Policy towards merchants and townspeople

Since the 17th century a new period in the history of Russia begins. This circumstance was noted in the works of S. M. Solovyov, V. O. Klyuchevsky, speaking of the “new period”, history, we note that the end result of the mass national liberation movement was the restoration of shaken positions, feudal serf status and autocracy. Thus, the wealthy strata of the townspeople, who led the urban movements, turned out to be one of the forces that contributed to this restoration. And in the future, the emerging new bourgeois ties, the bearers of which, first of all, were the cities and for which the actions of the townspeople cleared the way, for a long time were clothed in a fortress shell.

Throughout the 17th century the process of forming cities as trade and craft centers continued, not only on state, but also on privately owned land. According to P.P. Smirnov, by the middle of the 17th century. there were 254 cities.

As for Moscow, the capital and main city of the entire Grand Duchy, it is quite worth it to dwell on it in more detail. From the work of Adam Olearius, we learn that it got its name from the Moscow River “This city lies in the middle and, as it were, in the bosom of the country, and Muscovites believe that it is 120 miles from the borders everywhere, but miles are not the same everywhere.”

The traveler A. Olearsky describes in detail the residential buildings in the city, saying that, with the exception of the houses of the boyars and some of the richest merchants and Germans who have stone palaces in their courtyards, the houses are built of wood or of pine and spruce beams crossed and planted on top of each other. The roofs are covered with boards, on top of which they lay birch bark, and sometimes sod. It is in this that Olearius sees the cause of strong fires: “not even a month or even a week passes so that several houses, and at times, if the wind is strong, entire lanes are not destroyed by fire.” As for the layout of the city, it should be noted, first of all, that the streets were wide, but in rainy weather they were very dirty and viscous. Therefore, most of the streets are covered with round logs (bridges).

The whole city was divided into four main parts: Kitay-gorod, Tsar-gorod, Skorodod and Streltsy settlement.

In Kitai-Gorod there is the Grand Duke's Kremlin Castle, inside which there are many magnificent stone buildings: buildings, palaces and churches that are inhabited and visited by the Grand Duke, the Patriarch, their advisers and nobles.

In this part of the city live the majority, moreover, the most distinguished, guests or merchants. There are many markets here: iconic, lousy, market square.

Many nobles and princes, children of boyars, noble citizens and merchants also lived in the Tsar-City, but besides them there were various artisans, mainly bakers.

The third part of the city - Skorodod - was distinguished by a forest market, where you could buy a house and get it ready built.

The fourth part of the city - the Streltsy settlement was built, according to Olearius, for foreign soldiers, Lithuanians and Indians. Thus, Moscow, through the eyes of foreigners, was predominantly wooden, and the majority of the population were working people. But still, in comparison with other cities, Moscow was the center of crafts, trade, culture, it was truly beautiful and magnificent.

However, the sources often contain the word “posad” and the townspeople.

Let's start with the fact that the terminology of the XVII century. strictly distinguished between “city” and “posad”. The city is actually a fortress, and the suburb is a commercial and industrial part, where the lands and courtyards of the townspeople are located, who carried the sovereign's tax. In general, the Russian city of the 17th century, with its diverse population, did not represent a single urban organization. The artisan and trade population had a common official name - the townspeople, as they lived in the towns. According to P. P. Smirnov, two signs characterize a townsman: firstly, townsman antiquity, that is, origin, and, secondly, trades, crafts and crafts, that is, occupation. According to their occupations, the townspeople were divided into commercial, industrial, handicraft, and working people. Property stratification can be noted for all townspeople, regardless of their profession. It affected most sharply among commercial and industrial people. These were usually the "best people." Many of them were owners of tanneries, distilleries... But among the commercial and industrial people there were those who sold every little thing, that is, from their hands. Less sharp was the stratification of property among artisans and working people. Masters who had several students turned into small entrepreneurs, owners of small workshops based on the exploitation of other people's labor.

A special, almost always small group in the settlement was formed by “free” or “walking” people - a category of the population, partly distinguished by non-taxable estates (clergy, service people according to the device), partly created as a result of the legal collapse of feudal ties (enslaved people who received vacation pay) and the "illegal" severance of these ties by people who fled and peasants of one or another owner.

From among the townspeople, privileged trading corporations were recruited, of which there were three: guests, a living room and a cloth hundred. In the XVI-XVII centuries. guests are a small group of the richest merchants and industrialists, some were financial advisers to the king and agents in the trading operations of the treasury.

In the first half of the 17th century, there were thirteen guests in Moscow. A little lower than the living room of a hundred was considered a corporation of trading people of a cloth hundred (it was an organization of the provincial merchants). The guests and the drawing room and the woolen hundreds carried the state service in finance, state-owned industry and trade. The townspeople themselves did not seek to get into these privileged corporations, and there were often cases when they managed to “fight off” the living room of a hundred.

So, townspeople are hard-working city dwellers who were part of urban societies. The supreme power at the beginning of the 17th century, along with Mikhail Fedorovich and the boyars, was personified by the Zemsky Sobor, which met for three years: from 1613 to 1616, from 1616 to 1619, from 1619 to 1622. The composition of the zemstvo sobors, as in every normal class-representative institution, included three groups: feudal landowners and townspeople, burghers, townspeople. We know from sources that according to the conciliar verdict of July 3, 1619, the representation of the townspeople at the Zemsky Sobor was officially announced.

Thus, the population of cities fell into the following classes:

2) living hundred,

3) cloth hundred,

4) black hundreds and settlements.

The first three ranks made up the higher merchant class. The clerk of the second half of the 17th century, G. Kotoshikhin, says that the guests had a working capital of 20-100 rubles. Merchant people of the three named categories, according to the size of capital, carried unequal state duties. In addition to the general city tax, which fell on the entire township population, they also carried out financial assignments for the operation of various state monopolies and revenue items. These were: the sale of the sovereign's sable treasury, that is, the furs that the treasury traded in; the sale of drinks, which constituted the monopoly of the treasury; collection of customs duties in domestic markets. These government operations were carried out in turn by the guests and people of both top hundreds, not only free of charge, but also under their property responsibility. Such a responsible service, in contrast to the military, was called faithful or kissing, that is, a jury. More difficult and responsible assignments fell on the guests than on the people of the living room and the cloth hundreds. The people of the Black Hundreds and settlements made up the bulk of the commercial and industrial population. Hundreds and settlements were divided among themselves by the type of industrial occupations. The settlements consisted of merchants and artisans assigned to the palace and supplying various supplies there or working for it.

These were settlements of palace gardeners, blacksmiths... Each black settlement constituted a special society, ruled by an elected headman or centurion. As for the townspeople in provincial cities, this is the composition of the rural population and, finally, the intermediate layers that lay between the main ranks. Posadskaya tax community served all the duties in the order of mutual responsibility, so she was vitally interested in the preservation of their taxpayers and in increasing their number. Meanwhile, on the one hand, the enormous displacement of the population and the reduction of the townspeople caused by the events of the beginning of the 17th century did not decrease even in the first years of the reign of Tsar Michael, and on the other hand, the burden of duties that lay on the taxpayers and their growth throughout the first half of the XVII century aroused the desire of the townspeople to get rid of the township tax by switching to “mortgagers” and to secular feudal lords. Posads persistently and stubbornly fought against stalking. They repeatedly asked the government to organize investigations and return them to the settlements. In response to these appeals, the government not only entrusted the investigation to separate orders, but also created special detective orders, which were engaged in the search for and return of pawnbrokers to the tenements.

So, after the election of Mikhail Fedorovich to the kingdom, from February 21 to March 14, when the embassy headed by the boyar F.I. vest people, along with their wives and children.” The Boyar Duma and the clerks of the various orders in charge of the towns did not think about the legal side of the matter, and even less did they think about the townspeople themselves. They took them to the township according to the township antiquity, and in not a single letter do we find indications of any statute of limitations that paid off this township antiquity: investigations and return were indefinite (with the exception of the letter to Nizhny Novgorod). The aforementioned letter on the search for tax-payers of Nizhny Novgorod in 1618 brings the position of fugitive townspeople, pawnbrokers on privately owned lands, closer to the position of privately owned peasants and bobs on urban township lands and, in the case of a five-year period, postpones the decision of the fate of both until the sovereign decree. “And what will be the townspeople live in white places, and white and non-taxable people live in black places before the current patrol for five and six years or more, and you would not exile those people from their places until our decree.” Focusing on a five-year period, the clerks back in 1618 had no instructions regarding the applicability of this period to the townspeople, although the peasants were given out from the towns to their owners for exactly five years.

The new period of life of the township begins from the second decade, when the townspeople who settled in the new places of their settlement and remained in the old townships were covered by “gross writing”, and on the lands of the townships the same patrols and cadastres are fixed by the same patrols and scribe books, relying directly on the patronizing policy of the government Filaret, then to the fickle and ambivalent policy of his successors. In the suburbs, a stubborn and persistent struggle between the townsmen draft people and the white-towners begins, complicated by the struggle within the township world itself. According to Chistyakova, the struggle between the settlements and the residents of Belomestsy was fought not only and not so much for suburban lands, but for taxpayers, who were absorbed by the white-located settlements, turning them into pawnbrokers. The government, in need of lands and taxes, already from the 16th century sought to limit the growth of land wealth and tax privileges of the Belomests. So, on the basis of the decree of 1620/1621. it was practiced to prohibit all types of transition (purchase, mortgage, contribution, giving as a dowry) of taxable posad yards in the black settlements of Belomests. This decree, in my opinion, is characterized by the form of turning its edge not against strong buyers, but against weak townspeople - sellers. You can’t sell black seats, but you can buy; You can't mortgage, but you can borrow.

Of course, such a form of unilateral prohibition could not lead to the goal, and seven years later the government itself recognized the transactions made in spite of it as valid. On December 9, 1627, she ordered that the yards and places acquired by them from draft people be left behind the noblemen of the Belomests, and instead of them, allocate land in the Wooden City to the Black Hundreds and settlements. The prohibition of townspeople to sell and otherwise alienate their draft yards and places to Belomests not only retained its force, but also received territorial expansion. On April 6, 1620, the government of the patriarch forbids giving state taverns at the mercy of Belomestsk residents. This farming becomes the privilege of black townspeople and volost peasants.

On the one hand, the townspeople achieved some privileges, on the other hand, this decree limited and reduced these privileges to zero, since in orders the boyars and nobles, filing petitions on their own behalf, could always achieve more than the townspeople. In addition, in 1631, in preparation for the Smolensk campaign, the new government withdrew from free circulation in the markets everything, the sale of which promised at least some profit. Finally, on November 11, 1632, in connection with the Smolensk war, a fifth was appointed. It was collected in 1634, as a result of which the sots and elders of the Moscow Black Hundreds and settlements began to write petitions in which they complain that the taxpayers are selling all their mansions from their places and laying the yards to the nobles, boyars, and the Belomestsy beat them with their foreheads, so that they buy these yards by the hundreds. Thus, on March 18, 1634, it was forbidden to sell and mortgage yards in the White City without the consent of the Zemsky order, and on August 19, 1634, according to the report of B. M. Saltykov, a decree was issued, according to which it was not only forbidden to sell and mortgage black lands , yard places, but also mansions from yards. In case of violation of the decree, it was ordered to take away these yards from buyers, and subject sellers and mortgagees to corporal punishment.

The next factor that united the townspeople was their desire for a market monopoly. An important indicator of the formation of the Russian merchant class and its peculiar reaction to attempts to draw Russia into the pan-European market was the submission, starting from the 1620s, of common petitions from Moscow merchants to limit the trade of foreigners. These general speeches of the townspeople prompted Tsar Michael to turn the legislation towards the appeasement of the townspeople. On May 9, 1637, the sovereign ordered to look for pawnbrokers in Moscow and take them to black lands. This decree marks a sharp increase in the period of investigation of townspeople's mortgages: instead of the usual ten-year, twenty-five-year investigation. In addition, the mandate prescribed simplified proceedings: that is, evidence of township antiquity according to documents, scribe books became optional for plaintiffs, sotsk and elders. Their claims, stated in the murals, the court order was obliged to believe and did not have to check them on the act material. The whole process was greatly simplified and, accordingly, accelerated. In addition, on September 12, 1638, the order of detective affairs, established in 1619, was restored: “the sovereign ordered mortgage official affairs to be in charge and to look for mortgages in Moscow and in the towns of the boyar, Prince P. A. Repnin and clerk Timofey Golosov ...”. Compared with the order of 1619, the order of the Order of Detective Affairs of 1638 was more definite: it was not necessary to search for “all kinds of people”, but only townspeople. Return to the settlements, people were subject to tax according to the principles of the township past for free walking people. Posad fortress was declared stronger than any other fortresses. Those people who married a tax widow were also subject to return: “So that their sons-in-law could live in their houses up to their stomachs and drink and feed,” and “who the townspeople gave their daughters to girls for freemen for all kinds of people in marriage, and in those cases, one should not have their sons-in-law.

Thus, this order shows how much, in fact, the townspeople managed to achieve in the field of acquiring estate privileges. The prohibition of residents of Belomests to acquire yards, yard places, shops, barns. The order of detective affairs went towards the townspeople when they clearly demanded, turning Moscow and even boyar peasants and bobs into a tax.

So, from all that has been said, the conclusion follows that in the new period of Russian history, the role of the city as a center of crafts and trade was strengthened, the estate of townspeople was formed. However, the entire policy of the government regarding the settlements was conservative and was carried out in the interests of the bulk of the feudal lords. Cities served as a source of replenishment of the state treasury. This source was cherished in a businesslike way, but not for the sake of the source itself, but in order to draw water from it and pour it on the wheels of the noble-boyar statehood.

Attempts by the posad worlds to expand the scope of the posad issue, to achieve recognition of the rights of a state rank or class for the townspeople, to secure their monopoly right to trade, crafts and farming, did not cause help, but shouts or were resolved by reservations that made them useless for the townspeople. From what, in the future, judging by the studies of historians, that pro-noble policy, which did not rely on either the Zemsky Sobor, or the townspeople, or the local army, led almost to the collapse and impotence of the central government. But, despite the half-heartedness of the transformations, it can be concluded that the urban population nevertheless recovered from a deep sleep and stood up to protect their rights, bargaining with the government for their representation at the Zemsky Sobor, thereby winning the right to interfere in the internal and external affairs of the state. In addition, by decree of June 16, 1617, they received the right to duty-free trade and began to put forward new demands: the exclusive right to engage in trade and crafts, protection from competition of foreign merchants, protect them from claims from the clerk's administration. At this time, the struggle with Belomests begins. The government willingly returned taxpayers - taxpayers to the settlements. In this matter, the benefits of the settlement and the financial interests of the treasury coincided. So, in the 17th century, the townspeople took a significant step towards establishing their legal status. The government helped him in this, since this new approved estate was at the beginning of a new era a small spark, from which a fire of class contradictions and strife subsequently formed, caused by jealousy of the boyar-noble position.

Commercial Industry Legislation

The growth of handicraft in the 17th century, its transformation into small-scale commodity production, the presence of areas with a certain specialization in the field of handicraft and commodity production, the emergence of a labor market - all this created conditions for the development of large-scale industry.

Back in the twenties of the XVII century, according to V. G. Geiman, N. V. Ustyugov, the treasury tried to build factories in the Tomsk region and in the Urals. However, the lack of cheap labor prevented the production on a large scale. Built by the treasury in 1631, a small Nitsinsky plant in the Urals worked on old technically primitive equipment. Even earlier, in the 1930s, the government made the first attempt to expand metallurgical production by using foreign experience and foreign capital. In 1632, an agreement was concluded with the Dutch merchant A. D. Vinius on the construction of iron-smelting and iron-working plants in the Russian state. The factories were supposed to be equipped with the capital of the entrepreneur, and the labor force was to be civilian. The products of the factories were, first of all, to be handed over to the treasury, and the surplus could be put into free sale on the domestic market or exported abroad. For ten years, factories were exempted from paying any taxes. By 1637, Vinius built 3 water plants in the Tula region, which were a single industrial complex. The factories were equipped in accordance with the requirements of the then Western European technology. Qualified masters and apprentices were ordered by Vinius from abroad. Their work was paid much higher than the Russians. Subsequently, however, the factory owners faced the narrowness of the labor market. The factories could not attract enough workers to carry out the work. The government knew this and helped Vinius get the missing workforce through non-economic coercion. The treasury drew labor for its manufactories, first of all, from the population of Moscow state and palace settlements. In addition, a significant number of craftsmen were called to Moscow from the suburbs.

In addition, it should be noted that at the manufacturing enterprises in the 17th century, along with serf labor, civilian labor was also used. Already the first half of the 17th century was characterized by a significant number of townspeople who did not have any other sources of livelihood, except for the sale of their labor force.

Judging by the sources, in 1627, the Solvochegodsky posad world petitioned the government to reduce the duty after a fire that destroyed a significant part of the city. In their petition, the townspeople indicated that most of the townspeople are poor, who earn their livelihood by selling their labor, primarily in the salt mines. “And the work, sir, is done by all sorts of working people,” petitioners wrote, “varnish and all sorts of unsubscribed plows from the best people at the varnits.”

The growth of cash quitrent, the transition from labor and food rent to cash rent, as well as the growth of state taxes, stimulated the departure of peasants to work. The bulk of the landlord peasants who go to work are precisely in the non-chernozem counties (Pomorie, Volga region). Peasants usually only temporarily went to work, and then returned to their household. Among the townspeople, there were many people who had nothing but a yard or a hut, and were fed by work for hire. Some of them had no yards at all, they lived in other people's yards or in special "workers' huts" during the trades. And yet it must be said that the further development of the township and peasant industry and the emergence of manufactory laid the foundation for new forms of hiring, although slowly, but still undermining its old serf foundations.

As for trade, in the 17th century it covered all the main strata of the population, from the palace nobility and the highest church hierarchy to black-haired, palace and privately owned peasants. At this time, there was an expansion of markets, there were several of them: grain, salt, sable, markets for animal raw materials, iron products.

So, for example, Nizhny Novgorod was a large grain market in the central strip, where bread came from the newly developed Volga region; Vologda, which acquired the importance of a grain market in the 16th century; Vyatka; Ustyug the Great.

Novgorod, Pskov, Tikhvin were major sales centers for flax and hemp. Significant consignments of flax and hemp were drawn to these points, both from the immediate district and from various places in the North-Western region.

The most important markets for animal raw materials (skin, lard, meat) were urban centers close to livestock areas, such as Kazan, Vologda, Yaroslavl.

Special markets for iron products already existed in the 16th century. Tula was the most significant center of iron production. Tula was also a market for iron products.

Of course, speaking of specialized markets, one should keep in mind the predominance of certain groups of goods, depending on the nature of production in a given area. On the contrary, a characteristic feature of the new stage in the development of trade is the expansion of the range of goods. This is explained, on the one hand, by a wide variety of products made by local artisans of the city, and on the other hand, by the strengthening of ties between regional markets.

It should be recalled that in the 17th century the development of the all-Russian market took place. An example is the involvement of the Don region in trade relations.

Fairs opened in different places and at different times of the year played an important role in trade. Some of them acquired all-Russian significance in the 17th century. One of these fairs was Makarievskaya, which began in July at the monastery of Macarius Zheltovodsky, near Nizhny Novgorod. It attracted merchants from all over the country. There were wholesale transactions. Foreign merchants, mostly Eastern, constantly brought large quantities of their goods to the Makariev Fair, mainly fabrics - silk and cotton.

In addition, Moscow was the most important distribution center, it had over 120 shopping arcades, where they traded all kinds of goods. Moscow merchants, especially guests and members of the living room and cloth shop, conducted extensive trading operations throughout the country, acted as intermediaries between foreign merchants, on the one hand, and small merchants, on the other, and had direct trade relations with foreign merchants. It was Moscow, the capital of the state, that played the leading role in the formation of the all-Russian market.

Developing trade relations, the government of M. F. Romanov was supposed to protect merchants. So, according to the decree of May 18, 1645, a fine was established for the “disgrace” of merchants, especially guests. The size of the fines depended on the property status of the hundred members. This testifies to their increased importance, and the differentiation of the fine indicates a significant property inequality of the members of this hundred.



In the 17th century, the population of Russia consisted of 3 large groups: privileged, taxable and townspeople. The vast majority of the population belonged to the peasants. It was in the 17th century that the stage of enslavement of the peasants was completely completed. First, the period of investigation of the fugitives was increased to 10 years, then to 15. Later, in 1649, according to the conciliar code, the peasants became the property of the feudal lords for life.

By the end of the 17th century, more than 10 million people already lived in Russia. The country was agricultural. Over 98% of the population lived in rural areas. Russia has significantly expanded its territories, becoming the largest country in the world in terms of population. At the same time, in terms of population, the country was inferior to France, Germany and Italy.

Nobles and boyars

The population of Russia in the 17th century "from above" was mainly concentrated among the boyars and the nobility. At the same time, if back in the 16th century the main power of the elite belonged to the boyars, and the nobles occupied secondary values, then in the 17th century these estates began to change roles. Gradually, the boyars, as a class, were eliminated, and the government of the state was gradually transferred to the nobles.

The basis of the power of the privileged estates was the possession of serfs. Nobles and boyars for a long time insisted that the serfs be transferred to them for life. This was legalized by the Council Code of 1649. Interesting statistics on the ownership of peasant farms by various layers of the Russian elite of the 17th century:

• 10% - belonged to the king
• 10% - belonged to the boyars
• 20% - belonged to the church
• 60% - owned by nobles

This shows that already from the middle of the century, the main role, as the main elite of society, was played by the nobility and the clergy.

Clergy

In Russia in the 17th century, there were 2 types of spiritual estates:

• White - about 110 thousand people by the end of the century.
• Black (monks) - about 10 thousand people by the end of the century.

It has already been noted above that approximately 20% of all peasant farms were under the control of the church. The clergy of all types were exempted from paying taxes and other duties. An important feature of this estate is that it could not be judged. Considering the clergy of Russia in the 17th century, it is important to note that it had a strong stratification: there were simple ministers, the middle class and leaders. Their position, rights and opportunities were very different. For example, the bishops in their wealth and way of life were not much inferior to the boyars and nobles.

Peasants

The basis of the population of Russia in the 17th century were peasants. They accounted for about 90% of the total population. All the peasantry was divided into 2 categories:

• Serfs (ownership). They were directly dependent on the privileged strata of the population (the king, boyars, nobles, clergy).
• Chernososhnye. They retained partial independence. They worked on land allocated by the community and were not exempt from taxes.

Serfs in the 17th century were completely deprived of their rights. They could be sold, even if a person "pulled out" for this from the family. Peasants could be sold or donated. In everyday life, they were completely dependent on the feudal lords, paying 2 types of taxes: corvee and quitrent. Corvee - work on landowners' lands. In some cases, it was 5 days a week. Quit - a tax in kind (food) or in cash.

Urban population

By the end of the 17th century, the urban population of Russia was approximately 3% of the total. In total, there were about 250 cities in the country, in which about 500 people lived on average. The largest city is Moscow (27 thousand households). Other large cities: Nizhny Novgorod, Yaroslavl, Pskov, Kostroma.

Cities mainly consisted of their townspeople. If there was no such population in the city, then they served exclusively for military purposes. The townspeople were divided into merchants, artisans and ordinary workers. However, most often the population of the city was divided by wealth into:

• The best are wealthy citizens. The full name was indicated with the prefix "son". for example, Ivan Vasilyev, son of Pankratov.
• The middle ones are wealthy citizens. Such people were called by their own name and the name of their father. For example, Pyotr Vasiliev or Nikolai Fedorov.
• The young are poor citizens. They were given a derogatory name and nickname. For example, Petka Portnoy or Nikolasha Khromoy.

Citizens united in communities, which included all segments of the population. The communities were heterogeneous, so conflicts often arose. However, as soon as it came to external danger, the community acted as a united front. The reason lies in the fact that the well-being and life of every citizen depended on the integrity of the city and its other inhabitants. Therefore, "strangers" were not allowed into the city.

Baltiysk, Bataban, Upper Pyshma, Verkhoyansk, Glazov, Dudinka, Irkutsk, Kamensk-Shakhtinsky, Kirovgrad, Kologriv, Konotop, Krasnoyarsk, Kuznetsk, Novokuznetsk, Penza, Sengiley, Sumy Taganrog, Tambov, Tomsk, Ulan-Ude, Ulyanovsk, Usolie- Siberian, Kharkov.

In the first quarter of the XVII century. Cossack explorers reached the banks of the Lena River. Winter quarters and prisons founded by Russians: Yakutsk, Zhigansk, Verkhoyansk, Zashiversk, Srednekolymsk and others became outposts for the advancement of Russian colonies to the northeast of Asia, the Far East. In 1632, the Yakut prison was founded on the right bank of the Lena River, which laid the foundation for the future city of Yakutsk, now the capital of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). 17th century - the development of Siberia, the construction of cities and forts in Siberia. In the middle and in the second half of the 17th century, fortified cities appeared, such as Tyumen, Tomsk, Tobolsk, Yeniseisk, Novaya Mangazeya, Yakutsk and Irkutsk. Cities were built - fortresses in the Siberian, Ural and Orenburg lines.

St. Petersburg

St. Petersburg (from August 18, 1914 to January 26, 1924 - Petrogramd, from January 26, 1924 to September 6, 1991 - Leningrad) is the second largest city in Russia. City of federal significance. The administrative center of the Northwestern Federal District and the Leningrad Region. It was founded on May 16 (27), 1703 by Peter I. In 1712-1918 it was the capital of the Russian state.

It is located in the north-west of the Russian Federation, on the coast of the Gulf of Finland and at the mouth of the Neva River. The Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation, the Heraldic Council under the President of the Russian Federation, the authorities of the Leningrad Region, the Inter-Parliamentary Assembly of the CIS countries are located in St. Petersburg. The city also hosts the High Command of the Navy and the headquarters of the Western Military District of the Russian Armed Forces.

The city was the center of three revolutions: 1905-1907, the February bourgeois-democratic and October revolutions of 1917. During the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945, the city was under blockade for 872 days, as a result of which up to 1,500,000 people died of starvation. St. Petersburg - Hero City. It includes three cities of military glory: Kronstadt, Kolpino, Lomonosov.

Population -- 5,225,690 (2016). St. Petersburg is the northernmost city in the world with a population of over one million people. Among cities wholly located in Europe, St. Petersburg is the third most populated and also the first most populated non-capital city. The innovative scenario of the St. Petersburg Development Strategy until 2020 assumes that by 2020 the population of St. Petersburg will be 5.9 million people. The city is the center of the St. Petersburg urban agglomeration. The area of ​​the city is 1439 km 2, after the expansion of Moscow on July 1, 2012, St. Petersburg is the second largest city in the country; before joining the Russian Federation of the city of Sevastopol, it was the smallest subject of the Russian Federation in terms of area.

St. Petersburg is the most important economic, scientific and cultural center of Russia, a major transport hub. The historical center of St. Petersburg and the complexes of monuments associated with it are included in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites; it is one of the most important tourism centers in the country. Among the most significant cultural and tourist sites are the Hermitage, the Kunstkamera, the Mariinsky Theatre, the Russian National Library, the Russian Museum, the Peter and Paul Fortress, St. Isaac's Cathedral, Nevsky Prospekt. The Program for the Preservation and Development of the Historic Center of St. Petersburg is also aimed at preserving cultural heritage sites.

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RUSSIAN CITY XVII CENTURY

After the expulsion of the interventionists in the Russian state, active construction activity begins. Stone buildings are erected not only in the capital, large trading cities and rich monasteries, they are also built in trade and craft settlements, sometimes located on remote outskirts, in estates and villages. The architectural appearance of Yaroslavl, Uglich, Kostroma, Veliky Ustyug, Solikamsk, Kargopol, etc., partially preserved until now, is taking shape. The Rostov Kremlin, erected by Metropolitan Ionoy Sysoevich, Patriarch Nikon's New Jerusalem and numerous other buildings testify to the desire to create majestic architectural compositions. An important role was played by the Order of Stone Affairs, whose activities resumed after the Time of Troubles. Already in 1616, a letter was sent to the settlements to send all the masons and brick-makers to Moscow for the "sovereign's business." This was followed by major work on repairing the old and building new fortifications of Mozhaisk (1624-1626) and Vyazma (1629-1634). Gradually, the activities of the Order are expanding. In the 1630-1640s. its forces carry out the construction of secular public buildings and temples in Moscow and the provinces.

Of great interest is the urban planning of Moscow. In 1624-1625. Englishman Christopher Galovey, together with Bazhen Ogurtsov, built on the top of the Spasskaya Tower. Placed between the "bush" of the Kremlin cathedrals, headed by the pillar of Ivan the Great and St. Basil's Cathedral, it now united them into a common group. With its proportions and articulations, its impetuous "message" upwards, the Gothic elements in the decoration of its completion, it organically entered the circle of the Kremlin buildings, becoming one of the most important links in this outstanding ensemble.

The rapid growth of Moscow forced in 1672-1686. undertake the superstructure of the rest of the Kremlin towers. With the exception of Nikolskaya, they also received stone hipped roofs. The corner towers crowned with slender high tents stood out especially. The towers, located on the side of the Moskva River, were covered with lower tents-caps, which did not violate with their shape the general panorama of the numerous domes of the cathedrals that rose above the palace and the building of Orders (1683). If the Spasskaya Tower occupied the center of the north-eastern facade of the Kremlin, then the Trinity Tower served as the center of its western facade, overlooking
Neglinnaya. Emphasizing the importance of the Trinity Tower, the master repeated a number of techniques in its completion, carried out during the superstructure of the top of the Spasskaya Tower. The Borovitskaya tower was also built on; it received a tiered top with a tent, which distinguished it from other Kremlin towers.

At the same time, the construction of monasteries within the boundaries of Moscow was being completed. Back in 1630-1640. the towers of the Simonov Monastery were built on. All of its towers received stone tents, including the Dulo tower. The tent of the latter, with its scope and numerous arched windows and "rumors" anticipates the famous tent of the rotunda of the New Jerusalem Cathedral.

The monasteries formed an additional military defensive line of the city and were the most important architectural nodes of Moscow. In addition to Kitay-Gorod, there were monasteries with high bell towers, tents of temples and fence towers around the Kremlin: Alekseevsky, Krestovozdvizhensky, Nikitsky, Georgievsky, Zlatoustovsky and Ivanovsky. Behind them were the Strastnoy, Vysoko-Petrovsky, Rozhdestvensky and Sretensky monasteries at the gates of Bely or Tsarev. The remote frontiers were protected by the most powerful military-defensive monasteries: Novodevichy, Donskoy, Danilov, Simonov, Novospassky, Andronikov.

The main builders of the city were in the second half of the XVII century. merchants, servicemen and townspeople. They built temples, which, due to their size and decoration, turned into additional architectural centers of the city. In addition to architectural techniques designed to view structures from a relatively close point of view, those were also used that testified to the subtle calculation of the master to perceive the building from a distance. Often churches were placed on the bend of the street. Due to this, a multi-domed temple or an elegant hipped bell tower was drawn as a high, bizarre, pointed silhouette against the sky, at the same time closing the perspective of the street. Surviving plans of Russian cities of the 17th century. show that their development depended to a large extent on topographic conditions. The direction of the roads leading to the city, the presence of ravines, slopes of the banks of rivers and streams determined the natural settlement. Most often, the streets were fan-shaped, converging to the travel towers of the main ancient territory of the city or leading to the local market. Such is the 17th century. plan of Pereyaslavl Ryazansky, Tver, Tula, etc. At the end of the 17th century. for the first time, a “regular” arrangement of streets appears in the form of a regular grid, consisting of parallel passages that intersect at right angles (the streltsy settlements of Moscow - in Butyrki, as well as lanes in the Sretenka area, etc.).

In the last quarter of the XVII century. the number of residential stone buildings is noticeably increasing. The courtyard (possession) of a boyar, a serviceman or a merchant guest occupied a large area. In addition to residential buildings, there was a "garden" in which fruit trees grew. Around the entire property (and from the side of the street) a fence rose. Through the gate, the one who entered entered the courtyard, in the depths of which there were stone chambers or wooden mansions. A church often stood next to them. The wide porch was usually far removed. Around the courtyard housed servants' huts and other outbuildings. The courtyard, which originally had a utilitarian purpose, over time turned into a kind of front part of the ensemble, where solemn meetings of guests took place. Rich decorative decoration was concentrated on the facades facing the street. Particularly picturesque were the porches that were pushed far forward, sometimes crowned with an ordinary tent, sometimes built on top of tents-svetlitsy. Many of the surviving buildings of Gorokhovets, Kaluga and other cities are decorated with order details found in the architecture of temples. Often, boyar families or merchants built for themselves chambers and mansions of considerable size (the Stroganovs' chambers in Solvychegodsk, the Skripins' court in Yaroslavl, the Naryshkins' court on Vozdvizhenka in Moscow, etc.). The largest building of this kind is the Rostov Metropolis. Its construction began in the 1670s, when Metropolitan Iona Sysoevich, who fell into disgrace due to the removal of Nikon, decided to embody the architectural concept of the former patriarch in the majestic ensemble of his residence.

The Rostov Kremlin united a vast estate with many outbuildings surrounded by high walls with towers and gate churches. Contrary to tradition, the Metropolitan Cathedral was located outside the walls of the Kremlin. The living quarters of the metropolitan with their facade overlooked the left free central square. On the south side, the house church of the Savior on Senya and the so-called White and Cross Chambers directly adjoin the chambers, and the Red Chamber is located on the west. The buildings of the Rostov Metropolis were arranged in such a way that they could be visited sequentially without leaving the building: all the churches, reception chambers, residential towers and utility rooms were united by passages, covered galleries, reminiscent of the Kremlin. The plan of the entire territory covered by walls with eleven towers is close to a rectangle. Only the southern wall has a ledge, also decorated with a tower.

Above the gate, which retained the features of a fortress in its layout (the passage had a bend inside the gate), the Metropolitan of Rostov erected churches. Their attire uses traditional arcade-columnar belts; the solemn “consecrated five domes” are crowned by gate temples, raised high above the more modest volumes of the towers. The master concentrated all the wealth of decorative patterns on the gates at the northern gate church of the Resurrection (1670) and the western one - John the Theologian (1683). These elegant parts of the gate and gallery, like precious inserts, are placed between the high cylinders of slender towers. Asymmetric shifts of individual parts of the overall composition enhance the picturesque effects of the entire ensemble.

In the 17th century construction work was carried out in the Moscow Kremlin. In the 1660-1670s. The palace was completed and decorated with carvings and paintings. Above the western palace, where the mansions built by Dmitry the Pretender and Tsar Vasily Shuisky were located, an “upper garden” was arranged.
The central place of the palace ensemble was occupied by the Faceted and Golden Chambers. Between them was the Red Porch and other stairs-sprouts. The unifying link was the Church of the Savior behind a golden lattice (1677-1681), built by Osip Startsev. Its numerous golden domes on the drums, decorated with bluish-green tiles, enhanced the picturesque silhouette of the palace. The tiled decoration of the temple was made by the master monk Ippolit, who had previously worked on decorating the cathedral of the New Jerusalem Monastery.

The originality of Moscow as a city, and especially its Kremlin, evoked rave reviews from contemporaries, including visiting foreigners. The combination of the red walls of the Kremlin with white cathedrals, with their golden domes, the colorful coloring of the palace and St. Basil's Cathedral (the cathedral was partially painted in the second half of the 17th century), the green tiled tops of the towers and the blue
the dial of the Spassky clock with golden numbers, signs of the zodiac and the golden state emblem on the tent - all this, indeed, should have made a strong impression.

In 1668-1684. with the participation of the Moscow architect Dmitry Startsev, a stone "city" was built in Arkhangelsk. With his plan, walls, towers, he repeated the well-known in that era
examples of fortresses. But from the inside, its two-tiered walls were turned into shops, opening with an arcade into the vast courtyard, which served as a place of bargaining in Arkhangelsk. It only remained to open the arcades not inward, but outward, turning the stone fortress that ceased to carry the functions of defense into a "city" - into a guest yard. This was done in the 18th century. during the construction of the Gostiny Dvor in St. Petersburg and other cities.

Material index
Course: Russian art of the second half of the 16th - 17th centuries
DIDACTIC PLAN
RUSSIAN CITY AND URBAN PLANNING OF THE XVI CENTURY
TENT ARCHITECTURE OF THE XVI CENTURY

17th century was an important stage in the development of the national economy of Russia. By the middle of the century, the devastation - a consequence of the turmoil - was largely overcome. There was a further increase in agricultural production, but mainly due to the introduction of new lands into circulation, and not by improving the tools of labor and methods of cultivating the land. Despite the increased orientation of agricultural economy to the market, the majority of landlord and peasant farms basically retained a subsistence character. And yet, the all-Russian market was formed. In the second half of the XVII century. the regions that produced marketable bread and other agricultural products, and the regions that consumed them, were determined; areas of handicraft production are also taking shape.

Serious shifts took place in the development of industry - the first manufactories appeared. Manufactory production began in metallurgy - a copper smelter in the Urals (1637); by the end of the century, there were about 30 manufactories. They were founded by the treasury, large landowners and merchants - owners of commercial capital, often from the wealthy peasantry. Among the workers of manufactories, peasants dependent on the landowner or the state, assigned to factories and thus serving their duties, prevailed.

The development of commodity-money, market relations, the growth in the number of manufactories were observed in Russia in the conditions of the progressive movement of the feudal economy. There is no reason to talk about the emergence of capitalist relations in the country, the main feature of which is an increase in the share of free wage labor in the economy. The formation of a single national market took place, therefore, in the absence of elements of a capitalist economy on the basis of the development of non-capitalist production.

Russian cities as commercial and industrial centers in the 17th century. remained weak and significantly inferior in their development to Western European ones. Many things affected: the destruction of the urban economy by the Tatars, the weakening of urban freedoms with the strengthening of princely power in the course of the unification of the state, the location of Russian cities at a considerable distance from the sea coasts, inexhaustible opportunities for internal colonization, when the surplus population from the countryside went not to cities, but to other rural areas. areas.

The urban population consisted of the privileged elite of the settlement and the bulk of the taxable population - artisans and small merchants. The merchant elite had its own division - guests, living room hundred and cloth hundred. Along with the privileges, the merchants had a lot of duties that were burdensome and distracted them from their main occupations (to manage state industries, collect taxes from the settlements, etc.). As for the "taxers", they were assigned to the township communities, which were collectively responsible for the regular payment of taxes. The cities were ruled by governors, who were appointed from among the boyars and service people by the Discharge Order and approved by the tsar and the Boyar Duma.

In the 17th century there is an increase in the number of cities and urban centers. Cities retain the structure that has developed in the current centuries. Functions of the city: administrative and judicial: military (squad, prince, court); trade and craft; cultural (churches). Somewhere the city appears as a center of power - Moscow, Bogolyubovo. Somewhere as a cultural center, somewhere as an economic one.

Unlike the West, our cities do not receive self-government. The city is a dependent structure in the developing Orthodox kingdom. Residents of the city: merchants (merchants); artisans; administration; clergymen; a stratum of the dependent population (serfs, servants); the composition of the service population (in large cities - service people, bakers of bread, security).

The economic basis of the city was formed by settlements (settlements), whose inhabitants were engaged in crafts and trade. By the middle of the 17th century. in Russia there were about 250 cities and urban-type settlements. And they numbered about 42 thousand townships.

In the XVII century. serious shifts took place in the development of industry - the first manufactories appeared. Manufactory production began in metallurgy - a copper smelter in the Urals (1637); by the end of the century, there were about 30 manufactories. They were founded by the treasury, large landowners and merchants - owners of commercial capital, often from the wealthy peasantry. Among the workers of manufactories, peasants dependent on the landowner or the state, assigned to factories and thus serving their duties, prevailed.

Most of the large enterprises were concentrated in the central, most economically developed region. Metallurgical manufactories predominated here. For example, the Tula-Kashirskaya group of ironworks took shape in the 1930s-1950s. south of Moscow, where even in the previous century peasant houses in Serpukhov, Aleksinsky, Tula counties and blacksmith crafts in the city of Tula were widely known.

At the same time, the emergence of domestic manufactory was accelerated by the mercantile policy of the government. Manufactories appeared in those industries, the development of which was determined by state needs or the interests of the royal court. Satisfaction of military needs has become the main task of metallurgical plants. The lack of own production of cast iron - the main raw material for casting cannons - led to an increase in the import of expensive "svitsky" (Swedish) iron.

The state encouraged the initiative of foreigners in the construction of "mill" plants and used the already well-known experience in Western Europe in creating metallurgical manufactories. It also pursued its goals in the construction of manufactories in other sectors: textile, leather, glass and paper enterprises were part of a large economy that served the needs of the royal court.