The need for reform

The most important milestone in political development was the uprising in Moscow, which took place shortly after the coronation of Grozny. In 1547, there was an unusually dry summer. Fires have become more frequent in Moscow. The largest of them destroyed most of the wooden city. Several thousand inhabitants died in the fire, tens of thousands were left without shelter and food. Rumors arose that arson and witchcraft were the cause of the fires. The authorities took the most ferocious measures against the "lighters": they were tortured and they spoke to themselves during the torture, after which they were executed. On the second day after the “great fire”, a boyar commission was formed to punish the perpetrators of the disaster. On June 26, the boyars gathered the people in front of the Assumption Cathedral and found out who set fire to Moscow. The mob accused Anna Glinskaya of arson. The people came out of obedience and committed reprisals against the boyar Yu. V. Glinsky. On June 29, the mob moved to Vorobyevo, demanding that the tsar's grandmother Anna Glinskaya be handed over for reprisal. But the uprising was dispersed and its instigators were punished.

In 1547-1550 there were unrest in other cities. The situation of her people worsened more because of the crop failure of 1548-1549.

“Popular demonstrations showed that the country needs reforms. The further development of the country required the strengthening of statehood, the centralization of power.

Moscow completed the unification of Russian lands at the end of the 15th-beginning of the 16th century. It turned out to be impossible to manage a vast state with the help of archaic institutions and institutions that had developed in small principalities during the period of fragmentation. The All-Russian Sudebnik of 1497 is hopelessly outdated. The source of constant dissatisfaction of the boyar children was the boyar court, famous for its abuses. Only with the help of noble detachments it was possible to stop the unrest. These facts also tell us about the need for Russian reforms.

Thus, it is clear that in the middle of the 16th century Russia needed to strengthen statehood and centralize power. The need for reforms in the governance of the country was obvious.

The new level of political organization of the country, which had developed by the middle of the 16th century, had to correspond to new state institutions - class and representative institutions that defended the interests of large regions. The Zemsky Sobor became such a body.

In February 1549, the tsar gathered for a meeting the boyar duma, the Consecrated Cathedral (the top of the church) and the highest representatives of the boyars and nobility - the first Zemsky Sobor. The tsar accused the boyars of the abuses and violence that they committed in his infancy, and reminded them of how they mocked him. Then he urged to forget all grievances and act together for the common good. Hence the name of the Cathedral - "Cathedral of Reconciliation". At the Council, they announced the planned reforms and the preparation of a new Code of Laws. By the decision of the Council of the nobles, the boyars-governors were released from the court and granted them the right to the court of the tsar himself.

The Council of 1549 was the first Zemsky Sobor, that is, a meeting of class representatives with legislative functions. Its convocation reflected the establishment of a class-representative monarchy in Russia. However, the first Council did not yet have an elective character, and representatives of the urban trade and craft population and peasants were not present there. However, both of these categories of the population did not play a big role at the cathedrals in the future either. The emergence of a class-representative monarchy meant that now all the most important permissions would be sanctioned by representatives of the ruling class.

It is necessary to indicate the meaning of the term "Zemsky Sobor". Solovyov saw in this term a sign of the power of the people opposing the tsar. According to Tcherepnin's definition, the Zemsky Sobor is "a class-representative body of a single state, created in opposition to feudal law."

At the Zemsky Sobor of 1550, a new Code of Laws was adopted, which absorbed (unlike the rather archaic Code of Laws of 1497) the norms of all the main sections of the law of that time. The principal innovation was the proclamation in the final articles of two norms: the continuity of the development of legislation, as well as the public nature of the entry into force of the Code of Laws. It takes into account jurisprudence.

The new Sudebnik fully met the needs of the time. For example, it introduced for the first time punishment for bribery. In the new legislative document, the rules of law appear that still exist, and the institutions of local government that appeared earlier in 1551 received statutory letters, that is, they “signed under the Sudebnik”. Later, new regulations were also published that supplemented the Sudebnik.

The norms of the peasant transition on St. George's Day were confirmed and clarified, the "old" was increased; the power of the feudal lord over the peasants is strengthened: the master is made responsible for the crime of the peasants; the Code of Law applies to the newly annexed lands. The privileges of monasteries not to pay taxes to the treasury were abolished. It is forbidden to serve boyar children as slaves; punishments for boyars and clerks-bribe-takers were introduced.

Thus, in the middle of the 16th century, the estate-representative monarchy in the person of the Zemsky Sobor began to consolidate in Russia, which received support thanks to the publication of the new Sudebnik.

National history. History of Russia from ancient times to 1917. Encyclopedia. Volume 2. M .: Great Russian Encyclopedia, 1996. S. 261 - 262.

Zemsky cathedrals, cathedrals, councils, zemstvo councils, central nationwide class-representative institutions with legislative functions in the middle XVI – XVII centuries (in 1610 - 1613 the highest legislative and executive bodies). A variety of Zemsky Sobors were the so-called church-zemstvo, military and judicial councils. They arose at the final stage of the formation of the Russian centralized state in the form of a class-representative monarchy. By the middle of the XVI century. there were fundamental changes in the composition and structure of the Sovereign's court, local estate institutions, the importance of the Consecrated Cathedral increased.

The first Zemsky Sobor was convened in 1549 in an atmosphere of significant social aggravation (Moscow uprising of 1547, speeches of service nobles and taxable strata of the city and countryside in the 1540s). Meetings of Zemsky Sobors were held in Moscow, Vladimir (1550), near Moscow (1610 – 1611), in Yaroslavl (1611 – 1612). They were convened by kings (very rarely at the initiative of the estates) and estates (during periods of interregnum).

At the Zemsky Sobors, the most important issues of Russia's domestic and foreign policy were discussed and resolved. Zemsky Sobors were convened during the coronation of Fyodor Ivanovich (1584), Alexei Mikhailovich (1645), when Sofya Alekseevna was appointed ruler (1682); at Zemsky Sobors, Boris Godunov (1598), Vasily Shuisky (1606), Mikhail Fedorovich (1613), Ivan V and Peter I (1682) were elected to the kingdom; confirmed the deposition of Tsar Vasily Shuisky and the transfer of supreme power to the "Seven Boyars" (1610); developed the conditions for the election of the Polish prince Vladislav to the Russian throne (1610). The Zemsky Sobor of 1619 sanctioned the election of Patriarch Filaret at the Consecrated Council, thereby emphasizing his real status as co-ruler of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich. Zemsky Sobors prepared a number of important reforms. The Zemsky Sobor of 1549 considered and approved the reform of local government and outlined other changes. On January 3, 1565, the Zemsky Sobor agreed to Tsar Ivan IV to introduce the oprichnina. In 1613 - 1622, the Zemsky Sobors were engaged in financial and tax policy (the decisions of the Zemsky Sobors on the collection of “fifteen”, “request”, “soshny” money and other fees and “reserves”), developed measures to eliminate the consequences of the intervention of the early XVII in. , regulated land relations, strengthened the foundations of feudal landownership (carrying out a new description and patrols in counties, detecting townspeople - pawnbrokers, etc.). In 1681 - 1682 Zemsky Sobors abolished localism and outlined military, financial, and government reforms. Secular and ecclesiastical codes were adopted at Zemsky Sobors [Sudebnik 1550, Stoglav (1551), Cathedral Code 1649]. At judicial Zemsky Sobors, A.F. Adashev and Sylvester , dethroned Metropolitan Philip (judicial-church Zemsky Sobors 1560, 1568), accused of conspiracy against False Dmitry I and convicted Prince Vasily Shuisky (judicial Zemsky Sobor 1605), sentenced to death (1607) Ileyka Muromets (“Tsarevich Peter”). The activities of some Zemsky Sobors are associated with the adoption of measures to suppress the Cossack-peasant uprising led by I.M. Zarutsky (1614), movements of the Cossacks in the Moscow and Pomeranian cities (1614), the Pskov uprising of 1650. In foreign policy, special attention was paid to Russian-Polish (1566, 1580, 1591, 1610, 1684) and Russian-Swedish (1616) relations, including violations of the Deulino Treaty of 1618 and the Polyanovsky Peace of 1634 by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth . In 1642, the Zemsky Sobor considered the issue of accepting Azov into the Russian state. , in 1653 he decided to declare war on the Commonwealth and to accept Ukraine into Russian citizenship (took place in 1654). The so-called military councils (“meetings”, “meetings”) and some Zemsky sobors were devoted to the organization of campaigns against Kazan (1550, 1552), the reform of the border service (1571), military operations against the troops of the Crimean Khanate (1598, 1604, 1637, etc. .), the invasion of Prince Vladislav (1618), etc.

The composition of Zemsky Sobors was formed by representation from estate groups, socio-political and state institutions. Representation was due to the status of the person, determined by choice or, possibly, by appointment (invitation). The core of the Zemsky Sobor and its permanent parts (curia) were: consecrated cathedral, headed by the Moscow metropolitan (from 1589 - patriarch) and included archbishops, bishops, archimandrites, abbots of influential monasteries; Boyar Duma(including duma nobles and duma clerks), as well as (before the beginning of the XVII c.) persons who, by virtue of their position, had the right of a boyar court (butlers, treasurers, printers, etc.). The bulk of the secular feudal lords of the XVI century. represented various groups of the sovereign's court(stewards, solicitors, Moscow and elected nobles, clerks, etc.). From the trade and craft population, privileged groups of merchants were represented at the Zemsky Sobor ( guests, members of the Living Room and Cloth Hundreds). At the Zemsky Sobor of 1584 for the first time were present "elected" from the county nobility, at the Zemsky Sobor in 1598 their representation increased; For the first time, Sotsky Moscow Black Hundreds and Half Hundreds participated in the meetings of the cathedral. From the beginning of the 17th century the principle of real election was developed (elected from county corporations of the nobility, from the white urban clergy, a number of class groups of service people "according to the instrument", taxable citizens, etc.). A special role in the history of the Zemsky Sobors (“Councils of the Whole Earth”, 1611-1613) was played in 1604-1605 by city councils - all-estate local bodies that arose in many territories of Russia. Having started the national liberation movement against the interventionists, they actively contributed to the formation of the First Militia of 1611, the People's Militia of 1611 - 1612 and struggle for state and national revival. At the Zemsky Sobor of 1612 - 1613 for the first time were present elected from the black-haired and palace peasants. The electoral council of 1613 was the most numerous (over 800 people from no less than 58 cities) and representative in composition in comparison with the previous Zemsky Sobor. In 1613 - 1622 Zemsky Sobors acted almost continuously, while one composition of the Zemsky Sobor held several "sessions". In 1632 - 1653 Zemsky Sobors were convened relatively rarely - on the most significant issues of domestic and foreign policy. During this period, the activity of the class groups of the city became more active and the state significance of class meetings increased, representatives from foreigners appeared in the Russian service (1648). The last Zemsky Sobors (1682, 1683 - 1684) were held after the death of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich in the conditions of a political crisis and the struggle for power of palace groups. In the context of the evolution of the state-political system of Russia to absolutism Zemsky Sobors lost their significance by the end of the 17th century. Researchers count about 60 Zemsky Sobors of the middle of the 16th - 17th centuries. (V.D. Nazarov)

In 1549, the Zemsky Sobor was created - an advisory body in which the aristocracy, clergy, "sovereign people" are represented, and later representatives of the merchant class and the city elite are elected. The convocation of the Council testified to the creation of a class-representative institution and the transformation of Russia into a class-representative monarchy. The Zemsky Sobor included the Boyar Duma, representatives of the clergy, feudal lords and townspeople. Although the Councils did not limit the power of the king and were of an advisory nature, they contributed to the implementation of the political activities of the supreme power on the ground. Since the legal status of Zemsky Sobors was not defined, they met extremely unevenly. The elected council directed the supreme power on the path of rapprochement with society and the establishment of the state with public assistance. Her suggestion, according to all data, owes its convocation to the Zemsky Sobor. It is highly probable that the idea of ​​convening a Council originated among the clergy surrounding the Tsar, who knew the Council of the Church to arrange the affairs of the Church. It is possible that Metropolitan Macarius and some other persons, “venerable by the presbytery”, who were the soul of the “chosen council” that surrounded the tsar, led the tsar to convene the Council. But even among the boyars belonging to this elected council, the idea of ​​the Zemsky Sobor enjoyed sympathy. From the speech of the tsar, which he delivered at the church council of 1551, the impression is that the first Zemsky Sobor was convened for general reconciliation, to end the litigation and displeasure that had accumulated in society from the previous era of boyar, and then tsarist arbitrariness and tyranny. So, the first Zemsky Sobor met in Moscow for the internal appeasement of the state after the turmoil of the 30s and 40s. His role, by all indications, was not limited to the general formulation of this problem. In the history of the development of the supreme power of the new Muscovite state, a moment came when a certain limitation of monarchical absolutism was established. This restriction was mainly the work of a certain circle of people who took advantage of a favorable turn in the tsar's mental life, and not the result of a united rebuff, the solidarity efforts of the entire upper class or most of it. Not being the result of a struggle of an entire class against the monarch, this limitation was not secured by proper political guarantees, by a well-known constitution, which would define exactly the rights and obligations of the monarch in relation to his subjects. As a result of all this, the restriction turned out to be fragile and was not able to prevent the onset of a still bitter tyranny.

The highest class-representative institutions in Russia in the middle of the 16th - the end of the 17th centuries. They were convened by the tsar, and in his absence by the metropolitan (later patriarch) and the Boyar Duma. Permanent members of the council are the Duma ranks, including Duma clerks, and the Consecrated Cathedral (archbishops, bishops headed by the metropolitan, from 1589 - with the patriarch). Representatives of the "sovereign's court", elected from the provincial nobility, the top tenants (the latter were represented at the councils of 1566, 1598 and most of the cathedrals of the 17th century) were involved in the Zemsky Sobor. There were no representatives of the peasants at the Zemsky Sobors. The exception is the cathedral of 1613; it is assumed that several representatives of the black-sown peasantry took part in its work. The practice of convening and running meetings was not strictly regulated and gradually changed. It is not always possible, especially for the 16th century, to establish differences between zemstvo sobors proper and meetings of the cathedral form, that is, meetings of duma officials, higher clergy with representatives of certain groups of nobles or townspeople. In the first half of the 17th century, zemstvo sobors were convened, both consisting of a large number of elected people from the localities, and sobors, at which only servicemen and townspeople who were in Moscow were represented. Such representation depended on the degree of urgency of the convocation of the council and on the nature of the questions submitted for their discussion. The appearance of zemstvo sobors was the result of the unification of Russian lands into a single state, the weakening of the princely-boyar aristocracy, the growth of the political significance of the nobility and the upper tenants. The first zemstvo councils were convened in the middle of the 16th century. The Zemsky Sobors of 1549 and 1550 are connected with the reforms of the reign of the Elected Rada. At the beginning of the 17th century, in the Time of Troubles, the “Council of All the Earth” was convened, the continuation of which was essentially the Zemsky Sobor of 1613, which elected Mikhail Fedorovich, the first tsar of the Romanov dynasty, to the throne. During his reign (1613-45) Zemsky Sobors were convened most frequently. Zemstvo sobors were convened for confirmation on the throne or for the election of a tsar (councils of 1584, 1598, 1613, 1645, 1676, 1682). At the Laid Council (1648-1649), the Council Code of 1649 was drawn up and approved. At this council, the largest number of representatives from the localities was noted. The Zemsky Sobor of 1650 was convened in connection with the uprising in Pskov. The conciliar decision of 1682 approved the abolition of parochialism. With the help of Zemsky Sobors, the government introduced new taxes and changed the old ones. Foreign policy issues were discussed at the councils, especially in connection with the danger of war, the need to raise an army and funds for its conduct. These issues were constantly discussed, starting with the Zemsky Sobor of 1566, convened in connection with the Livonian War (1558-1583), and ending with the councils of 1653-1654 on the reunification of Ukraine with Russia and 1683-1684 on the Eternal Peace with the Commonwealth. Sometimes unplanned questions were raised at zemstvo councils: at the council of 1566 the question of the abolition of the oprichnina was raised, at the council of 1642, convened to discuss the issue of Azov, the situation of Moscow and city nobles. Since the middle of the 17th century, the activity of Zemsky Sobors has gradually ceased. This is explained by the establishment of absolutism, and also by the fact that the nobles and townspeople, by the publication of the Cathedral Code (1649), achieved the satisfaction of many of their requirements.

Zemsky Cathedral called the highest class-representative state institution, which was a meeting of representatives of most segments of the population (with the exception of serfs) to discuss administrative, economic, and political issues.

Convocation of the very first Zemsky Sobor in 1549(February 27) coincided with the beginning of the reform period of Tsar Ivan the Fourth (the Terrible). It dealt with two main issues: the abolition of feeding, as well as the abuse of local officials. The cathedral emerges as a nationwide analogue of city councils that used to exist in large county towns. The first Zemsky Sobor united the highest clergy (members of the Consecrated Cathedral), boyars and specific princes (Boyar Duma), wealthy townspeople, as well as the tsar's courtiers. The meeting was held according to the ranks, and the decisions taken were recorded as completely unanimous. The Zemsky Sobor consisted of two chambers. The first included: treasurers, roundabouts, butlers, as well as boyars. And in the second: great nobles, princes, boyar children and governors. The meeting lasted two days. During this time, the tsar, the boyars spoke three times, and, finally, a boyar meeting took place.

This first Zemsky Sobor was nicknamed the "Cathedral of Reconciliation", since it was he who marked the change of the Russian state into a class monarchy through the formation of a class-representative central institution in which the nobility played a significant role. However, at the same time, the aristocracy was obliged to give up its privileges in favor of the simple stratum of the population. This cathedral also became famous thanks to the compilation (correction and addition) of the new Sudebnik, which was approved already in June 1550.

Also, simultaneously with the Zemsky Sobor, meetings of the Church Council took place, by the decision of which, after considering their lives, the celebration of sixteen saints was established.

Another innovation introduced at the Zemsky Sobor in connection with the decision to “give judgment” to the boyars with a petition was the petition hut. It not only received petitions in the sovereign's name, but also decisions were made. This Izba became a kind of control body and appellate agency that oversaw the rest of the institutions.