslovak arbitration agreement of 1925.

The refusal to comply with the ultimatum, in fact, was a fiction - after all, even 2 days before it was presented, the Minister of Czechoslovakia Necas visited Paris. On behalf of Edvard Benes, he proposed to the French prime minister to resolve the Sudeten problem by transferring three border regions to Germany. Nechas suggested the same to the British.

Czechoslovakia's refusal to help the USSR

On the night of September 21, envoys from France and Britain arrived at Benes, declaring that in the event of war they would not take part in it, and their proposals were the only way to prevent a German attack. Prague "with bitterness and regret" agreed to the terms of the ultimatum and refused to fight.

At this time, the Fuhrer's 5 armies were already on alert, and the Czech border towns of Ash and Cheb were captured by the Sudeten Volunteer Corps (with the support of the German SS units).

S.S. Aleksandrovsky (Soviet plenipotentiary in Prague) suggested declaring the threat of aggression from the Republic to the League of Nations.

Based on the provisions of the Charter, the League of Nations could help Czechoslovakia in:

• article 16 - the application of sanctions to a state that resorted to war (if it was a member of the League of Nations);
• article 17 - the application of sanctions to a state that resorted to war (if it was not a member of the League of Nations).

However, Benes refused any help - both from the USSR and through the League of Nations.

Nevertheless, the Soviet Union warned Germany (more than once) that it was ready to defend Czechoslovakia. So, on August 22, 1938, Schulenburg (the German ambassador in Moscow) during a conversation with People's Commissar Litvinov assured that in Czechoslovakia the Reich was only interested in the Sudeten Germans. Litvinov, on the other hand, made it clear that he saw in Germany's actions a desire to eliminate Czechoslovakia as a whole.

The USSR understood that only a warning from Britain and France (with the support of the United States) could stop Hitler's foreign policy aggression.

Reasons for Czechoslovakia's refusal of Soviet aid:

• The USSR was viewed as an undesirable ally: relations with it depended on France and Britain - if they rejected Russia, then Czechoslovakia was also uninteresting;
• In Czechoslovakia, it was believed that the Red Army had lost its combat effectiveness due to the repressions of the commanding staff;
• The country's government was afraid that the USSR would not come to the rescue at a decisive moment, referring to the "impossibility of transit passage" of its army.

The occupation of Czechoslovakia: stages, results, significance

The Munich Agreement was the first link from which the Nazi leader began the seizure of Czechoslovakia.

Hitler's meeting with Chamberlain in Godesberg

On September 22, 1938, in Godesberg, at a second meeting with Hitler, Chamberlain agreed to transfer the Sudetenland to the Reich even without a plebiscite. But instead of gratitude to the Fuhrer:

• already put forward claims to areas where the Germans were a minority of the population;
• demanded the immediate entry of German troops into the Sudetenland;
• insisted on satisfying the territorial claims of Poland and Hungary.

Hitler agreed to wait only until October 1, the date scheduled for the attack. The British Prime Minister assured that the Fuhrer would get everything he wanted, without war and immediately. Adolf Hitler thanked him for his contribution to "saving the world", assuring him of his desire for friendship with Britain.

After these negotiations, it became clear that it would not be possible to resolve the problem peacefully. The leading powers struggled to avoid war:

• Neville Chamberlain turned to Italian dictator Benito Mussolini for help;
• The Duce asked Hitler to delay the mobilization of the German army;
• the US president urged Hitler to continue negotiations and "peacefully, fairly and constructively resolve all issues."

The Fuhrer responded to requests, proposing that the heads of Britain, France and Italy meet in Munich. It was they who would later become participants in the conspiracy that destroyed Czechoslovakia, and known as the Munich Pact.

Munich Conference 1938

The conference was held in secret. Only prime ministers and foreign ministers took part in it:

• Germany was represented by Adolf Hitler;
• Italy - Benito Mussolini;
• Great Britain - Neville Chamberlain;
• France - Edouard Daladier.

Representatives of the USSR were not invited to the meeting.

Hitler allowed the representatives of Czechoslovakia to wait in the next room.

The negotiations on September 29-30, 1938 were chaotic: there was no procedure, no agenda (only unofficial notes were kept). All participants understood that the outcome of the conference was already a foregone conclusion.

"For the sake of European peace" Hitler demanded the immediate transfer of the Sudetenland to Germany. He emphasized that on October 1 he would send troops to the border areas, that the Reich had no other claims in Europe.

According to the Fuhrer's plan, the Reich troops were to enter Czechoslovakia legally, without the use of weapons.

The proposals voiced by Mussolini were drawn up the day before in Berlin. On their basis, a "compromise draft" of the agreement was drawn up. Chamberlain tried to discuss the "solution of the Russian question" with Hitler, but the Fuhrer remained silent. Nor did he listen to the proposals of the British on the future joint exploitation of the natural resources of the USSR.

The result of the conference was the transfer of the Sudetenland to Germany.

The fatal document was signed on September 30, 1938. Hitler was the first to put his flourish, followed by Chamberlain, Mussolini and, finally, Daladier.

The representatives of Czechoslovakia were briefed on the content of the agreement only after Hitler and Mussolini had left the meeting.

In Great Britain, in response to Chamberlain's joyful words: "I have brought you peace!", only Winston Churchill (the future Prime Minister of Great Britain) replied: "We have suffered a complete defeat."

Munich Treaty: results and significance

The results of the agreement concluded in Munich were colorful:

1. Germany

• • received the vast territory of the Sudetenland with all military fortifications, industrial enterprises, means of communication and means of communication;
  • Sudeten Germans previously convicted of Nazi activities were subject to amnesty.

1. Czechoslovakia

• received "guarantees" from Germany, Italy, Britain and France against unprovoked aggression;
• ceded 20% of its territory to Germany, losing one of its most industrial areas. Here was 66% of its reserves of hard and 80% of brown coal, production of 80% of cement and textile products, 72% of electricity;
• lost a very powerful line of fortifications.

1. Poland

• received the desired Teshin area.

1. Hungary

• received only a part of Southern Slovakia (instead of all of Slovakia and Transcarpathian Ukraine), as it caused the Fuhrer's displeasure by not supporting him during the days of the crisis.

Hitler was shocked to find out what kind of booty he got: military equipment, skillfully placed bunkers, etc. Their capture, in the event of a military clash, would cost Germany a lot of "blood".

However, the occupation of Czechoslovakia was not completed. This caused Hitler's dissatisfaction with the treaty, despite all the trophies received. The Fuhrer sought to carry out the complete capture of Czechoslovakia, but he did not dare to unleash a war in 1938.

Czechoslovakia's mutual assistance agreements with the USSR and France ceased to operate, and the "Carpathian Ukrainian Republic" (with an autonomous government) appeared as part of the country. German propaganda immediately inflated the myth about the emergence of a "new Ukrainian state in the Carpathians", which will become the center of the "Ukrainian liberation movement." This action was directed against the USSR.

For the European powers, the Munich Agreement of 1938 became:

• for England - the guarantor of Germany's non-aggression;
• for France - a disaster: its military significance has now begun to be reduced to zero.

At the same time, each of the powers perfectly understood how the Munich Agreement affected the idea of ​​​​creating a collective security system.

The agreement in Munich meant complete collapse:

• Versailles system;
• the prestige of the League of Nations,
• the course of the USSR towards the creation of collective security in Europe.

On the real balance of forces in the autumn of 1938: if Czechoslovakia had acted with the support of even one of the USSR (whose troops stood at the western border until 10/25/1938). Hitler could not unleash a big war. According to Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel of Germany (at the Nuremberg Trials) in Germany:

• there were no forces to cross the Czechoslovak line of fortifications;
• there were no troops on the western frontier.

The balance of forces of Germany and Czechoslovakia on September 30, 1938 (before the conclusion of the Munich Agreement)

The occupation of Czechoslovakia began in Munich. But even Hitler's partial capture of Czechoslovakia meant:

• liquidation of the Czechoslovak state;
• the destruction of the French security system;
• removal of the Soviet Union from the settlement of important issues in Europe;
• the isolation of Poland.

There are many opinions about the “correctness” and “forcedness” of concluding the Munich deal, but any of them is subjective and in many respects comes down to the version favorable to the authors.

Some researchers (Professor of North Texas University K. Eubank and British historian L. Thompson) justify the Munich Agreement, find "positive moments" in it and prove that England and Czechoslovakia did not have enough military-technical means to wage war.

However, most historians understand what the essence of the Munich Agreements was: it was they that led to the collapse of the policy of "appeasement" and the capture of all of Czechoslovakia by Hitler.

For France and England, the agreement was an occasion to expose the Soviet Union and the "threat of Bolshevism" under the blow of Germany. And for the USSR, which was aware of how the Munich Agreement affected the idea of ​​​​creating a collective security system, "the conspiracy in Munich was a shameful manifestation of the insidious design of the imperialists."

Hitler's victory over Czechoslovakia was accomplished thanks to:

• propaganda of fascist ideology and the work of German intelligence;
• subtle game on the interests of the governments of Britain and France;
• the desire of Britain and France to avoid war at all costs and direct Nazi aggression to the East;
• fears of American diplomacy that the war would lead to the "Bolshevization" of Europe;
• desires of Poland and Hungary to acquire new territories.

The Czechoslovak government of Benes betrayed its people, refusing to resist and help the USSR.

Final occupation of Czechoslovakia

The Munich Agreement, concluded on September 29, 1938, gave the Sudetenland to Germany in exchange for an end to its aggression against Czechoslovakia.

But already on October 11, 1938, the Fuhrer ordered Ribbentrop to plan the political isolation of Czechoslovakia in its unoccupied part. Started working here from day one.

• German intelligence;
• "Free Corps" Henlein;
• terrorists and saboteurs.

The Center for German Culture, which became the source of Nazi propaganda, was headed by Henlein's deputy, Kundt. As a result, Hitler's agents occupied all important posts in the state apparatus of Czechoslovakia.

In October 1938, Czechoslovak Foreign Minister Frantisek Chvalkovsky expressed his desire to cooperate with Germany, promising Hitler that his government would not cooperate with the USSR and France.

The Czechoslovak economy was part of the Fuhrer's plans, so in November 1938 (in Berlin) the countries signed:

• Protocol on the construction of the Danube-Oder Canal;
• agreement on the construction of the Wroclaw-Brno-Vienna motorway (passing through Czechoslovakia).

The German monopolies actively absorbed the enterprises of Czechoslovakia, and by the end of 1938 the trade balance with Germany became passive.

On October 21, 1938, Adolf Hitler and Wilhelm Keitel (Chief of Staff of the Wehrmacht) signed a directive to prepare for the occupation of the rest of Czechoslovakia. It was assumed that the troops of the Reich would not meet resistance from the weakened Czechs, who, moreover, once again (October 9, 1938) refused to support the USSR. Therefore, on December 17, 1938, an addition appeared to the aforementioned directive, according to which the capture of the Czech Republic was planned to be carried out by the forces of the Wehrmacht in peacetime.

Britain, which signed a non-aggression declaration with Germany on September 30, 1938, offered Germany economic cooperation and a number of large loans.

The British government was aware of the situation in Czechoslovakia. The British Foreign Minister Halifax (Edward Frederick Lindley Wood), although he referred to ignorance, recommended Czechoslovakia not to appeal to the help of European powers, but to resolve all issues through direct negotiations with the Reich. This position suited Hitler perfectly.

The French government also wanted to get closer to Germany. In October 1938, François-Poncet (French ambassador in Berlin) asked if it was possible to get financial advice in Germany and conclude a non-aggression declaration similar to the British one. The Fuhrer was ready to approach.

On December 6, 1938, Ribbentrop arrived in Paris, where he signed a non-aggression pact with France. At the same time, the Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance of 1935 was automatically annulled.

The political lull in Europe after Munich was short-lived.

March 14, 1939 Slovakia was proclaimed "an independent state under the protection of the Reich." On the night of March 15, 1939 Hitler demanded that the President of Czechoslovakia, Emil Hach, give up resistance. Under fear of the threat of war, Emil Hacha and Frantisek Chvalkovsky signed a document transferring the Czech Republic to Germany.

On the morning of March 15, Hitler's troops entered Czech soil, and in the evening of the same day, the Fuhrer himself arrived in Zlata Prague. He solemnly announced the creation of the protectorates of Bohemia and Moravia (led by Neurath).

The partition of the occupied territories of the Czech Republic into protectorates was confirmed by Hitler's decree of March 16, 1939.

Britain reacted calmly to another act of aggression by Hitler - after all, on March 13, its Foreign Ministry issued a memorandum for diplomats that the government would not interfere with Germany's aggression against Czechoslovakia.

The liquidation of Czechoslovakia had a peculiarity - the Third Reich annexed the lands where mostly Slavs lived, not Germans.

The capture of Czechoslovakia meant that Nazi Germany:

• went beyond their ethnic boundaries;
• tore up the Munich Agreement;
• discredited the policy of appeasement.

Chamberlain explained the cessation of the existence of Czechoslovakia by its "internal disintegration" and announced his intention to continue the political course. At the same time, he advised the British bank to stop paying the post-Munich loan to Czechoslovakia.

The government of France was in solidarity with England; The USSR considered Germany's actions criminal and contrary to international law.

As a result of the occupation of Czechoslovakia, Germany began to dominate the Danube. She "loomed like a shadow over the Balkans", having taken 40 allied Czech divisions from France, and arming 40 of her divisions with captured Czech weapons.

Hitler's further aggression gave him important strategic positions in the Baltic and the Baltic Sea.

Partition and destruction of Czechoslovakia as an independent state with the participation of Germany, Hungary and Poland in 1938-1939. These events are not officially included in the history of the Second World War, but are inextricably linked with it and may well be the first stage of this war.

1. Polish 7TP tanks enter the Czech city of Teshin (Cieszyn). October 1938

3. The Poles replace the Czech name of the city with the Polish one at the city railway station in the city of Teszyn.

4. Polish troops enter Teszyn

5. Polish soldiers pose with the deposed Czechoslovak coat of arms at the telephone and telegraph building they captured during Operation Zaluzhye in the Czech village of Ligotka Kameralna (Polish, Komorní Lhotka-Czech), located near the town of Teszyn.

6. Polish tank 7TR from the 3rd armored battalion (tank of the 1st platoon) overcomes the Czechoslovak border fortifications in the area of ​​the Polish-Czechoslovak border. The 3rd armored battalion had a tactical badge "Bison silhouette in a circle", which was applied to the tank turret. But in August 1939, all tactical signs on the towers were painted over as unmasking ones.

7. Handshake of Polish Marshal Edward Rydz-Smigly and German attache Colonel Bogislaw von Shtudnitz at the Independence Day parade in Warsaw on November 11, 1938. The photo is remarkable in that the Polish parade was especially attached to the capture of Cieszyn Selesia a month earlier.

8. The armored unit of the Polish troops occupies the Czech village of Yorgov during the operation to annex the Czechoslovak lands of Spis. In the foreground is a Polish wedge TK-3.

9. Polish troops occupy the Czech village of Yorgov during the operation to annex the Czechoslovak lands of Spis.

The further fate of these territories is interesting. After the collapse of Poland, Orava and Spis were transferred to Slovakia. After the end of the Second World War, the lands were again occupied by the Poles, the government of Czechoslovakia was forced to agree to this. To celebrate, the Poles staged ethnic cleansing against ethnic Slovaks and Germans. In 1958 the territories were returned to Czechoslovakia. Now they are part of Slovakia.-approx. b0gus

10. Polish soldiers at the captured Czech checkpoint near the Czechoslovak-German border, near the pedestrian bridge built in honor of the anniversary of Emperor Franz Joseph in the Czech city of Bohumin. The not yet demolished Czechoslovak border pillar is visible.

11. Polish troops occupy the Czech city of Karvin during Operation Zaluzhye. The Polish part of the population meets the troops with flowers. October 1938.

The Czechoslovak city of Karvin was the center of heavy industry in Czechoslovakia, coke production, one of the most important centers of coal mining in the Ostrava-Karvin coal basin. Thanks to the Zaluzhye operation carried out by the Poles, the former Czechoslovak enterprises already at the end of 1938 gave Poland almost 41% of the pig iron smelted in Poland and almost 47% of the steel.

12. Bunker of the Czechoslovak line of fortifications in the Sudetes ("Benesh Line").

13. Sudeten Germans break out the Czechoslovak border post during the German occupation of the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia in late September-early October 1938.

14. German troops enter the Czech city of Ash (on the border with Germany in the Sudetenland, the westernmost city of the Czech Republic). The local Germans, who made up the majority of the population of this region at that time, joyfully welcome the unification with Germany.

15. Commander-in-Chief of the German Land Forces, Colonel-General Walther von Brauchitsch welcomes German tank units (PzKw I tanks) at the parade in honor of the accession of the Czech Sudetenland to Germany. Appointed to the post of Commander-in-Chief of the Ground Forces with the rank of Colonel General the day before, shortly before the operation to annex the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia to Germany, Walter von Brauchitsch was one of the organizers of this operation

16. A column of Czechoslovak tanks LT vz. 35 before shipping to Germany. In the foreground, a tank with registration number 13.917 entered service with the Czechoslovak army in 1937. Was assigned to PUV-1 (PUV - Pluk Utocne Vozby - literally: regiment of assault wagons). In 1942, the Germans converted it into an artillery tractor (Mörserzugmittel 35(t).

17. Parts of the Polish 10th Cavalry Rifle Regiment of the 10th Mechanized Brigade are preparing for a solemn parade in front of the regiment commander on the end of Operation Zaluzhye (occupation of Czechoslovak territories).

18. Handshake of the Polish Marshal Edward Rydz-Smigly and the German attaché Major General Bogislaw von Shtudnitz at the Independence Day parade in Warsaw on November 11, 1938. The photo is remarkable in that the Polish parade was especially attached to the capture of Cieszyn Selesia a month earlier. A column of Teszyn Poles specially passed at the parade, and in Germany on the eve of November 9-10, 1938, the so-called “Kristallnacht” took place, the first mass action of direct physical violence against Jews in the territory of the Third Reich.

19. Fighters of the Czechoslovak border detachment "State Defense Units" (Stráž obrany státu, SOS) from battalion No. 24 (New Castles, Nitra) on the Maria Valeria bridge across the Danube in Parkano (present-day Shturovo) in southern Slovakia are preparing to repel Hungarian aggression.

20. The funeral of the Carpathian Sich and soldiers of the Czechoslovak troops who died in battle with the Hungarian troops who invaded Czechoslovakia.

21. Wedges of the Hungarian occupation forces of the Italian production "Fiat-Ansaldo" CV-35 enter the streets of the Czechoslovak city of Khust.

After Slovakia on March 14, 1939, under pressure from Hitler, declared its independence and Czechoslovakia collapsed, Hungary received permission from Germany to occupy part of Slovakia - Subcarpathian Rus. On March 15, the Prime Minister of Subcarpathian Rus, Augustin Voloshin, proclaimed the independence of Carpathian Ukraine, which was not recognized by other states. On March 16, 1939, Hungarian troops launched an assault on Khust, in which they received the 24th Hungarian border guard battalion and the 12th scooter battalion, and captured the city.

22. Hungarian wedges of Italian production "Fiat-Ansaldo" CV-35 and soldiers on the street of the captured Czechoslovak city of Khust in Carpathian Ukraine. In the background is the building of the headquarters of the "Carpathian Sich" with traces of battles.

23. Civilians greet Hungarian soldiers with flowers in an occupied Slovak settlement in southern Slovakia (Slovak name - Horná zem, Hungarian - Felvidék) with a significant Hungarian population

24. Fraternization of soldiers of the Hungarian and Polish occupation forces in the occupied Czechoslovakia.

25. The ruler (regent) of the Kingdom of Hungary, Admiral Miklos Horthy (on a white horse) at the head of the parade of Hungarian troops in the occupied Czechoslovak city of Kosice (in Hungarian Kassa) after its occupation on November 2, 1938.

26. German officers at the Czechoslovak-German border are watching the capture of the city of Bohumin by Polish troops. The Germans stand on a footbridge built in honor of the jubilee of Emperor Franz Josef.

Annotation. The article highlights the participation of Poland in the Nazi aggression against Czechoslovakia in 1938.

Summary . The article deals with the participation of Poland in the Nazi aggression against Czechoslovakia in 1938.

FROM THE HISTORY OF MILITARY-POLITICAL RELATIONS

PLATOSHKINNikolai Nikolaevich- Professor of the Moscow Humanitarian University, Doctor of Historical Sciences

(Moscow. E-mail: [email protected]).

FORGOTTEN ASSISTANT OF HITLER

The occupation of Czechoslovakia by Poland in 1938

Now the ruling circles of Poland actively represent their country as an innocent victim of fascist aggression during the Second World War, put Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union on the same level, demanding some repentance from our country. Probably because 600,000 Soviet soldiers died while liberating the Polish people from Nazi slavery, they cynically and cruelly destroy monuments to them. Maybe with the help of desecration of the memory of the fallen liberators of Poland in Warsaw they want to consign to oblivion the complicity of Poland to the Nazis?

Let's try to understand objectively, based on facts.

On the border between the Czech Republic and Poland, there has long been a small Teshinsky principality. In the early Middle Ages, its inhabitants spoke a mixture of Polish and Czech (which then did not differ much from each other), and defined their nationality as "local". Since 1327, the Teshin prince voluntarily became a vassal of the Czech crown, in 1653 (after the death of the last prince), the principality as an escheat inheritance (which had no heirs) went to the Czech king1. The Czechs fell under the yoke of the Habsburgs, and until 1918 Cieszyn Silesia (as they began to call it) was part of the Kingdom of the Czech Republic as part of Austria-Hungary.

Along with Czechs and Poles, Germans also lived in the region, calling themselves Silesians to emphasize their difference from the Sudeten Germans.

After the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, Czechoslovakia and Poland on November 2, 1918 signed an agreement on the temporary division of Cieszyn Silesia. But the ruling circles of authoritarian Poland longed for the Commonwealth "from sea to sea", and on January 23, 1919, a Polish-Czechoslovak armed conflict broke out over Teszyn, due to the fact that, in violation of the Polish-Czechoslovak agreement, the Poles began to call the local population into their army. During the so-called seven-day war (a truce was signed on February 1), the Czechoslovak army defeated the Poles and occupied most of the disputed territory, stopping the offensive only at the request of the Entente. Under pressure from the same Entente, Prague agreed to hold a plebiscite in Teszyn, although it believed that the historical rights of the Czech Republic to Teszyn Silesia were indisputable.

The Poles, having organized a campaign of terrorist attacks and sabotage, boycotted the referendum, realizing that the majority of the inhabitants would prefer democratic Czechoslovakia to authoritarian Poland.

After the initial defeats of Poland in the Soviet-Polish war of 1920, Warsaw agreed to negotiate with Czechoslovakia about the future of Teszyn, but the failure of the Red Army on the Vistula set the Poles in an irreconcilable mood.

On July 28, 1920, the Entente Arbitration Commission divided Cieszyn Silesia between Poland and Czechoslovakia along the Olsha River. The Poles received 1012 sq. km with a population of 139,630 people, Czechoslovakia - 1270 sq. km, on which 295 thousand people lived (56 percent of the territory of the disputed region and 68 percent of its population). Prague did not agree with this decision, but under pressure from the Entente, it accepted it, and on April 29, 1924, the parties signed the Polish-Czechoslovak protocol on the delimitation of the border in Teszyn.

Unlike the dictatorship of J. Pilsudski, who suppressed the rights of national minorities, Czechoslovakia encouraged the cultural identity of the Poles who ended up on its territory after 1920, in Teszyn. The Polish consulate general worked in the main city of the region - Moravska Ostrava. Through it, Polish national-cultural associations were financed (for example, School Matica in Czechoslovakia, Macierz Szkolna v Czechoslowacji). Number of Polish schools of different levels in the region in 1921-1938 increased from 18 to 983.

Pilsudski considered Teszyn to be the Polish “Zaolzhie”4, agitation for the “return of the illegally seized lands” was spreading in Poland, but the Poles switched to active actions only after the Nazis seized power in Germany.

If Czechoslovakia responded to Hitler's rise to power by concluding allied treaties with France and the Soviet Union, Poland signed a non-aggression pact with Germany on January 26, 1934. It became the first international agreement of the fascist regime, and Hitler appointed "Nazi number two" H. Goering as a special emissary for German-Polish relations.

In 1935, during a visit to Warsaw, Goering offered the Poles participation in the war of conquest against the USSR, promising part of Soviet Ukraine as a "trophy".

Poland dramatically changed its policy towards Czechoslovakia. A massive anti-Czechoslovak campaign unfolded in the Polish press. The ruling elite of Poland, especially the pro-German Foreign Minister Colonel J. Beck, wanted not only to capture Teszyn, but also to split Czechoslovakia in order to profit from part of the territory of the "independent" weak Slovakia that had broken away from it. The Nazis had exactly the same plans, with the only difference that they wanted to seize the Sudetenland, populated mainly by Germans, from the Czechoslovak Republic (CSR).

The plans of Warsaw were closely coordinated with Berlin, and both countries took an emphatically anti-Soviet position on the Czechoslovak question. The USSR, since 1935 connected with the Czech Republic by a mutual assistance treaty, did not have a common border with it. The closest part of the Czechoslovak territory to the Soviet Union was the Subcarpathian Rus, inhabited by Ukrainians and Rusyns,5 which became part of the Czechoslovakia by decision of the Entente in 1919. Soviet planes from Ukraine could, in the event of a war, fly over to the territory of Subcarpathian Rus without landing. Therefore, the Poles and Germans sought to tear this region away from Czechoslovakia and annex it to Hungary, which was set up both against Prague and against Moscow. In this case, Poland would receive a border with Hungary and finally cut off Czechoslovakia from assistance from Moscow, and the Nazis would have complete freedom of action in relation to Czechoslovakia.

In addition, in Warsaw, dreaming of a great Poland "from sea to sea", they tried to put Hungary and Romania under their control. Prague was an obstacle in the implementation of these great-power plans. But bound by a mutual assistance pact with the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia was still too tough for Poland.

Since 1933, following the example of Berlin influence on the Sudeten Germans, the fascistization of the Polish national minority in Teszyn began, directed from Warsaw. They tried to drive all the Poles there into a "single" party, modeled on the Sudeten German Party, headed by K. Henlein. In January 1934, a wave of mass demonstrations staged by the authorities, timed to coincide with the 15th anniversary of the “seven-day war” of 1919, swept across Poland, demanding “the liberation of Teshin from the Czechs”, the servile (servile) newspapers of the “sanation regime” of Pilsudski wrote about the Czechs as “ people of scoundrels"6, in no way inferior to the mouthpiece of the NSDAP "Völkischer Beobachter". Polish newspapers especially stressed that Czechoslovakia "concludes pacts with the Bolsheviks", in such a country the Poles should not live.

Since April 1934, illegally distributed leaflets printed in Poland appeared in Teszyn, calling on local Poles to “rise up to fight”: “Poles, wake up!”. This slogan echoed the main Nazi slogan: "Germany, wake up!".

From the end of 1934, the II branch of the General Staff of the Polish Armed Forces (intelligence and counterintelligence) began to create combat reconnaissance and sabotage groups in Teszyn under the code name "SC 1-4". Like similar groups of Sudeten Germans sent by the Abwehr and SD, these detachments, divided into fives, were supposed to create an atmosphere of civil war in Teszyn by sabotage and terrorist attacks, including against the Polish population, which would serve as a pretext for invading the region.

The first action of SC 1-4 was the desecration of a monument in the town of Trzynec on January 30, 1935. This fact shows that Poland has a long tradition of fighting monuments for political purposes.

On May 19, 1935, parliamentary elections were held in Czechoslovakia (in contrast to the “rehabilitation” Poland, they were absolutely free), on which great hopes were placed in Berlin and Warsaw. It was assumed that the German, Slovak and Polish separatists would achieve such success that they would "legally" split Czechoslovakia. The “Polish Party in Czechoslovakia” (Polskie Stronnictwo v Czechoslowacji) was quickly put together with the money of Warsaw, and the Czechoslovak authorities registered it, despite the clearly separatist and anti-state slogans of this party. The Polish consul general in Teszyn openly campaigned for her, for which he was declared persona non grata and was expelled.

The "Polish Party" closely coordinated its actions with the Slovak fascist separatists led by A. Glinka.

However, in the 1935 elections, only 37 percent voted for the Polish "independents". Polish voters Teszyn. Only one representative of the "Polish Party", lawyer L. Wolf, was able to get into parliament, and even then on the list of Slovak fascists Glinka.

The Poles, upset by this failure, recalled Ambassador V. Grzhibovsky from Prague and until January 1937 refused to send a new head of the embassy to Czechoslovakia.

The next surge of Polish attacks on Czechoslovakia coincided with the German occupation of the demilitarized Rhineland in February 1936, with which Hitler finally broke the Treaty of Versailles. At the same time, Polish Foreign Minister Beck, speaking in the Sejm, demanded that Czechoslovakia "return" Teszyn as a condition for the normalization of bilateral relations. Beck (like Hitler) was especially outraged by the conclusion in May 1935 of the Soviet-Czechoslovak Treaty of Mutual Assistance. Prague's indication that this treaty was connected with a similar Czechoslovak-French treaty, and that Poland had also formally been an ally of France since 1921, was ignored in Warsaw, since there was nothing to answer.

In the autumn of 1935, 70 anti-Czechoslovak demonstrations organized by the authorities took place in Poland under the slogan: “Long live a united Polish Silesia! We demand revision of borders!”7. Since September of the same year, the radio station in Katowice began to broadcast for "countrymen in Zaolzhye", promoting (like the Nazis) "the return of the Poles home" along with the territory.

The propaganda pressure on Czechoslovakia eased somewhat when, in April 1936, Poland was rocked by demonstrations against the dictatorial "sanation" regime.

Czechoslovakia, on which Germany pressed more and more every day, sincerely tried to normalize relations with Poland. In January 1937, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Czech Republic, K. Kroft, proposed that the Polish ambassador finally appointed to Prague create a joint parliamentary commission to discuss the situation of the Polish national minority in Teszyn. The Poles put forward as a precondition autonomy for Teszyn, which in fact meant complete independence. By the way, the Sudeten Germans then demanded exactly the same wide autonomy on instructions from Berlin.

In February 1937, Prague made unilateral concessions to Warsaw, expanding the autonomy of the Poles in the field of education in Teszyn. But Beck considered any negotiations with Czechoslovakia a waste of time, since he knew about Hitler's plan to liquidate the Czechoslovak state by military means - the "Grun plan", the first version of which, developed in June 1937, provided for close coordination of the Wehrmacht's combat operations with the sabotage activities of the Sudeten-German Henlein's party in Czechoslovakia8. .<…>

Read the full version of the article in the paper version of the "Military History Journal" and on the website of the Scientific Electronic Libraryhttp: www. elibrary. en

NOTES

1 Radim J., Pindur D., a kol. Těšínsko v proměnách staletí: sborník přednášek z let 2008-2009 k dějinám Těšínského Slezska. Česke Těšín: Muzeum Těšínska; Matice Slezská, 2010. S. 43-46.

2 The area of ​​the region was then 2281.6 sq. km, population according to the 1910 census - 434,521 people.

3 Bilek J. Kysela těšinska jablička, Praha, 2011. S. 125.

4 The Poles called the border river in Teszyn the Olzha.

5 Since 1945 - Transcarpathian region of the Ukrainian SSR. The regional center is Uzhgorod.

6 Bilek J. Op. cit. S. 131.

8 SlbDec M. Němci v Čechách. Prague, 2002. S. 78.

On September 30, 1938, the Munich Agreement was signed, according to which Germany transferred the Sudetenland to Czechoslovakia. Thus, Germany, Italy, France and Great Britain gave the green light to the process of eliminating the sovereignty of Czechoslovakia. Thanks to this agreement, Czechoslovakia lost up to 38% of the territory, transferring the Sudetenland region to Germany, Hungary - the southern and eastern regions of Slovakia inhabited mainly by ethnic Hungarians, Poland - the Czech part of Cieszyn Silesia. As a result, the morale of the political, military elite of the country, the population was undermined, Czechoslovakia actually turned into a narrow and long stump state, easily vulnerable to external invasion, which became a protectorate of Germany. German troops were stationed only 30 km from Prague, the outer defensive lines fell into the hands of a potential enemy.

On December 3, 1938, Prague and Berlin signed a secret agreement according to which Czechoslovakia could not "keep fortifications and barriers on the border with Germany." The fate of the remaining territory of the state was thus a foregone conclusion. On March 14, 1939, Adolf Hitler summoned Czechoslovak President Emil Hacha to Berlin and invited him to accept the German protectorate. The Czechoslovak president agreed to this, and the German army entered the state practically without any resistance from the Czech troops. On March 15, 1939, by personal decree of the Fuhrer, the Czech Republic and Moravia were declared a protectorate of Germany. The chief executive of the Czech Republic and Moravia was the Reichsprotector appointed by Hitler, he became Konstantin von Neurath (from 1932 to 1938 he was Reichsminister for Foreign Affairs of Germany, and then minister without portfolio). The post of president was retained, but was formal, it was still held by Emil Gaha. State structures were reinforced by officials from the Reich. Slovakia officially became an independent state, but in reality became a vassal of Nazi Germany. It was headed by the theologian and Glinkov leader of the Slovak People's Party (clerical-nationalist Slovak party) Josef Tiso.

The population of the protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was mobilized as a labor force, which was supposed to work for the victory of the Third Reich. Special departments were established to manage Czech industry. The Czechs were obliged to work in coal mines, in the metallurgical and military industries, strengthening the military and economic power of Germany; part of the local youth was sent to the Reich. In the first months of the occupation, German repressions were moderate and did not cause much indignation among the population.

Armed Forces of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

In the summer of 1939, the German authorities established the armed forces of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia to support internal security and order. Only "Aryans" were allowed to serve, that is, not Jews and not Gypsies. Most of the commanders and soldiers had previously served in the Czechoslovak army. They even retained their former uniforms, emblems and awards (the German-style uniform was introduced only in 1944).

The protector's armed forces consisted of 12 battalions of 480-500 people each (about 7 thousand people in total). In addition to the infantry companies, the battalions had bicycle companies and cavalry squadrons. The soldiers were armed with modernized Mannlicher rifles, light and heavy machine guns, which were produced at the Česká Zbrojovka factories. There were no heavy weapons. The Czech battalions were given the task of protecting communications, important facilities, carrying out engineering and rescue work, and helping police formations. Former brigadier general of the Czechoslovak army Jaroslav Eminger was appointed commander of the armed forces of the protectorate.

In 1944, 11 Czech battalions were transferred to Italy to protect communications (one battalion remained to guard the residence of President Emil Hakhy in Hradcany). However, soon several hundred Czechs went over to the side of the Italian partisans, and were transferred to the Czechoslovak armored brigade under the command of General Alois Lisa, who at that time fought in France. The German command was forced to disarm the remaining Czech soldiers and send them to engineering work.

In addition, the Czechs fought in the SS troops. At the end of May 1942, the Protectorate established the "Supervision for the Education of Youth in Bohemia and Moravia". The organization accepted young people aged 10-18 and brought them up in the spirit of National Socialism, developed physical culture. The senior members of the "Curatorship" had the opportunity to enter the service in the SS special forces, and the younger ones - in the "Exemplary Link". In the future, these structures were to become the core of the Bohemian SS.

In February 1945, the first recruitment of Czechs to the SS police regiment Brisken took place, which became part of the 31st SS Volunteer Grenadier Division Bohemia and Moravia. In the same year, about one thousand former soldiers and commanders of the Czechoslovak cavalry became part of the 37th SS Volunteer Cavalry Division "Lützow" being formed. In early May 1945, during the Prague Uprising, the SS Volunteer Company "Saint Wenceslas" (77 people) was formed from members of various Czech pro-fascist organizations and SS special forces. The company joined the German garrison in Prague. Part of the Czech SS, after the defeat of Germany, became part of the French Foreign Legion and fought in Indochina.

Czechoslovak formations in the troops of the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition

Poland. After the entry of the Czech Republic into the Third German Empire, about 4 thousand commanders and soldiers of the former Czechoslovak army, as well as civilians who did not want to remain in the territory subject to Berlin, moved to the Polish state. At the end of April 1939, the Czechoslovak Foreign Group was established, which initially included about 100 people. In addition, the transfer of the Czechoslovak military to France began on warships, where more than 1,200 people moved, a third of whom were pilots.

In Poland itself, the Czechoslovak Legion (about 800 people) and the Czechoslovak Reconnaissance Squadron (93 people) were formed. The legion was led by Lieutenant General of the former Czechoslovak army Lev Prhala, his assistant was Colonel Ludwik Svoboda. The formation of the Czech units at the time of the invasion of the German troops was not completed, so they took an insignificant part in the hostilities (in the battles in Galicia, 5 people were lost killed and 6 wounded). One part of the Czechoslovak Legion was taken prisoner near the village of Rakovets near Ternopil by units of the Red Army. Another part - about 250 people, including General Prhala, crossed the border with Romania and reached France or the French possessions in the Middle East in various ways.

France. At the end of September, the French military command began to form an infantry battalion from the Czechoslovaks. On October 2, 1939, the head of the French government Edouard Daladier and the Czechoslovak ambassador Stefan Osuski signed an agreement on the formation of Czechoslovak troops in France. On November 17, 1939, Paris officially recognized the Czechoslovak National Committee, headed by the former President of Czechoslovakia, Edvard Beneš, as the legitimate government of Czechoslovakia in exile.

From the Czechs and Slovaks living in France and arriving from Poland from the beginning of 1940, they began to form the 1st Czechoslovak division. Recruitment to it was both voluntary and through mobilization. The Czechoslovak division included two infantry regiments (the third regiment did not have time to complete), an artillery regiment, a sapper battalion, an anti-tank battery and a communications battalion. The unit was led by General Rudolf Wist. By May 1940, there were 11,405 people in the division (45% Czechs, 44% Slovaks, 11% Russians, Ukrainians and Jews). In addition, Czech aviation units were formed in France, numbering about 1,800 people.

With the beginning of active hostilities on the Franco-German front, the 1st Czechoslovak division received the task of covering the retreat of the French troops. Czechoslovak units took part in the battles on the Marne (June 13-17) and the Loire (June 16-17). In them, the division lost only 400 people killed, 32 Czechoslovak soldiers were awarded Military Crosses. On June 22, the division received the order to lay down. Approximately 3 thousand soldiers of the division and 2 thousand Czechoslovaks from other units were transferred to the UK.

England. In addition to those Czech soldiers who directly crossed the English Channel, about 200 people after the surrender of Paris from French Lebanon moved to British Palestine. At the end of October 1940, in Palestine, as part of the British army, they began to form the 11th Czechoslovak battalion. The unit was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Karel Klapalek. In December 1940, the unit had 800 men and the battalion was being trained in a camp near Jericho.

In the spring of 1941, the 11th battalion, together with Polish formations, guarded a camp for Italian-German prisoners (it contained about 10 thousand people) near Alexandria in Egypt. In the summer, the battalion took part in the battles against the troops of the Vichy French government in Syria. Interestingly, here the soldiers of the battalion clashed with their compatriots who served in the French Foreign Legion. The captured Czechs and Slovaks were allowed to join the battalion.

In October 1941, the battalion was transferred to North Africa, where it took part in battles against the blocked Italian-German grouping in Tobruk. In the spring of 1942, the battalion was transferred to Western Asia and began to reorganize it into the 200th light anti-aircraft regiment. In the summer of 1943, this regiment was transferred to England, where it was disbanded, and the personnel were included in the Czechoslovak armored brigade.

Czech pilots took part in the defense of the airspace of England. So, on July 12, 1940, several Czechoslovak fighter squadrons were formed in Duxford. By 31 October 1941 they had shot down 56 German aircraft. From December 1943, the 313th Czechoslovak bomber squadron began to take part in allied air raids on Germany. During these raids, 560 Czech pilots were killed. Czechoslovak pilots fought in the British Air Force until the very end of the war in Europe. The most productive Czechoslovakian pilot in the British Air Force was Captain Karel Kutgelvascher - he shot down 20 enemy aircraft. Sergeant Josef Frantisek had 17 enemy aircraft on his account, Captain Alois Vasyatko - 16 aircraft, Captain Frantisek Perzhina - 15 aircraft.

London recognized the Czechoslovak government-in-exile on July 21, 1940. On October 25, 1940, after a joint decision of the British and Czechoslovak governments, the formation of the 1st Czechoslovak mixed brigade began (until 1944 it defended the southern English coast). In 1944, the Mixed Brigade was reorganized into the Czechoslovak Armored Brigade under the command of Brigadier General Alois Licka. On August 30, 1944, the brigade was landed in French Normandy and was in reserve until early October. From October 7 until the surrender of Germany, the brigade took part in the siege of Dunkirk. During this time, the armored brigade lost 201 people killed and 461 wounded. On May 12, a combined detachment from this brigade arrived in Prague for a symbolic entry into the Czech capital.

Czechoslovak pilots in England. 1943

Czechoslovak units in the Red Army

As already noted, in September 1939, the Red Army near the village of Rakovets near Ternopil captured several hundred soldiers and commanders of the Czechoslovak Legion, which was part of the Polish armed forces. They were interned in camps for Polish prisoners, first in Ukraine and then near Suzdal. In April 1940, according to the agreement between Moscow and Paris, the 1st transport with 45 legionnaires was sent to France. During 1940-1941. 10 batches with interned Czechs and Slovaks were sent to France and the Middle East. By June 1941, 157 former legionnaires remained in internment camps in the USSR.

On July 18, 1941, in England, Soviet Ambassador Ivan Maisky and Czechoslovak Foreign Minister Jan Masaryk signed an agreement between the USSR and the Czechoslovak government in exile on joint actions against the Third Reich. On September 27, 1941, the Soviet government decided to call up "Soviet citizens of Czechoslovak nationality" to the Czechoslovak units on the territory of the USSR.

In early February 1942, in Buzuluk, in the military camps of the Polish army, under the command of General Vladislav Anders, they began to form the 1st separate Czechoslovak battalion. Its commander was Lieutenant Colonel of the former Czechoslovak army Ludwik Svoboda. I must say that this man had a very rich biography even before he headed the Czechoslovak units in the USSR. Ludwik was born on November 25, 1895 in a peasant family in the village of Groznatyn in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. He received the specialty of an agronomist, was drafted into the Austro-Hungarian army in 1915. Svoboda fought on the Eastern Front against the Russians, then voluntarily surrendered. He was kept in a camp near Kyiv, after his release he served in the city fire department, in September 1916 he joined the Czechoslovak Legion (he commanded a platoon, a company). Participated in a number of battles on the side of the Russian imperial army. After the revolution and the uprising of the Czechoslovak Corps, he took part in battles with the Red Army (commanded a company, a battalion). In 1920 he returned to his homeland. Since 1921 he served in the Czechoslovak army with the rank of captain. By the time of the occupation of Czechoslovakia by the Germans, he was a battalion commander. He was dismissed from the army and became a member of an anti-fascist group, after its disclosure, he fled to Poland. In the Polish state, he was an active participant in the creation of Czechoslovak military formations as part of the Polish army. After the defeat of Poland, he was captured by the Red Army, was in the camps for internees. He was an active supporter of the creation of a Czechoslovak military unit as part of the Red Army.

To replenish the 1st Czechoslovak battalion on February 3, 1942, the USSR State Defense Committee announced an amnesty for all citizens of Czechoslovakia. On November 19, 1942, the Presidium of the Supreme Council announced an amnesty for all imprisoned Ukrainian-Rusyns and Slovaks from Hungary, who were formerly citizens of Czechoslovakia. By January 1943, there were 974 people in the Czechoslovak battalion (52% were Ukrainian-Rusyns and Jews, 48% were Czechs and Slovaks). They were armed with Soviet small arms and dressed in British uniforms with Czechoslovak insignia.

Valentina (Wanda) Binevska was born on September 27, 1925 in the city of Uman, Cherkasy region, into a Czech family. In 1942, Wanda joined the emerging 1st Czechoslovak separate battalion, completed courses for medical instructors and snipers. Participated in the battles for Kyiv and Sokolovo as an observer-sniper. In 1944, she was abandoned behind enemy lines, in Slovakia, where she fought as part of the Slovak rebel detachments. On March 3, 1945, in the city of Banska Bystrica, she was captured by the Germans, from where she managed to escape on March 17, joining the Stalin partisan detachment. She ended the war with the rank of sergeant in the Czechoslovak army.

In March 1943, the battalion became part of the 3rd Tank Army of the Voronezh Front and first entered the battle near the village of Sokolovo near Kharkov. During the Kharkov defensive operation, the battalion, together with Soviet formations, repelled German attacks. In this battle, the Czechoslovak battalion suffered heavy losses (only 153 people were counted dead and 122 were missing, almost all company and platoon commanders were killed), but showed high morale and good training. The battalion was taken to the rear, and in May in Novokhopersk, the 1st Czechoslovak Separate Infantry Brigade was formed at its base. In addition to infantry battalions, the brigade also included a tank battalion (20 tanks and 10 armored vehicles). By September 1943, there were 3517 people in the brigade (more than 60% were Rusyns, the rest were Czechs, Slovaks, Russians and Jews). The brigade was reinforced with officers who came from England and the Middle East.

Commander of the 1st Czechoslovak Separate Brigade, Colonel Ludwik Svoboda (sitting on the right) with colleagues.

At the end of September 1943, the brigade was sent to the front. In November, she, as part of the 1st Ukrainian Front, took part in the battles for Kyiv, in the area of ​​​​Vasilkov, Ruda, Belaya Tserkov and Zhashkov. During these battles, the brigade lost 384 people only killed. In the spring of 1944, the brigade was taken to the rear for reorganization and replenishment. On the basis of the brigade, they began to form the 1st Czechoslovak Army Corps. It was created at the expense of conscripts from the Volyn and Carpathian regions liberated by the Red Army, as well as Slovak prisoners of war and Czechoslovak commanders who arrived from England. By September 1944, the Czechoslovak Corps had 16,171 men. The corps included three separate infantry brigades, a separate airborne brigade, a separate tank brigade (23 tanks and 3 self-propelled guns, commander - staff captain Vladimir Yanko), an artillery regiment, a fighter aviation regiment (21 fighters, commander - staff captain Frantisek Feitl), a separate sapper battalion, a separate communications battalion. Brigadier General Jan Kratochvil became the corps commander at the suggestion of the Czechoslovak government.

In addition, from the beginning of 1944 in Efremov (Tula region) they began to create the 2nd Czechoslovak separate airborne brigade. Its backbone was the soldiers and commanders of the 1st Slovak division, which went over to the side of the Red Army near Melitopol in December 1943.

In August 1944, the 1st Czechoslovak Army Corps, as part of the 1st Ukrainian Front, operated in the Carpathian region. In the East Carpathian operation, the corps was supposed to assist the outbreak of the Slovak uprising during the offensive of the Red Army. However, on the very first day of participating in the battle (September 9), due to poor organization of reconnaissance and poor command and control, two brigades of the Czechoslovak Corps came under heavy fire from German artillery and suffered significant losses (611 people). Marshal of the Soviet Union I.S. Konev, by his order, replaced Kratokhvil with Svoboda. The Czechoslovak troops continued their offensive, breaking through one after another the enemy's defensive positions in the mountains in fierce battles. On September 20, the city of Dukla was liberated by the corps, and on October 6, the well-fortified Dukelsky Pass, which was located on the old Czechoslovak border, was captured by storm. On this day, Soviet and Czechoslovak troops entered the territory of Czechoslovakia, marking the beginning of its liberation from the Germans. On the same day, the landing of the 2nd Separate Airborne Brigade began in Slovakia. The paratroopers connected with the rebels and entered into heavy battles with the German troops. On October 31, when the Slovak Uprising was defeated, the brigade switched to partisan warfare and was renamed the 2nd Czechoslovak Partisan Brigade. This brigade connected with the advancing Soviet, Czechoslovak and Romanian troops on February 19, 1945.

Soldiers of the 1st Czechoslovak Army Corps, October 6, 1944.

Soldiers of the 1st Czechoslovak Army Corps on the state border, 1944.

Until November, the Czechoslovak Corps continued the offensive, then went on the defensive. Czechoslovak units were no longer withdrawn to the rear, acting on the front lines until the end of the war. The corps fought as part of the 38th Army of the 4th Ukrainian Front. The training of personnel and the replenishment of formations was carried out in reserve and training units of the corps. At the beginning of 1945, the 1st Czechoslovak Separate Fighter Aviation Regiment was transformed into the 1st Czechoslovak Mixed Aviation Division (comprising 65 aircraft) under the command of Colonel Ludwik Budin. The aviation division took an active part in the battle for Moravia.

In January 1945, the corps took part in the West Carpathian operation, in March - in the Moravian-Ostrava operation. On April 4, 1945, Brigadier General Karel Klapalek was appointed commander of the formation. On April 30, the Czechoslovak Corps entered the Czech Republic proper and continued stubborn battles with the German troops until the surrender of Germany. On May 10, 1945, the advanced units of the corps on Soviet tanks entered Prague. The losses of the Czechoslovak Corps, along with the losses of a separate battalion and a separate brigade, in 1943-1944. 4,011 people were dead, missing and died of wounds, and 14,202 people were sanitary.

On May 17, 1945, the parade of the entire Czechoslovak Corps took place in Prague: together with the rear and training units, its strength at that time was 31,725 ​​people. From June 1945, on the basis of the corps, they began to form the 1st Army of the Czechoslovak People's Army.

Tank IS-2 of the 1st Czechoslovak Army Corps in the center of Prague.

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