10. General concept of temperament. Teachings about temperament. Psychological characteristics of the properties of temperament. Temperament and activity.
Temperament - an individual characteristic of a person, which consists in the dynamic features of his behavior and response.
The personality of each person is endowed only with its inherent combination of psychological traits and characteristics that form its individuality, constituting the originality of a person, his difference from other people. Individuality is manifested in the traits of temperament, character, habits, transforming interests, abilities, individual style of activity, etc.
Allocate three spheres of manifestation of temperament : general activity, features of the motor sphere and properties of emotionality.
General activity - is determined by the intensity and volume of human interaction with the environment - physical and social. According to this parameter, a person can be inert, passive, calm, proactive, active, impetuous.
AT motor sphere manifestations of temperament can be considered as particular expressions of general activity. These include tempo, speed, rhythm, and total movement.
When talking about emotionality as a manifestation of temperament, they mean impressionability, sensitivity, impulsiveness, etc. Thus, temperament is a characteristic of an individual in terms of the dynamic features of his mental activity, i.e. the pace, speed, intensity of the mental processes and states that make up this activity
Teachings about temperament , about its types has a long history. Temperament has always been associated with the physiological characteristics of the body. This physiological branch of the doctrine of temperament has its roots in the ancient period.
humoral theory . Hippocrates (V century BC) described four types of temperament, based on the physiological concepts of that time. It was believed that in the human body there are four main fluids, or "juices": blood, mucus, yellow and black bile. Mixing in each person in certain proportions, they make up his temperament. Each temperament received a specific name from the name of the fluid that allegedly prevails in the body. Accordingly, the following types were distinguished: sanguine (from Latin sangius - blood), choleric (from Greek chole - bile), phlegmatic (from Greek phlegma - mucus), melancholic (from Greek melaniachole - black bile).
But over time, conclusions appeared about what mental properties a person should have in whose body blood, yellow bile, etc. predominate. From here psychological descriptions appeared - "portraits" of various temperaments. The first such attempt belongs to the ancient physician Galen (II century BC). He gave the first detailed classification of temperaments, based on humoral ideas about "krasis" (ratio of fluids). The development of anatomy and physiology during the Renaissance gave a new direction to the explanation of temperament types. They are increasingly associated with the structural features of the body.
Much later, at the end of the 18th century, I. Kant gave psychological portraits of the four temperaments. He divided them into two groups. Sanguine and melancholic he regarded as temperaments of feeling, and choleric and phlegmatic as temperaments of action. Kant's descriptions of temperament were later repeated in many sources.
Under the influence of anthropologists, who drew attention to differences in body structure, and psychiatrists, who emphasized individual differences in predisposition to mental illness, at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, a concept was formed according to which there is a connection between physique and temperament properties.
constitutional theory. One of the most famous typologies aimed at revealing the relationship between the structure of the human body and its mental properties, its character belongs to the German psychiatrist E. Kretschmer. He singled out four constitutional body types using anthropometric measurements. 1. Leptosomatic (Greek - fragile body). Leptosomatics have narrow shoulders, a long face, and long thin legs. The term asthenics, which expresses the extreme degree of leptosomal physique, received more circulation than the term nititosomatism.
2. Picnic (Greek - thick, dense). Picnics include people with great fullness, belly, round head and small dense neck.
3. Athletic (Greek - wrestling, fight). Athletes are distinguished by strong muscles, broad shoulders. They seem to have descended from the classic description of the human figure by Leonardo da Vinci.
4. Dysplastic (Greek - poorly formed). Dysplastics, as if offended by nature, they have a shapeless irregular body structure.
E. Kretschmer singled out the types of temperaments corresponding to them.
Schizothymics have an asthenic physique. They have, as the name suggests, a predisposition to schizophrenia. Schizothymics are autistic, i.e., self-absorbed, closed, poorly adapted to the environment. The attitudes of their character are rigid and show a tendency to excessive abstraction. (schizophrenia)
Cyclothymics have a predominantly large physique. They are in temperament a contrast to Schizothymics. Sociable, realistically look at the world, have sharp mood swings. (manic depressive psychosis)
Ixotimics are characterized by an athletic physique, predisposed to epilepsy. They are a little impressionable, go in cycles in trifles; have restrained gestures. (epilepsy)
Later, the concept of temperament by W. Sheldon (1940) gained popularity in the United States. At the heart of Sheldon's views is the assumption that the structure of the body determines the temperament, which is its function. Sheldon came to the concept of samatotype, which is defined through the study of a combination of three parameters - endomorphism (viscerotonic) (active, cheerful, predominant development of internal organs, weak baggy physique with excess adipose tissue), mesomorphism (somatotonic) (hardy, energetic, mentally stable, development muscle tissue, strong strong body), ectomorphism (cerebrotonic) (slight excitability. Sensitivity, developed NS, fragile physique, weak muscles, long arms and legs).
W. Sheldon believes that each person has all three named groups of physical and mental properties. The differences between people are determined by the predominance of certain properties related to these groups.
I.P. Pavlov identified 3 main properties of the NS: strength, balance and mobility of the excitatory and inhibitory processes. Sanguine temperament corresponds to a strong, balanced, fast type of nervous system; phlegmatic temperament - a strong balanced slow type; choleric temperament - a strong unbalanced fast type of the nervous system; melancholic temperament - a weak type of nervous system.
Despite its simplicity and external harmony, Pavlov's classification concealed deep internal contradictions. The studies of Teplov and Nebylitsyn show that the very structure of NS properties as neurodynamic measurements of temperament is much more complicated than previously thought, and the number of basic combinations of these systems and their properties is much greater.
B.M. Teplov and V.D. Nebylitsyn, having studied in detail the properties of the nervous system according to Pavlov, identified some more properties - the “dynamism” of nervous processes and “lability”.
"Dynamism" is characterized by the rate of formation of positive and negative conditioned reflexes and differentiations. "Lability" is characterized by the speed of occurrence and termination of the nervous process.
Properties of temperament. (Wolf Solomonovich Merlin) Emotional excitability - the rate of occurrence of various emotional states. Emotional stability - the time during which an emotional state occurs in a person (long). Forces of emotion how strongly the emotional state of a person. Excitability of attention the speed of attracting attention to something. Activity - the degree of willpower exerted by a person to overcome difficulties. Reactivity - the rate of occurrence of the reaction, per k.-l. irritability. Rigidity - immutability, bone, stereotype. Resistance - resistance of organisms to unfavorable conditions. Extraversion - turning the psyche outwards. introversion- the turning of the psyche into oneself, inward. The pace of mental actions - the speed of mental processes (thinking, perception, imagination) Sensitivity - sensitivity to a stimulus of minimum strength. These properties can change during the life of a person, but their ratio always remains unchanged. This phenomenon is called an invariant. (Merlin and Pikhletsky)
Distinctive features of temperament properties .(Bass, Plamin, Rusalov) 1) heritability, innate properties of tempo. 2) early spinning. 3) St. temp. manifests itself both in humans and in animals 4) relates to the mouth in the course of life of people. 5) low-prone training training and replay. 6) in their connection with biological sv-mi people and sv-mi NA. 7) are practically independent of the purpose of the person and the content of the activity. 8) observed in many areas of behavior and activity (in psychomotor sf: speech, gait, movement, facial expressions; intel sf: speed and flexibility of thinking, resourcefulness, learning speed ; commun-I sf: the speed of communication, its intensity; emotion-I sf: the rate of occurrence of emotions, the depth of experience, duration)
Ways to adapt temperament to the requirements of activity . Since each activity imposes certain requirements on the human psyche and its dynamic features, there are no temperaments that are ideally suited for all types of activities.
The role of temperament in work and study lies in the fact that the influence on the activity of various mental states caused by an unpleasant environment, emotional factors, and pedagogical influences depends on it. The influence of various factors that determine the level of neuropsychic stress depends on temperament (for example, assessment of activity, expectation of activity control, acceleration of the pace of work, disciplinary influences, etc.).
There are 4 ways to adapt temperament to the requirements of activity.
1. professional selection, one of the tasks of which is to prevent persons who do not have the necessary temperament properties from this activity. This path is implemented only in the selection for professions that place high demands on personality traits.
2. Excluded in the individualization of requirements, conditions and methods of work for a person (individual approach).
3. overcoming the negative influence of temperament through the formation of a positive attitude towards activity and corresponding motives.
4. The main and most universal way of adapting temperament to the requirements of an activity is the formation of its individual style. An individual style of activity is understood as such an individual system of techniques and methods of action that is characteristic of a given person and is appropriate for achieving a successful result.
Choleric- this is a person whose nervous system is determined by the predominance of excitation over inhibition, as a result of which he reacts very quickly, often thoughtlessly, does not have time to slow down, restrain himself, shows impatience, impulsiveness, sharpness of movements, irascibility, unbridledness, incontinence. The imbalance of his nervous system predetermines the cyclicity in the change of his activity and vigor: being carried away by some business, he works passionately, with full dedication, but his strength is not enough for a short time, and as soon as they are exhausted, he is worked out to the point that everything is unbearable for him. There is an irritated state, a bad mood, a breakdown and lethargy (“everything falls out of hand”).
sanguine- a person with a strong, balanced, mobile n / s, has a fast reaction rate, his actions are deliberate, cheerful, due to which he is characterized by high resistance to the difficulties of life. The mobility of his nervous system determines the variability of feelings, attachments, interests, views, high adaptability to new conditions. This is a sociable person. Easily converges with new people and therefore he has a wide circle of acquaintances, although he is not distinguished by constancy in communication and affection. He is a productive figure, but only when there are many interesting things to do, that is, with constant excitement, otherwise he becomes boring, lethargic, distracted. In a stressful situation, he shows a "lion's reaction", that is, he actively, deliberately defends himself, fights for the normalization of the situation.
Phlegmatic person- a person with a strong, balanced, but inert n / s, as a result of which he reacts slowly, is taciturn, emotions appear slowly (it is difficult to anger, cheer); has a high capacity for work, well resists strong and prolonged stimuli, difficulties, but is not able to quickly respond to unexpected new situations. He firmly remembers everything he has learned, is not able to abandon the developed skills and stereotypes, does not like to change habits, routines, work, new friends, it is difficult and slow to adapt to new conditions. The mood is stable, even. And in case of serious troubles, the phlegmatic remains outwardly calm.
melancholic- a person with a weak n / s, who has increased sensitivity even to weak stimuli, and a strong stimulus can already cause a “breakdown”, “stop”, confusion, “rabbit stress”, therefore, in stressful situations (exam, competition, danger, etc.) n.) the results of the melancholic's activities may worsen compared to a calm, familiar situation. Hypersensitivity leads to rapid fatigue and a drop in performance (longer rest is required). An insignificant occasion can cause resentment, tears. The mood is very changeable, but usually the melancholic tries to hide, not to show his feelings outwardly, does not talk about his experiences, although he is very inclined to give himself up to experiences, often sad, depressed, insecure, anxious, he may develop neurotic disorders. However, having a high sensitivity of n / s, melancholics often have pronounced artistic and intellectual abilities.
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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
SEI HPE "MARI STATE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY"
Department of History and Psychology
Essay on psychology on the topic "Basic teachings about temperament"
Completed: st.gr.SRb-21, Sharnina A.B
Checked by: Ph.D., Associate Professor, Petrukhina S.R.
Introduction…………………………………………………………3-4
1. The concept of temperament…………………………………………..5-7
2. Basic teachings about temperament.
2.1. Physiological theory of temperaments of Hippocrates ... ... 8-11
2.2. Neurotic theory of temperaments by I.P. Pavlov…….12-15
2.3 Theories of temperaments by E. Kretschmer and W. Sheldon………..16-19
2.4. I.Kant's theory of temperaments……………………………....20-21
Conclusion………………………………………………………22-24
References……………………………………………...25
Appendix………………………………………………………....26-28
Introduction
As you know, there are no people on earth with the same skin patterns on their fingers, there are no completely identical leaves on a tree. Similarly, in nature there are no absolutely identical human personalities - the personality of each person is unique.
However, a person is not born as an already established personality. He becomes it gradually. But even before a person becomes a person, he has individual characteristics of the psyche. These features of the psyche are very conservative, stable. They form in each person a kind of psychic soil, on which subsequently, depending on its characteristics, personality traits inherent only to this person grow. This means that the child's psyche is not like a smooth board where you can write any patterns, and that in the process of raising and teaching a child, one must rely on the properties that he has from birth. These properties are different for everyone. Observing the behavior of students, how they work, study and rest, how they react to external influences, how they experience joys and sorrows, we undoubtedly pay attention to the great individual differences of people. Some are fast, impetuous, noisy - others, on the contrary, are slow, calm, imperturbable. It should be noted that these differences do not relate to the content of the personality, but to some external manifestations. This side characterizes the concept of "temperament".
The famous psychologist Merlin wrote: “Imagine two rivers - one is calm, flat, the other is swift, mountainous. The course of the first is barely noticeable, it smoothly carries its waters, it does not have bright splashes, stormy waterfalls and splashes. The second one is the complete opposite. The river rushes quickly, the water in it rumbles, boils and, hitting the stones, turns into shreds of foam ... ". Something similar can be observed in the behavior of people.
Observations have shown that all people are different not only in appearance, but also in behavior and movements. For example, if you follow the behavior of students in the classroom, you can immediately notice the difference in the behavior, movements of each. Some have slow, correct movements, a noticeable calmness in their eyes, while others have sharp movements, vanity in their eyes. What explains this difference in behavior? First of all, temperament, which is manifested in any kind of activity (playing, working, educational, creative), in gait, gestures, in all behavior. Individual psychological characteristics of a person's personality, his temperament give a peculiar coloring to all activities and behavior.
Temperament should be understood as the natural features of behavior that are typical for a given person and manifested in the dynamics, tone and balance of reactions to life influences. Temperament colors all the mental manifestations of the individual, it affects the nature of the flow of emotions and thinking, volitional influence, affects the pace and rhythm of speech. But it must be remembered that neither interests, nor hobbies, nor social attitudes, nor moral upbringing of a person depend on temperament. The above examples lead to an understanding that temperament is a behavioral category, which is a set of formal, dynamic characteristics of behavior. In this case, they mean, first of all, the energy level of behavior. Scientists identify a large number of the most diverse properties of temperament, including impulsivity, anxiety, plasticity, emotional excitability, strength of emotions, reactivity, and much more. But the main two characteristics of temperament are considered - this is general activity and emotionality.
1.The concept of temperament
Temperament is one of the most significant personality traits. Interest in this problem arose more than two and a half thousand years ago. It was caused by the obvious existence of individual differences, which are due to the peculiarities of the biological and physiological structure and development of the organism, as well as the peculiarities of social development, the uniqueness of social ties and contacts. The biologically determined personality structures include, first of all, temperament. Temperament determines the presence of many mental differences between people, including the intensity and stability of emotions, emotional impressionability, the pace and vigor of actions, as well as a number of other dynamic characteristics.
Temperament should be understood as a set of typological features of a person, manifested in the dynamics of his psychological processes: in the speed and strength of his reaction, in the emotional tone of his life.
Temperament is a manifestation in the human psyche of an innate type of nervous activity. Consequently, the properties of temperament include, first of all, the innate and individually peculiar properties of a person. What is their uniqueness? Imagine two rivers - one calm, flat, the other - swift, mountainous. The course of the first is barely noticeable, it smoothly carries its waters, it does not have bright splashes, stormy waterfalls, dazzling splashes. The course of the other river is the exact opposite. The river rushes quickly, its water rumbles, boils and, hitting the stones, turns into foam. The features of the flow of these rivers depend on a number of natural conditions.
Something similar can be observed in the dynamics of mental activity of different people. In some people, mental activity proceeds evenly. Such people outwardly are always calm, balanced and even slow. They rarely laugh, their eyes are always strict and hungry. Getting into difficult situations or funny situations, these people remain outwardly unperturbed. Their facial expressions and gestures do not differ in variety and expressiveness, their speech is calm, their gait is firm. In other people, psychological activity proceeds spasmodically. They are very mobile, restless, noisy. Their speech is impetuous and passionate, their movements are chaotic, their facial expressions are varied and rich. Often such people wave their hands and stomp their feet when talking. They are fussy and impatient. The properties of temperament are those natural properties that determine the dynamic side of a person's mental activity. In other words, the nature of the course of mental activity depends on temperament, namely: 1) the rate of occurrence of mental processes and their stability (for example, the speed of perception, quickness of mind, duration of concentration of attention) 2) mental rhythm and pace, 3) the intensity of mental processes (for example , the strength of emotions, the activity of the will) 4) the orientation of mental activity to some specific objects (for example, a person’s constant desire for contacts with new people, for new impressions of reality or a person’s appeal to himself, to his ideas and images).
Also, the dynamics of mental activity depends on motives and mental state. Any person, regardless of the characteristics of his temperament, with interest, works more energetically and faster than without it. For any person, a joyful event causes a rise in mental and physical strength, and misfortune causes their fall.
On the contrary, the properties of temperament manifest themselves in the same way in the most diverse types of activity and for the most diverse purposes. For example, if a student is worried before passing a test, shows anxiety before a lesson at school during teaching practice, is in anxious anticipation of a start in sports competitions, this means that high anxiety is a property of his temperament. The properties of temperament are the most stable and constant in comparison with other mental characteristics of a person. Various properties of temperament are naturally interconnected, forming a certain organization, a structure that characterizes the type of temperament.
Despite the fact that repeated and constant attempts have been made to investigate the problem of temperament, this problem still belongs to the category of controversial and not completely resolved problems of modern psychological science. Today there are many approaches to the study of temperament. However, with all the existing variety of approaches, most researchers recognize that temperament is the biological foundation on which a person is formed as a social being, and personality traits due to temperament are the most stable and long-term.
2.1.Physiological theory of temperaments of Hippocrates.
The idea and doctrine of temperaments in its origins goes back to the works of the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (5th century BC). He argued that people differ in the ratio of 4 main "body juices" - blood (from the Latin sanguis), phlegm (from the Greek phlegma), yellow bile (from the Greek chole) and black bile (from the Greek melaina) - included in its composition. The predominance of one of them determines the temperament of a person. The names of temperaments given by the name of liquids have survived to this day. Each liquid has a special property and a special purpose. The property of blood is warmth. Its purpose is to warm the body. The property of phlegm is cold, and the purpose is to cool the body. The property of yellow bile is dryness. Purpose to maintain dryness in the body, "dry it." The property of black bile is dampness. Its purpose is to maintain dampness, moisture in the body. He described the main types of temperaments, which are widely known in our time.
1. From the history of teachings about temperament
The doctrine of temperament arose in antiquity. The word "temperament" in Latin means "proper ratio of parts"; the Greek word “krasis”, equal in meaning, was introduced by the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (Y-IY centuries AD). He first defined the concept of "temperament" and described temperaments in more or less detail. By temperament, he understood the anatomical, physiological and psychological individual characteristics of a person. He, and then Galen, observing the individual characteristics of people's behavior, made an attempt to explain these features. According to the Hippocratic theory, the differences between people are determined by the ratio of the main types of fluids in their body. If they are mixed correctly, a person is healthy, if they are mixed incorrectly, they are sick. One of the fluids predominates, which determines the temperament of a person. According to Hippocrates, there are four such fluids: blood, two types of bile and mucus (or lymph). In sanguine people, blood predominates (lat. sanguis), in choleric people - yellow bile (lat. chole), in phlegmatic people - mucus (lat. pegma). And finally, melancholics are people with an excess of black bile (Latin melanos chole). The names of temperaments have survived to this day.
Further development of the doctrine of temperament took place in the following directions.
The psychological characteristics of temperament expanded more and more. The Roman physician Galen (II century), unlike Hippocrates, characterizes the types of temperament along with physiological, psychological and even moral properties.
German philosopher I. Kant at the end of the 18th century. considers temperament only as mental properties. Until recently, the characteristic of temperament remained predominantly psychological. In this regard, the concept of types of temperament is changing. They are characterized by a proportion of not physiological, but mental properties. For Kant, this is the ratio of different feelings and different degrees of activity. He argued that in a sanguine person the main desire is the desire for pleasure, combined with a slight excitability of feelings and their short duration. He is fond of everything that pleases him. His inclinations are fickle, and one cannot rely too much on them. Trusting and gullible, he enjoys building projects but soon abandons them.
In the melancholic, the dominant inclination is the inclination towards sadness. Trifle offends him, everything seems to him that he is neglected. His desires are sad, his suffering seems unbearable and beyond all consolation.
The choleric temperament exhibits remarkable strength in action, energy and perseverance when under the influence of some passion. His passions instantly ignite from the slightest obstacle, and his pride, revenge, ambition, the strength of his feelings know no limits when his soul is under the influence of passion. He thinks little and acts quickly, because that is his will.
And, finally, according to Kant, feelings do not take hold of the phlegmatic quickly. He does not need to make great efforts on himself in order to maintain his composure. It is easier for him than for others to refrain from a quick decision in order to think it over before. He is difficult to be irritated, rarely complains, endures his sufferings patiently and is little indignant at the sufferings of others. (, p.208)
For Wundt (the end of the 19th century), temperament is the ratio of the speed and strength of “spiritual movements”. In the process of developing the doctrine of temperament, the characteristics of the four main types of temperament change. The idea of their number is being revised. Starting with Kant, they began to distinguish the properties of temperament from other individual mental properties (the nature of the personality), although strict criteria for such a distinction were not proposed.
In the history of teachings about temperament, the understanding of the physiological foundations of temperament has changed. There were two main directions: explanation of temperament types by the ratio of the activity of the endocrine glands (German psychologist Kretschmer, American Sheldon), or by the ratio of the properties of the nervous system (I.P. Pavlov) (, pp. 407-408).
Since ancient times, researchers, observing a significant variety of behavior, coinciding with differences in physique and physiological functions, have tried to streamline them, somehow group them. Thus, a variety of typologies of temperaments arose. Of greatest interest are those in which the properties of temperament, understood as hereditary or innate, were associated with individual differences in physique. These typologies are called constitutional typologies. So the typology proposed by E. Kretschmer, who in 1921 published his famous work “Body Structure and Character”, was most widely used. His main idea was that people with a certain type of constitution have certain mental characteristics. He carried out many measurements of body parts, which allowed him to distinguish 4 constitutional types (,,):
Leptosomatic (asthenic type) - characterized by a fragile physique, high growth, flat chest. The shoulders are narrow, the lower limbs are long and thin.
Picnic - a person with pronounced adipose tissue, excessively obese. characterized by small or medium stature, a spreading body with a large belly and a round head on a short neck.
Athletic - a person with well-developed muscles, a strong physique, characterized by high or medium height, broad shoulders, narrow hips.
Dysplastic - people with a shapeless, irregular structure. Individuals of this type are characterized by various body deformities (for example, excessive growth, disproportionate physique).
With these types of body structure, Kretschmer correlates 3 selected types of temperament, which he calls: schizothymic, ixothymic and cyclothymic. The schizothymic has an asthenic physique, he is closed, prone to fluctuations in emotions, stubborn, not very responsive to changing attitudes and views, hardly adapts to the environment. In contrast, the ixothymic has an athletic physique. This is a calm, unimpressive person with restrained gestures and facial expressions, with low flexibility of thinking, often petty. The picnic physique is cyclothymic, his emotions fluctuate between joy and sadness, he easily contacts people and is realistic in his views,.
The theory of E. Kretschmer was very common in Europe, and in the USA the concept of temperament by W. Sheldon, formulated in the 40s of our century, gained popularity. Sheldon's views are also based on the assumption that the body and temperament are 2 human parameters related to each other. The structure of the body determines the temperament, which is its function. W. Sheldon proceeded from the hypothesis of the existence of basic body types, describing which he borrowed terms from embryology. They distinguished 3 types (, , ):
1. Endomorphic (mostly internal organs are formed from the endoderm);
2. Mesomorphic (muscle tissue is formed from the mesoderm);
3. Ectomorphic (skin and nervous tissue develop from the ectoderm).
At the same time, people with an endomorphic type are characterized by a relatively weak physique with an excess of adipose tissue; the mesomorphic type tends to have a slender and strong body, great physical stability and strength; and ectomorphic - a fragile body, a flat chest, long thin limbs with weak muscles.
According to W. Sheldon, these types of physiques correspond to certain types of temperaments, named by him depending on the functions of certain organs of the body: viscerotonia (lat. viscera- “insides”), somatotonia (Greek soma - “body”) and cerebrotonia (lat. cerebrum - "brain").
| Types of temperament (according to W. Sheldon) | ||
| Viscerotonia | Somatotonia | Cerebrotonia |
| Relaxation in posture and movement. Love for comfort. Slow response. Passion for food. Socialization of food needs. Pleasure from the process of digestion. Love for companies, friendly outpourings Sociophilia (love for social life). Kindness to everyone. Thirst for love and approval of others. Orientation to others. Emotional balance. Tolerance. Serene contentment. Good dream. Lack of explosive emotions and actions. Softness, ease of handling and outward expression of feelings. Sociability and relaxation under the influence of alcohol. The need for people in difficult times. Focused on children and families. | Confidence in posture and movement. Propensity for physical activity. Energy. Need for movement and pleasure from it. The need for dominance. Risk appetite in the game of chance. Decisive manner. Bravery. Strong aggressiveness. Psychological insensitivity. Claustrophobia (fear of closed spaces). Lack of compassion. Spartan pain endurance. Noisy behavior. Appearance corresponds to older age. Objective and broad thinking, directed outward. Self-confidence, aggressiveness under the influence of alcohol. The need for action in difficult times. Orientation towards youth activities. | Inhibition in movements, stiffness in posture. Excessive physiological reactivity. Increased rate of reactions. A tendency to seclusion. Disposition to reasoning, exclusive attention. secret feelings, emotional retardation. Self-control of facial expressions. Social phobia (fear of social contacts). Inhibition in communication. Avoidance of standard actions. Agrophobia (fear of open space). Unpredictability of attitudes (behavior). Excessive sensitivity to pain. Poor sleep, chronic fatigue. Youthful vivacity and subjective thinking. Concentrated, hidden and subjective thinking. Resistance to the action of alcohol and other repressants. The need for solitude in difficult times. Orientation towards old age. |
In psychological science, most constitutional concepts have become the object of sharp criticism. The main drawback of such theories is that they underestimate, and sometimes simply openly ignore, the role of the environment and social conditions in the formation of the individual's mental properties.
Characteristics of temperament, such as the socialization of food needs, love of company and friendly outpourings, tolerance and lack of compassion, cannot be considered hereditary properties of the same order as physique. It is known that such properties, arising on the basis of certain anatomical and physiological characteristics of the individual, are formed under the influence of education and the social environment (,).
Hormonal theories of temperament one-sidedly exaggerate the role of the endocrine glands and are unable to explain the adaptation of temperament to the requirements of activity (, p. 409).
In fact, the dependence of the course of mental processes and human behavior on the functioning of the nervous system, which performs a dominant and controlling role in the body, has long been known. The theory of the connection of some general properties of nervous processes with types of temperament was proposed by I.P. Pavlov and was developed and experimentally confirmed in the works of his followers.
The most successful attempt to connect temperament with the characteristics of the human body was made by the Russian scientist-physiologist I.P. Pavlov, who discovered the properties of higher nervous activity. In Pavlov's laboratories, where conditioned reflexes were studied on dogs, it was found that in different animals conditioned reflexes are formed in different ways: in some they are formed quickly and persist for a long time, in others, on the contrary, slowly and fade quickly; Some animals can endure heavy loads under strong stimuli, while others fall into a state of inhibition under the same conditions. (, p.208-209)
Based on the results of research, Pavlov showed that each of the four temperaments is based on one or another ratio of basic properties, which was called the type of higher nervous activity. Unlike his predecessors, he took for research not the external structure of the body, as the German psychiatrist Kretschmer did, and not the structure of blood vessels (P.F. Lesgaft), but the body as a whole and isolated the brain in it (, p. 307).
Teachings of I.P. Pavlov. They identified three main properties of the nervous system:
one). the strength of the process of excitation and inhibition, depending on the performance of nerve cells;
2). balance of the nervous system, i.e. the degree of compliance of the excitation force with the braking force (or their balance);
3). mobility of nervous processes, i.e. the rate of change of excitation by inhibition and vice versa.
The strength of excitation reflects the performance of the nerve cell. It manifests itself in functional endurance, i.e. in the ability to withstand prolonged or short-term, but strong excitation, without passing into the opposite state of inhibition.
The strength of inhibition is understood as the functional performance of the nerve cell in the implementation of inhibition and is manifested in the ability to form various inhibitory conditioned reactions, such as extinction and differentiation.
Speaking about the balance of nervous processes, I.P. Pavlov had in mind the balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition. The ratio of the strength of both processes decides whether a given individual is balanced or unbalanced when the strength of one process exceeds that of the other.
The mobility of nervous processes is manifested in the rapidity of the transition of one nervous process to another. The mobility of nervous processes is manifested in the ability to change behavior in accordance with changing living conditions. The measure of this property of the nervous system is the speed of transition from one action to another, from a passive state to an active state, and vice versa. The opposite of mobility is the inertness of nervous processes. The nervous system is the more inert the more time or effort is required to move from one process to another (, p.384).
I.P. Pavlov found out that the temperament of each animal does not depend on one of the properties, but on their combination. Such a combination of the properties of the nervous system, which determines both the individual characteristics of conditioned reflex activity and temperament, he called the type of the nervous system, or the type of nervous activity. (, p. 408).
I.P. Pavlov distinguished 4 main types of the nervous system (,,):
one). strong, balanced, mobile (“alive” according to I.P. Pavlov - sanguine temperament);
2). strong, balanced, inert (“calm” according to I.P. Pavlov - phlegmatic temperament);
3). a strong, unbalanced type with a predominance of the excitation process (“unrestrained” type, according to I.P. Pavlov - choleric temperament);
4). weak type (“weak”, according to I.P. Pavlov - melancholic temperament).
The main combinations of properties and types of the nervous system identified by I.P. Pavlov, on which temperament depends, are common in humans and animals. Therefore, they received the name of general types. Thus, the physiological basis of temperament is the general type of the nervous system (, p. 408). Pavlov connected the general types of the nervous system with the traditional types of temperament (choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic and melancholic), although he understood that other properties of the nervous system must also exist. , and other combinations of them, and, consequently, other types of temperament.
So, I.P. Pavlov understood the type of the nervous system as innate, relatively weakly subject to changes under the influence of the environment and upbringing (, P. 386).
The type of nervous system is a concept used by a physiologist, while a psychologist uses the term temperament. In essence, these are aspects of the same phenomenon. It is in this sense that one can say, following I.P. Pavlov, that the temperament of a person is nothing but a mental manifestation of the type of the higher nervous system.
In the 1950s, laboratory studies of the behavior of adults were undertaken. In the works of B.M. Teplov and V.D. Nebylitsyn, ideas about the properties of the nervous system were expanded, two new properties of neural processes were discovered: lability and dynamism. The dynamism of nervous processes is a property that determines the dynamism of excitation or the dynamism of inhibition (the ease and speed of the formation of positive and inhibitory conditioned reflexes), the lability of nervous processes is a property that determines the rate of occurrence and termination of nervous processes (excitatory or inhibitory process),.
In contrast to I.P. Pavlov, other combinations of properties of the nervous system were found. For example, in addition to the unbalanced type with a predominance of excitation, there is an unbalanced type with a predominance of inhibition, etc.
The mental properties of temperament and the physiological properties of the nervous system are closely interrelated. The biological meaning of this relationship lies in the fact that with its help the most subtle, clear and timely adaptation to the environment is achieved. Where the adaptive function of any property of the nervous system cannot be carried out with the help of one property of temperament inherent in it, it is carried out with the help of another property of temperament inherent in it, which compensates for the first. For example, low performance of a weak type can sometimes be compensated for by a long absence of emotional satiety.
The origin of the types of the nervous system and temperament and its change. I.P. Pavlov called the general type of the nervous system a genotype, that is, a hereditary type. This is confirmed in experiments on animal selection and in the study of identical and fraternal twins in humans brought up in different families. Despite this, certain properties of temperament change within certain limits in connection with the conditions of life and upbringing (especially in early childhood), as a result of illnesses, under the influence of living conditions and (in adolescence and even adulthood) depending on experienced psychological conflicts. For example, under parental overprotection, a child can grow up to be a cowardly, indecisive, insecure person, touchy to the extreme and vulnerable to an extreme degree.
The maturation of temperament should be distinguished from such changes in the properties of temperament. The type of temperament is not formed immediately, with all its characteristic properties. The general patterns of maturation of the nervous system leave their mark on the maturation of the type of temperament. For example, a feature of the nervous system in preschool and preschool age is its weakness and imbalance, which leaves an imprint on the properties of temperament. Some properties of temperament, depending on the type of nervous system, are not yet sufficiently manifested at this age, appear somewhat later, in fact already at school age.
Distribution of group roles and promotion of leaders. Conclusion In the course of the work carried out, literary sources were analyzed on the problems of studying the influence of temperament on interpersonal relations in a student group. Many researchers note the importance of studying the relationship, the mutual influence of interpersonal relations on individual personality traits. temperament problem...
Temperament should be understood as individually peculiar properties of the psyche that determine the dynamics of a person’s mental activity, which are equally manifested in a variety of activities, regardless of its content, goals, motives, remain constant in adulthood and, in interconnection, characterize the type of temperament.
Before proceeding to the consideration of various types and features of temperament, it should immediately be noted that there are no better and worse temperaments - each of them has its positive aspects, and therefore the main efforts should be directed not at its correction, but at its reasonable use in a specific activity. merits. From time immemorial, man has made attempts to isolate and realize the typical features of the mental make-up of various people, trying to reduce all their diversity to a small number of generalized portraits.
Such generalized portraits from ancient times were called types of temperaments. Such typologies were practically useful, since with their help it was possible to predict the behavior of people with a certain temperament in specific life situations.
The term "temperament" goes back to the views of ancient science on the nature of individual psychological differences. Ancient Greek medicine, represented by its largest representative, Hippocrates (5th century BC), believed that the state of the body depends mainly on the quantitative ratio of “juices” or liquids present in the body. Blood, bile, black bile and mucus (phlegm) were considered such “juices” necessary for life, and it was assumed that their optimal ratio was necessary for health. The four "juices" Hippocrates assigned the same role in human life, which is assigned in nature to the main elements: fire, earth, water and air. The balance of the elements leads to a favorable climate, without droughts and floods, without storms and earthquakes. It is exactly the same in the human body: health (“kraza”) occurs with a successful, even mixing of “juices”, “dyscrasia” (improper mixing) leads to deviations in health. Roman physicians, working a few centuries later, began to use the word temperamentum, which means "proper ratio of parts", from which the term "temperament" came to mean "proportion" in mixing fluids.
Hippocrates did not stop only at the descriptions of temperaments. He went further and suggested possible variants of disease states in people with one or another temperament, described subtle psychological observations. So, according to Hippocrates, phlegmatic people are affected by tenesmus; bile - prolonged diarrhea. Melancholics are dominated by silence, timidity and sadness, and "if the feeling of fear or cowardice continues for too long, then this indicates the onset of melancholy." Melancholics "... are full of all sorts of fears, complain of pain in the abdomen, as if they were pricked with thousands of small needles", they often have dreams with images of the dead.
Recognizing the influence of external conditions on the formation of temperament, Hippocrates also spoke about the inheritance of personality traits: “... a phlegmatic person is born from a phlegmatic person, a bilious person from a consumptive person, a person with a diseased spleen from a person with a diseased spleen ... since birth comes from all parts body, then from healthy it will be healthy, and from sickly it will be sickly.
Gradually, in ancient science, the idea was recognized that not only the bodily functions, but also the mental characteristics of people are an expression of their temperament, i.e. depend on the proportion in which the main "juices" are mixed in the body.
Roman anatomist and physician Claudius Galen, who lived in the II century. BC, for the first time gave a detailed classification of different types of temperament. Subsequently, representatives of ancient medicine reduced the number of temperament types to four. Each of them was characterized by the predominance of any one liquid.
Aristotle (384 - 322 BC) also spoke of four temperaments. Aristotle put the properties of blood as the basis for dividing people into types. In his opinion, the ability of blood to coagulate is associated with its "earthy" component, and its insufficient coagulation - with the predominance of moisture in it, the "watery" component. The temperament of a person depends on the temperature of the blood, the predominance of “earthy” or “watery” principles in it. People with cold, watery blood are prone to fear, anxiety, and are characterized by uncertainty in their judgments and actions. Hot, rich in fibers (now known to be fibrinogen and fibrin), rapidly clotting blood is characteristic of angry, easily excited, brave, imprudent natures. People with watery and cold blood are characterized by rationality, prudence. The best, according to Aristotle, should be considered warm, thin and pure blood, which, contributing to courage, also provides sufficient rationality.
The mixture of fluids in the body, characterized by the predominance of blood, was called the sanguine temperament (from the Latin word "sangvis" - blood); mixing, in which lymph predominates - phlegmatic temperament (from the Greek word "phlegm" - mucus); mixing with a predominance of yellow bile - choleric temperament (from the Greek word "chole" - bile) and, finally, mixing with a predominance of black bile - melancholic temperament (from the Greek words "melain chole" - black bile).
These names of temperaments have survived to this day, but the former ideas about the organic basis of psychological differences between people are now primarily of historical interest.
During the many centuries that have passed since ancient science, various new hypotheses have been put forward, seeking to explain the cause of the differences in the dynamic manifestations of the psyche.
In the history of the study of this problem, three main systems of views can be distinguished. The oldest of them, as we already know, connects the cause of individual differences with the role of certain body fluids. These humoral theories (from the Latin humor - moisture, juice) include ideas about the special significance of blood that have become widespread in modern times.
Thus, the German philosopher I. Kant (late 18th century), who made a great contribution to the systematization of psychological ideas about temperaments, believed that the natural basis of temperament is the individual characteristics of blood.
Close to this point of view is the idea of the Russian teacher, anatomist and physician P.F. Lesgaft, who wrote (at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries) that the manifestations of temperament are ultimately based on the properties of the circulatory system, in particular, the thickness and elasticity of the walls of blood vessels, the diameter of their lumen, the structure and shape of the heart, etc. which are associated with the speed and strength of blood flow and, as a result, a measure of the excitability of the body and the duration of reactions in response to various stimuli.
Long-standing ideas about the importance of body fluids have received partial confirmation in modern endocrinological studies, which have shown that such properties of the psyche as one or another dynamics of reactivity, sensitivity, emotional balance, to a large extent depend on individual differences in the functioning of the hormonal system.
At the turn of the XIX and early XX centuries. the so-called somatic concept was formed, according to which there is a connection between the properties of temperament and physique. The works of the German psychiatrist E. Kretschmer (20s of our century), which substantiate the idea that differences in the types of body structure (some features of growth, fullness, proportions of body parts) also indicate certain differences in temperament, are widely known.
The American scientist W. Sheldon (40s of our century) also put in a direct connection the bodily features that act in varying degrees of development of various tissues of the body, and the features of temperament. Somatic theories should not be overly contrasted with humoral ones: both the type of body structure and the dynamic properties of the psyche can be the result of the same cause - the result of the action of hormones secreted by the endocrine glands.
A great contribution to the further study of temperament was made by the great Russian academician, Nobel Prize winner Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936).
Studying the processes of excitation and inhibition in the cerebral cortex, their duration, turnover and strength, I. Pavlov was able to distinguish four types of higher nervous activity.
Strong balanced slow type- with the predominance of inhibition processes in the cerebral cortex, low mobility in the change of excitation and inhibition. As a rule, these are calm, persistent, hardworking, even, somewhat slow people.
Strong balanced movable type, in which the processes of excitation and inhibition are equally expressed, they quickly and easily replace each other. Such people are mobile, cheerful, sociable, quite purposeful and persistent, flexible. This type of higher nervous activity corresponds to the Hippocratic sanguine.
Strong unbalanced type, with the predominance of excitation processes in the cerebral cortex. These are choleric, unrestrained, ardent, selfish, screamers and fighters, at the slightest provocation they “give out” an emotional outburst. It should be noted that a pretty choleric is, as a rule, with high intelligence. Otherwise, choleric causes irritation and hostility among others.
weak type, in which both excitatory and inhibitory processes are weak, their mobility and change are insignificant. Indecisive, always doubting people, anxious and fearful. It is clear that these are melancholic. A fairly pronounced melancholic was, for example, Berseniev from I. Turgenev's novel "On the Eve".
I. Pavlov believed that the golden mean is “phlegmatic and sanguine temperaments, balanced, and therefore healthy, stable and truly vital nervous types ... Phlegmatic is always calm, always even, persistent and stubborn worker of life. Sanguine is a hot, very productive figure, but only when he has a lot of interesting things to do, that is, constant excitement. When there is no such thing, he becomes boring and lethargic ... ".
Thus, the studies of I. Pavlov brought the scientific neurophysiological foundation to the teachings of Hippocrates about temperaments.
Undoubtedly, each person has a well-defined type of nervous system, the manifestations of which, that is, the characteristics of temperament, constitute an important aspect of individual psychological differences.
The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (c. 460-377 BC) is considered the creator of the doctrine of temperament. He argued that people differ in the ratio of the four main "juices of the body" - blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. The ratio of these "juices of the body" in Greek was denoted by the word "krasis", which was later replaced by the Latin word temperamentum - "proportionality", "correct measure". Based on the teachings of Hippocrates, another famous physician of antiquity, Claudius Galen (c. 130-c. 200), developed a typology of temperaments, which he outlined in the famous treatise De temperamentum. According to his teachings, their temperament depends on the predominance of one of the juices in the body. They were allocated 13 types of temperament, but then they were reduced to four. These four names of temperament types are well known to everyone: sanguine (from Latin sanguis - blood), phlegmatic (from Greek phlegma - mucus, phlegm), choleric (from Greek chole - bile) and melancholic (from Greek melas chole - black bile). This concept has had a huge influence on scientists for many centuries, confirmation of this is the fact that until now the names of temperament types proposed by Galen are the most common.
Immanuel Kant (22.06.1724-12.02.1804), said that from a physiological point of view, when it comes to temperament, they mean the physical constitution (weak or strong physique) and complexion (liquid, naturally mobile in the body with the help of vital force, to which also refers to heat or cold in the processing of these juices.)
But from a psychological point of view, i.e. as the temperament of the soul (faculties of feeling and desire), these expressions concerning the properties of blood are determined only by analogy with the play of feelings and desire with bodily moving causes (of which blood is the most important).
The main division of the doctrine of temperaments is this: the temperaments of feeling and the temperaments of action are divided into two types, which together gives four temperaments.
Kant ranked as temperaments of feelings: A) sanguine and B) its opposite - melancholic. The first has the peculiarity that a quick and strong effect is exerted on the sensation, but the sensation does not penetrate deeply (it does not happen for a long time); in the second temperament, the sensation is less vivid, but takes deep roots. This should be seen as a difference in the temperaments of feelings, and not in a disposition to joy or sadness.
In subsequent centuries, researchers, observing a significant variety of behavior, coinciding with differences in physique and physiological functions, tried to streamline and somehow group these differences. As a result, numerous concepts and typologies of temperaments have arisen. These concepts were based on a variety of personality traits. In a number of concepts, the properties of temperament were understood as hereditary or innate and associated with individual differences in body features. Such typologies are called constitutional typologies. Among them, the most widespread was the typology proposed by E. Kretschmer, who in 1921 published his famous work “Body Structure and Character”. His main idea is that people with a certain body type have certain mental characteristics. E Kretschmer carried out many measurements of body parts, which allowed him to distinguish four constitutional types: leptosomatic, picnic, athletic, dysplastic.
The leptosomatic is characterized by a fragile physique, high growth, a flat chest, narrow shoulders, and long, thin lower limbs.
A picnic is a person with pronounced adipose tissue, excessively obese, characterized by small and medium stature, a swollen body with a large belly and a round head on a short neck.
Athletic - a person with well-developed muscles, a strong physique, characterized by high or medium height, broad shoulders, narrow hips.
Dysplastic - a person with a shapeless, irregular structure. Individuals of this type are characterized by various body deformities (for example, excessive growth, disproportionate physique).
With these types of body structure, Kretschmer correlates the three types of temperament he singled out, which he calls: schizothymic, ixothymic and cyclothymic. The schizothymic has an asthenic physique, he is closed, prone to mood swings, stubborn, not inclined to change attitudes and views, hardly adapts to the environment. In contrast, the ixothymic has an athletic physique. This is a calm, unimpressive person with restrained gestures and facial expressions, with low flexibility of thinking, often petty. The picnic physique is cyclothymic, his emotions fluctuate between joy and sadness, he easily contacts people and is realistic in his views.
Kretschmer's theory is most widespread in Europe. In the USA in the 40s. 20th century W. Sheldon's concept of temperament gained great popularity. His concept is based on the assumption that the body and temperament are two interrelated parameters of a person. According to the author, the structure of the body determines the temperament, which is its function. Sheldon proceeded from the hypothesis of the existence of basic body types, describing which he borrowed the terms of embryology.
He identified three types: 1) endomorphic (mostly internal organs are formed from the endoderm); 2) mesomorphic (muscle tissue is formed from the mesoderm); 3) ectomorphic (skin and nervous tissue develop from the ectoderm). People with the endomorphic type tend to have a weak physique with excess adipose tissue, the mesomorphic type is characterized by a slender and strong body, great physical strength, and the ectomorphic type is characterized by a fragile physique, a flat chest and long thin limbs with weak muscles. According to Sheldon, these body types correspond to certain types of temperaments, named by him depending on the functions of certain organs of the body: viscerotonia (from Latin viscera - insides), somatotonia (from Greek soma - body) and cerebrotonia (from Latin cerebrum - brain) . Sheldon calls persons with a predominance of a certain body type viscerotonic, somatotonic and cerebrotonic, respectively, and believes that each person has all of these groups of properties. However, the differences between people are determined by the predominance of certain properties.
In modern psychological science, most constitutional concepts are sharply criticized because they underestimate the role of the environment and social conditions in the formation of a person's mental properties. Concepts based on the consideration of the functioning of the nervous system, which performs the dominant and controlling role in the body, deserve more serious attention. The theory of the connection of some general properties of nervous processes with types of temperament was proposed by I.P. Pavlov and received further development and experimental confirmation in the works of his followers. The studies conducted by Pavlov are deservedly regarded as the most significant for understanding the physiological foundations of temperament.
Thanks to Pavlov's research, domestic psychology developed ideas about temperament as a personality property, largely due to the innate characteristics of a person. For example, B.G. Ananiev believed that the basic properties of a person as a representative of the species Homo sapiens are manifested not only in inclinations, but also in temperament.
The greatest contribution to the development of the theory of temperament in Russian psychology was made by B.M. Teplov. His works, devoted to the study of the properties of temperament, determined not only the modern view on the problem of temperament, but also became the basis for the development of further experimental studies of temperament. Teplov attributed to the properties of temperament stable mental properties that characterize the dynamics of mental activity. He explained the individual characteristics of temperament by different levels of development of certain properties of temperament. Among the most significant properties of temperament were the following:
Emotional excitability. This property was understood as the ability to respond to very weak external and internal influences.
Excitability of attention - this property of temperament determines the adaptive functions of the individual's psyche. It consists in the ability to notice an extremely small change in the intensity of the acting stimulus.
The power of emotions. Teplov saw the main function of this property in the "energization of activity" depending on the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of motives. (Modern psychologists call this property the intensity and modality of emotional manifestations.)
Anxiety. Teplov understood anxiety as emotional excitability in a threatening situation. Moreover, he fundamentally shared anxiety and emotional excitability under normal conditions. One of the reasons for this opinion is that emotional excitability does not depend on the strength of the stimulus, and anxiety, on the contrary, is directly dependent on it.
Reactivity of involuntary movements. The function of this property is to increase the intensity of adaptive reactions to situations and stimuli that are directly acting at the moment.
Activity of volitional purposefulness of activity. This property, according to Teplov, is manifested in an increase in the activity of the device by transforming the situation in accordance with the goal.
Plasticity - rigidity. The function of this property is to adapt to the changing requirements of the activity.
resistance. This property lies in the ability to resist all internal and external conditions that weaken or inhibit the activity begun.
Subjectivization. Teplov saw the function of this property in strengthening the degree of mediation of activity by subjective images and concepts.
From the above characteristics of the properties of temperament proposed by Teplov, we should draw two main conclusions. First, the properties of temperament are manifested in the dynamics of mental processes and the degree of activity of the individual. Secondly, temperament is closely related to activity. These provisions were developed in subsequent studies by domestic scientists.
The famous psychophysiologist V.M. Rusalov, based on the concept of the properties of the nervous system, proposed in the late 1980s. his interpretation of the properties of temperament. This concept deserves attention, since it took into account the achievements of modern physiology. Rusalov, based on the theory of the functional system P.K. Anokhin, which includes four blocks - storage, circulation and processing of information (block of afferent synthesis), programming (decision making), execution and feedback, identified four related properties of temperament, which are responsible for the breadth or narrowness of afferent synthesis (the degree of tension of the interaction of the body with the environment ), the ease of switching from one program of behavior to another, the speed of execution of the current program of behavior, and the sensitivity to the discrepancy between the real result of the action and its acceptor.
In accordance with this, the traditional psychophysiological assessment of temperament has changed and instead of two parameters - activity and sensitivity - four components have already been identified: ergicity (endurance), plasticity, speed and emotionality (sensitivity). All these components of temperament, according to Rusalov, are biologically and genetically determined. So, temperament depends on the properties of the nervous system, and they, in turn, should be understood as the main characteristics of functional systems that ensure the integrative, analytical and synthetic activity of the brain, the entire nervous system as a whole.
From the point of view of this concept, temperament is a psychobiological category in the sense that its properties are neither completely innate nor dependent on the environment. They, in the words of the author of this concept, represent a “systemic generalization” of genetically specified individual biological properties of a person, which, “being included in a variety of activities, gradually transform and form, regardless of the content of the activity itself, a generalized, qualitatively new individually stable system of invariant properties” .
In accordance with these two main types of human activity - objective activity and communication - each of the selected properties of temperament should be considered separately, since it is assumed that in these types of activity they manifest themselves in different ways. So, according to Rusalov, the psychological characteristics of temperament are not the properties of the nervous system per se or their combination, but the typical features of the course of mental processes and behavior that these properties generate. For example, activity, as a property of temperament, in cognitive mental processes is manifested in the extent to which a person is able to focus on a particular object or its aspect. In turn, the pace is manifested in how fast the corresponding mental processes proceed.
Excitability, inhibition and switchability characterize the speed of occurrence and termination of a particular cognitive process or its switching from one object to another. For example, some people are slow to engage in intellectual activity or switch from one topic to another. Others quickly memorize or recall information. It should also be borne in mind here that these features do not determine the abilities of people.
