In market conditions, an objective indicator of the competitiveness of products is the level of quality. This indicator is relevant for all types of products, since they have a set of properties that need to be varied depending on the purpose of the product. When evaluating the quality of products, they are currently mainly guided by the current standards. However, they do not always make it possible to draw the correct conclusion about which type of product is of the highest quality, since this requires the determination of many indicators. In order to formalize the quality assessment procedure and express it as a single generalized indicator of quality, it is necessary to apply the methodology of qualimetry.

In practical quality calculations, as a rule, any branch of the property tree (subtree) extending at least two levels is used, leaving the name for convenience.

The essence of the tested approach is as follows. It is assumed that the ordered set of product quality indicators represents a three-level hierarchical tree schematically shown in Fig. 3, where the generalized quality indicator is located at the zero (0) level K (0) on the first (1) - a subset of complex and simple indicators, k (1 1) ,..., k(1n) , on the second (2) - a subset of simple quality indicators k (2) n ,..., k (2) n

Figure 3 - Tree of quality indicators for products

If, with such a hierarchy, a relationship is provided between the quality indicators of the first and second levels

then the generalized quality indicator is calculated by the formula:

, (1)

where w is a veto function different from zero if at least one of the indicators is at an unacceptable level, and to one in other cases; a j and b j . - weight coefficients of quality indicators, respectively, of the first and second hierarchical levels, related by the condition:

Normalized scores for quality indicators k j included in equation (3) are calculated by formula (4):

where to convert the natural values ​​of quality indicators r into the normalized form R, the following dependencies are used:

For responses limited on one side

(3)

For responses limited on both sides

(4)

In relations (5), (6) J r =0.5(r max -r min) is the interval of variation of natural values ​​of quality indicators.

Based on the function of the double exponent (4), along with a quantitative assessment, it is possible to form a qualitative scale of desirability both for the desired properties and for the generalized quality indicator K (0) :

from 0.90 to 1.0 - excellent;

from 0.8 to 0.90 - very good;

from 0.63 to 0.8 - good;

from 0.37 to 0.63 - satisfactory;

from 0.2 to 0.37 - bad;

from 0.0 to 0.2 - very bad.

Example. Determine the generalized indicator of the quality of plastic windows.

Decision

For this purpose, three windows were selected from the batch and quality indicators were determined for them (table 3).

Table 3

Values ​​of quality indicators

The values ​​of generalized quality indicators are presented in Table 4.

Table 4

Values ​​of normalized and generalized quality indicators

№	Heat transfer resistance, m 2 * 0 C/W	Soundproofing, dB	Total light transmittance	Air permeability, m 3 / (h * m 2)	K(0)
R(I)1	K(I)1	R(I)2	K(I)2	R(1)3	K(I)3	R(I)4	K(I)4
		0,95		0,19	1,85	0,997		0,19	0,53
		0,95		0,95		0,998		0,95	0,96
		0,95		0,19	0,92	0,44		0,95	0,71

Analysis of the results shown in Table 5 shows that the generalized indicator of the quality of plastic windows is in the range .

Meanwhile, control using statistical methods can significantly reduce the percentage of defective products. For the development of statistical acceptance control, the following must be determined: lot size; controlled parameters with indication of their boundaries; acceptance level of defects for each controlled parameter; standard deviation or method of its estimation; level of control; type of control, instructions on the initial type of control and the possibility of transition from one type of control to another.

We propose a statistical acceptance control by a quantitative attribute. The choice of a control plan when the variance of the controlled parameter is unknown and is estimated from the sample variance (s-plan) is as follows. According to the given volume of batches N and the selected control level, usually II, find the sample size code. According to the sample size code and the established value of the defectiveness level AQL find the sample size P and control standard k.From P values ​​of the controlled parameter of the sample calculate the arithmetic mean and quality statistics according to the formula:

If the value Q in > k in Q n> k n, then a batch of products is accepted. If the value Q in< k in or Q n < k n, or at least one of the quantities ( Q in or Q m) is negative, then the batch of products is rejected.

Specificity. It leads to the selection and signification of relatively stable properties of the surrounding world. The simplest types of generalization are already carried out at the level of perception, manifesting themselves as the constancy of perception. At the level of human thinking, generalization is mediated by the use of socially developed tools - methods of cognitive activity and signs.

GENERALIZATION

a product of mental activity, a form of reflection of common features and qualities of phenomena of reality. The process is cognitive, leading to the selection and signification of relatively stable properties of the external world. The simplest types of generalization are already realized at the level of perception, manifesting themselves as the constancy of perception. Its types correspond to the types of thinking. The most studied are generalizations in the form of word meanings. Generalization also acts as a means of mental activity. At the level of human thinking, generalization is mediated by the use of socially developed tools - methods of cognitive activity and signs.

The simplest generalizations consist in association, grouping of objects on the basis of a separate, random feature (syncretic associations). Complex generalization is more difficult, when a group of objects is combined into a single whole for various reasons. It is especially difficult to generalize, in which specific and generic characteristics are clearly differentiated, the object is included in a certain system of concepts. Complex generalizations, as well as syncretic ones, are presented at any level of complexity of intellectual activity.

When studying the formation of new generalizations in psychology, the method of forming artificial concepts is used, when the methods of grouping objects typical for a particular person (syncretic, complex, proper conceptual) are analyzed.

One and the same generalization can be formed as a result of different organization of research activities - for example, a generalization built on the basis of the minimum necessary data, and it is also based on redundant data. Subjectively, a new generalization (knowledge) of an individual can be of different origin: obtained in communication with other people or developed independently. In the second case, this generalization may be absent from social experience.

In the study of generalizations in psychology, methods are used to define concepts, compare and classify them. There is widespread research on purposeful management of the process of assimilation of generalizations. There are usually several generalizations associated with one word; the use of one of them depends on the context of the situation, the utterance, on the motives and goals of the subject of speech activity. The formation of generalizations that enrich social experience is also a contribution to the historical development of thinking.

GENERALIZATION

English generalization) is one of the main characteristics of cognitive processes, consisting in the selection and fixation of relatively stable, invariant properties of objects and their relationships. The simplest type of visualization, made in terms of direct perception, allows a person to display the properties and relationships of objects, regardless of the particular and random conditions of their observation. Along with this, two types of mediated language are inherent in man, in the process of which comparisons, analysis, and synthesis play a special role, including the use of language tools.

The first type of mediated O. is based on the action of comparison. Comparing with a certain t. sp. objects of a certain group, a person finds, singles out and designates with a word their outwardly identical, general properties, which can become the content of the concept of this group or class of objects. Such O. and concepts are called empirical. Separating general properties from particular ones and designating them with a word allows a person to cover the sensory diversity of objects in an abbreviated, compressed form, reduce them to certain classes, and then operate with concepts without direct appeal to individual objects (see Abstraction). One and the same real object m. included in both narrow and broad classes. This allows us to outline a scale of common features (based on the principle of genus-species relations). The function of empirical O. is to streamline the diversity of objects, to classify them. With the help of classification schemes, each new item can be identified as belonging to a specific group. Empirical O. is characteristic of the initial stages of cognition. (In logic, such O. are called "inductive". - Approx. ed.)

The 2nd type of the mediated O. is carried out by the analysis of empirical data about to. object in order to highlight significant internal links that define this object as an integral system. Such a concept and the concept corresponding to it are called theoretical. This concept initially fixes internal connections in an abstract way, only as a genetic starting point of an integral system. Then, using a theoretical concept, a person correlates the particular features of the object into a single whole. Knowledge about it is becoming more and more detailed and complete, concrete. With such an ascent from the abstract to the concrete, the mental reproduction of the object occurs. This type of O. corresponds to the developed state of science, its theoretical stage.

In child and educational psychology, it is generally accepted that the ability for empirical observation begins to take shape at preschool age and develops especially intensively at primary school age. O. of a theoretical nature is typical for adolescence and especially for adolescence. There is also a point of view according to which the above age stages and the cognitive abilities corresponding to them can be significantly shifted towards an earlier age.

Generalization

a study result that is believed to be true for a larger group of people than those actually reported in the study or studies that produced that result.

GENERALIZATION

1. The process of forming a judgment or making a decision that applies to an entire class or category of objects, events, or phenomena. Some features of this meaning deserve mention. First, generalization in this sense almost always implies a process of induction; it starts from a limited number of observations of the elements of the class and extends (that is, generalizes) to other elements. Second, generalization is the other side of the coin here, as opposed to distinction (1). That is, when one generalizes a judgment or a reaction to the us members of a class, one does not really distinguish between individual distinguishing features within that class. For more on this subject, see Generalization Gradient. 2. The process of extending a principle or concept to new objects, events, or areas. Note that a value of 2 can be similar to a value of 1 in the case where one discovers that a new object can be classified as belonging to a known group and thus be included in a previously made generalization, or it can be associated with a completely new one. a set of objects that are distinguishable from other events but are found to be explicable by some known principle. 3. In science, any broad statement that may include a number of observations. That is, the process of generalization in sense 2 can lead to generalization in sense 3.

Since these meanings are very "general", the term is often qualified by various additions that define the kind of generalization in question. See the following articles for some common examples. GENERALIZATION

generalization) - the main goal of any experiment: based on a limited number of data obtained, to draw conclusions that apply to a wider area of ​​practice. In practical individual experiments, O. is performed in the same way as in life; this is a general conclusion based on a limited number of experiments, which is valid only for this particular subject. The possibility of O. results is related to the representativeness of the experiment and its validity and depends on the control of side factors (internal validity) and on the compliance (and completeness of representation) of additional variables in the experiment. Allocate O. experimental results on; the real situation under study (artificial experiment), to other representatives of the population (group experiment), the spread of theoretical ideas (laboratory experiment). To control O., new levels of an additional variable are also involved in a factorial experiment. The broadest testing of the hypothesis under study requires a whole series of experiments with different levels of additional variables.

mental operation, which means the transition to a higher level of abstraction by identifying common features (properties, relationships, development trends, etc.) of objects in the area under consideration; entails the emergence of new scientific concepts, theories, laws.

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓

GENERALIZATION

1) With t. sp. logic - the construction (derivation) of universal and existential statements: a) in systems of deductive logic - based on the postulated rules for constructing such statements (inference rules for quantifiers of generality and existence - the so-called O. variables); c) in inductive logic systems based on experimental (experimental) data ("data of empirical evidence") - the so-called. and inductive O. (see Induction, Inductive Logic, Scientific Induction, Incomplete Induction, Popular Induction). 2) From epistemological. (and methodological) v. sp. O. - one of the most important means of scientific. cognition, the procedure for moving to a higher level of abstraction based on identifying (in the area of ​​objects under consideration) features common to these objects: properties, relationships, development trends, etc. Science, in essence, appears when "... as a result of a series of considerations of experience, one general view of similar objects is established" (Aristotle, Met. I 1, 1981 a 1 - in 13; Russian translation, M.–L ., 1934, p. 19). Depending on the subject area and tasks of O. research, they are carried out at different levels, in particular: 1) at the level of empirical. material [it usually includes the development of a concept that reflects similarity, commonality, similarity, etc., in general, c.-l. the relationship between two or more objects (phenomena) under study, and the formulation of a certain principle that explains in a unified way a group (or groups) of observed phenomena or the identification of a law governing this group of phenomena]; 2) at the level of already developed concepts (see Concept); 3) at the level of "system of concepts" - theories. In the latter case, O. is closely connected with the concepts of a group of transformations and invariants. For example, for classical mechanics were fair so-called. Galilean transformations: lengths and masses of bodies, time intervals remained unchanged during the transition from one reference system to another. Relativity theory uses a more general group - Lorentz transformations, establishing the relationship between space and time. With such an orientation, the former invariants turn out to be only particular projections that depend on the frame of reference; other quantities are taken as invariants - the maximum length, the space-time interval, the minimum mass. Thus, O. theory usually involves a transition from one group of transformations to another, broader one. Lit.: Jevons S., Fundamentals of science, trans. from English, St. Petersburg, 1881, ch. 27; Gorsky D.P., Questions of abstraction and the formation of concepts, ?., 1961, ch. ten. F. Lazarev. Kaluga, M. Novoselov. Moscow.

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓

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Generalization
GENERALIZATION - a mental combination of similar features of several objects in one concept about these objects. For example, letters and numbers are generalized into the concept of *sign*. Those similar features of individual objects that stand out in the process of their analysis, comparison and abstraction are summarized. - this is also the transition from a more particular concept to a more general one, from thoughts about the general to thoughts about the more general. happens with words. Every word refers not to a single object or phenomenon, but to their multitude. Allocate empirical and theoretical generalization. The function of empiricism of generalization consists in ordering the variety of objects, in their classification. The function of theoretical generalization consists in ascending from the abstract to the concrete, in highlighting the essential internal connections of an object that define this object as an integral system. In the process of assimilation by students of a new concept, it is important to consider and, in particular, independently search for relevant examples.

List of random tags:
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Hull Clark Leonard - Hull Clark Leonard (05/24/1884 - 1952) - American psychologist, representative of neobehaviorism, author of the "hypothetical-deductive" concept of behavior. He relied on those requirements for the methodology of constructing a theory and experiment that were developed in the natural sciences, primarily in mathematics. He proceeded from the need to introduce “intermediate variables” between the elements of classical behaviorism, which he proposed to consider need, reaction potential, skill strength, goal.
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Hallucination - Hallucination - the perception of a really absent object or its signs, subjectively recognized as a real perception. It occurs, as a rule, with various mental disorders, in stressful situations, as well as during prolonged sensory isolation.
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Feeling of inferiority - FEELING OF INDEFICIENCY - a stable form of a person's experience of his real or imagined inferiority, formed when a person notices one or another of his shortcomings. A feeling of inferiority that arises in a child as a result of his awareness of his biological or other inferiority and causes him to develop his own lifestyle, which can allow him to develop abilities and gain superiority over others. The feeling of inferiority is caused both by organic-morphological and functional deficiencies of organs, anomalies of organs, their functions, etc., and by subjective factors; assessment of natural weakness, difficulties in social relations, etc. The feeling of inferiority is not a passive state, it can be a stimulus for the mental development of an individual if he strives to overcome inferiority. In this case, the stronger the feeling of inferiority, the stronger the desire to overcome it in the form of a desire for superiority.

1) Generalization- (lat. generalisatio) - a mental operation, the transition from the thought of the individual, contained in the concept, judgment, norm, hypothesis, question, etc., to the thought of the general; from thoughts about the general to thoughts about the more general; from a number of facts, situations, events to their identification in some properties with the subsequent formation of sets corresponding to these properties (see: Inductive generalization). Not only concepts but also judgments are formed through inductive reasoning. Analytical is understood as O., carried out on the basis of the analysis of the corresponding linguistic expressions, definitions, application of the rules of deduction and not requiring recourse to experience. Examples can be mental transitions from the concept of "mechanical form of matter movement" to the concept of "form of matter movement", from the judgment "Whales are mammals" to the judgment "Whales are vertebrates", from the question "Is this problem solvable in this case?" to the question "Is this problem solvable in the general case?", from the legal norm "theft is prohibited" to the norm "theft is prohibited". Synthetic (or inductive) are understood as O. associated with the study of experimental data. They are used in the formation and development of various concepts, judgments (including laws), and scientific theories. In traditional logic, the definition of a concept is understood as a transition from a concept of lesser generality to a concept of greater generality by discarding attributes that belong only to those elements that are included in the scope of the generalized concept (the transition from the concept of "right triangle" to the concept of "triangle"). The opposite of O. is the operation of limiting a concept. The abstraction of identification plays an important role in synthetic identifications. The O. process is widely used in the formation of concepts, not only in scientific knowledge, but also, for example, in the process of forming artistic images.

2) Generalization- - highlighting a number of things in common properties and relationships between them (things and properties).

3) Generalization- Conclusion from particular to general. Generalization is induction, i.e. the conclusion will always be hypothetical. It presupposes an abstraction from some features in which objects differ from each other, since thought retains only features that are present in all objects. In scientific research, generalization is very fruitful: it allows one to move from the observation of a few particular cases to the hypothesis of a universal law. However, one must beware of too hasty generalizations: the generalization must be verified by applying it to as many special cases as possible.

4) Generalization- - a method of thinking, as a result of which the general properties and signs of objects are established.

5) Generalization- Mental transition from individual facts, events to their sets (classes), from one thought to another - more general.

6) Generalization- - formulation of conclusions, regularities and laws from facts, analyzes of events and phenomena.

7) Generalization- (from Lat. generalisatio) a mental transition from individual facts, events to their identification (and inductive generalization); from one thought to a more general, another (logical generalization). By making appropriate abstractions, one passes from, say, the geometry of Euclid to the geometry of Lobachevsky, which means that it is possible to generalize both judgments and scientific theories. Even such a scheme emerges as a result of the generalization process: a single concept - a generalized concept - a judgment - a law of science - a theory. Obtaining generalized knowledge means a deeper penetration into the essence of reality. The opposite of generalization is restriction.

8) Generalization- - the logical process of transition from the individual to the general. from less general to more general knowledge (for example, the transition from the concept of “heat” to the concept of “energy”, from the geometry of Euclid to the geometry of Lobachevsky), as well as the result of this process: a generalized concept, judgment, law of science, theory. Obtaining generalized knowledge means a deeper reflection of reality, penetration into its essence. In formal logic, concept differentiation is understood as the transition from a specific to a generic concept. At the same time, the content of the generic concept turns out to be narrower, since specific features are excluded from it (the scope and content of the concept). So, in the transition from the concept of “oak” to the concept of “tree”, signs specific to oak are discarded. The opposite process to O. is limitation.

Generalization

(lat. generalisatio) - a mental operation, the transition from the thought of the individual, contained in the concept, judgment, norm, hypothesis, question, etc., to the thought of the general; from thoughts about the general to thoughts about the more general; from a number of facts, situations, events to their identification in some properties with the subsequent formation of sets corresponding to these properties (see: Inductive generalization). Not only concepts but also judgments are formed through inductive reasoning. Analytical is understood as O., carried out on the basis of the analysis of the corresponding linguistic expressions, definitions, application of the rules of deduction and not requiring recourse to experience. Examples can be mental transitions from the concept of "mechanical form of matter movement" to the concept of "form of matter movement", from the judgment "Whales are mammals" to the judgment "Whales are vertebrates", from the question "Is this problem solvable in this case?" to the question "Is this problem solvable in the general case?", from the legal norm "theft is prohibited" to the norm "theft is prohibited". Synthetic (or inductive) are understood as O. associated with the study of experimental data. They are used in the formation and development of various concepts, judgments (including laws), and scientific theories. In traditional logic, the definition of a concept is understood as a transition from a concept of lesser generality to a concept of greater generality by discarding attributes that belong only to those elements that are included in the scope of the generalized concept (the transition from the concept of "right-angled triangle" to the concept of "triangle"). The opposite of O. is the operation of limiting a concept. The abstraction of identification plays an important role in synthetic identifications. The O. process is widely used in the formation of concepts, not only in scientific knowledge, but also, for example, in the process of forming artistic images.

Identification of a number of things in common properties and relationships between them (things and properties).

conclusion from particular to general. Generalization is induction, i.e. the conclusion will always be hypothetical. It presupposes an abstraction from some features in which objects differ from each other, since thought retains only features that are present in all objects. In scientific research, generalization is very fruitful: it allows one to move from the observation of a few particular cases to the hypothesis of a universal law. However, one must beware of too hasty generalizations: the generalization must be verified by applying it to as many special cases as possible.

Reception of thinking, as a result of which the general properties and signs of objects are established.

A mental transition from individual facts, events to their sets (classes), from one thought to another - more general.

Formulation of conclusions, patterns and laws from facts, analyzes of events and phenomena.

(from Lat. generalisatio) a mental transition from individual facts, events to their identification (and inductive generalization); from one thought to a more general, another (logical generalization). By making appropriate abstractions, one passes from, say, the geometry of Euclid to the geometry of Lobachevsky, which means that both judgments and scientific theories can be generalized. Even such a scheme emerges as a result of the generalization process: a single concept - a generalized concept - a judgment - a law of science - a theory. Obtaining generalized knowledge means a deeper penetration into the essence of reality. The opposite of generalization is restriction.

Logical process of transition from singular to general. from less general to more general knowledge (for example, the transition from the concept of “heat” to the concept of “energy”, from the geometry of Euclid to the geometry of Lobachevsky), as well as the result of this process: a generalized concept, judgment, law of science, theory. Obtaining generalized knowledge means a deeper reflection of reality, penetration into its essence. In formal logic, concept differentiation is understood as the transition from a specific to a generic concept. At the same time, the content of the generic concept turns out to be narrower, since specific features are excluded from it (the scope and content of the concept). So, in the transition from the concept of “oak” to the concept of “tree”, signs specific to oak are discarded. The opposite process to O. is limitation.