Grammatical categories are usually classified on two grounds: by the number of members that form the category, and by the nature of the relationship between them. A grammatical category cannot have less than two members. If there were only one form with any meaning, then this meaning could not be grammatical, since it would be deprived, firstly, of the relationship between the concrete and the general, and secondly, of regularity. Those categories that consist of two members are called binary. However, there are grammatical categories with a large number of members. Trinomial, for example, is the category of time. An even greater number of members contains the category of case.
The oppositions that form a grammatical category can (as in the case of phonetic oppositions) constitute an equipotent opposition, i.e., be in such relations when the members are equal. It is in such relations that word forms are found that form, for example, the category of number in nouns. There are also categories whose members constitute a privative opposition, i.e., are in such relations when one of the members can convey not only "his" attribute, but also the attribute expressed by another member. So, according to some scientists, the category of tense is “arranged” for imperfective verbs, where the past tense word forms indicate the action before the moment of speech, the future tense word forms indicate the action after this moment, and the present tense word forms can indicate the action regardless of the moment of speech . (Compare with the opposition of the secretary-secretary type, where the second member denotes only a female person, and the first one denotes both sexes.)
A feature of grammatical categories is also their ability or inability to oppose word forms of one lexeme. Let's look at some examples.
The category of number in nouns is able to oppose word forms that do not differ from each other in anything other than the meaning of the number: table - tables, road - roads, gun - guns. The category of time in verbs is able to contrast word forms that differ from each other not only in the meaning of time, but also in other grammatical meanings. I wrote and I will write differ from each other in the meaning of time, as well as in the meanings of gender and person. The meanings of gender and person are grammatical. Consequently, the grammatical categories of number for nouns and tense for verbs are able to oppose the word forms of one lexeme.
The nouns godfather and godfather, head and head, student and student differ in their combinational possibilities, which, being obligatory, form the gender category of nouns. However, the nouns under consideration differ not only in combinational properties, but also in content: godfather, manager, student indicate a male person; godfather, manager, student - on a female person. Characterization by gender is not mandatory for nouns. Nor is it regular: a noun with the meaning of a person or an animal does not always have a correlate with the meaning of the opposite sex. (How to form in Russian names of females from insolent or fighter?) Consequently, the gender category of nouns is not able to oppose the word forms of one lexeme. This category is always combined with such characteristics that are not grammatical and form the opposition of lexemes.
Grammatical categories capable of opposing word forms of one lexeme are usually called inflectional. Grammatical categories that are not able to oppose the word forms of one lexeme are usually called classifying or lexico-grammatical.

So, the tasks of morphology are as follows. First, morphology must determine the principles for combining word forms into a lexeme. Secondly, it must establish which part of the meaning of the word form is grammatical. Thirdly, morphology must compile a list and establish the nature of grammatical categories, correlate them with the characteristics of the reality reflected in the language, and determine the set of formal means involved in the formation of grammatical categories.
Since morphology is inextricably linked with grammatical meanings and grammatical categories, it is part of grammar. The word "morphology" is sometimes used to refer to the actual morphology and word formation. However, more often, morphology is understood only as inflection. The term "inflection" is often used as a synonym for the term "morphology" in the narrow sense of the word (without word formation). Like many other linguistic terms, morphology denotes both the rules of inflection and the science of this side of the language.
It has already been noted more than once that morphology deals with both the content and the "binding" properties of word forms. Thus, morphology on one side adjoins word formation, to the part that contains the doctrine of the semantic properties of Russian morphemes, on the other hand, to syntax, to the part that contains the doctrine of the formal structure of phrases and sentences.
The boundary between morphology and word formation runs as a boundary between endings and other types of morphemes, as a boundary between meanings whose appearance in word forms is obligatory and regular, and meanings that do not possess these properties. So, magnification ~ diminutiveness is not the subject of morphology, but is studied by word formation. This meaning does not necessarily characterize all forms of nouns. Among them there are those that are either not characterized in any way on this basis (city, table, wall), or are generally alien to this attribute (sour cream, electricity). At the same time, the value of magnification ~ diminutiveness is not regular. The existence of a word form with a diminutive value does not necessarily predetermine the presence of a word form with a magnifying value, and vice versa; cf .: house - house - house and box - box -?; hand - pen - hands and longing -? - skinny.
Studying the obligatory combinational properties of word forms, morphology shows a self-sufficient interest in this phenomenon. This is the difference between the morphological approach and the syntactic approach, in which the word form is considered not in itself, but as an element of higher-level units - phrases and sentences.
There are also such characteristics of word forms that are included in morphology with only one of their sides. For example, the meaning of animate ~ inanimate, while being obligatory for nouns, is not regular for them. Therefore, from the point of view of content, this characteristic is not the subject of morphology. However, the animateness or inanimateness of a noun affects the choice of agreed word forms. This "binding" characteristic of nouns, having not an individual, but a generalized character, is the subject of study in morphology.

2.1. Morphological HA

2.2. Lexico-grammatical categories

2.3. Syntactic GK

Historical variability of grammatical categories

Literature

______________________________________________________________________________

General understanding of grammatical categories

Definition grammatical category (GC) is built either based on the form, or based on the grammatical meaning (GZ).

1. Grammar category(gr. katē Goria‘judgment, definition’) is a system of rows opposed to each other grammatical forms with homogeneous values ​​[LES, p. 115; Kodukhov, p. 227; Alefirenko, p. 317].

At the same time, it is generally accepted that the basis of the Civil Code are GCs. GK is a generic concept, and GZ is a specific one.

Members (components) of the GC, i.e. grammatical meanings are called grammes(grammemes singular and plural within the category of number; grammemes 1, 2, 3 persons) [LES, 117].

Necessary signs of GC.

Materialexpressiveness grammatical meaning (GS). Wed definition of GC: grammatical meaning- this is the abstract content of a linguistic unit, which has in the language regular and standard expression. If in a given language some GC is not expressed formally (by grammatical means), there is no reason to speak of a GC.

The second necessary sign of HA, closely related to the first, is the presence of at least twoopposed forms, united by some value:

Russians nouns are GK kind, but the English do not;

Russian nouns have case category, but the French do not; in English nouns - it is doubtful (possessive forms are either considered a case or not), despite the fact that English personal pronouns have a case category: I – me, he – him (the direct and indirect cases are contrasted);

in African language wai No GK time, because there are no opposing grammatical forms with the meaning of time.

There is not a single GC that would be characteristic of all languages ​​of the world [Shaikevich, p. 104].

It is important to distinguish:

grammatical forms.

Grammatical formsconnected with a certain way of expression, this is the unity of the CP and the way it is expressed [Reformatsky, p. 317].

Let's compare examples in which the same CG is expressed in different ways:

dog-dogs foo t-fee t

finish - finished wri te-wro te

long - longer good-better interesting -more interesting

In language nass(one of the languages ​​of Colombia) plural is formed 4 ways:

most names (and verbs) in plural. doubles(incomplete root reduplication):

gyat'Human' - gyi gyat 'people';

some prefixes:

an’ on 'hand' - ka - an’ on 'arms';

wai‘paddle’ - lu - wai‘oars’;

suffix:

waky 'brother' - waky- kw ‘brothers’;

internal flexion:

gwu la 'raincoat' - gwi la ‘cloaks’ [ Sapir E. Language, 1934, p. 47 (New ed. - 1993). Cit. Quoted from: Reformed, p. 263].

write -on the -write,

resh-a -t - resh-and -th,

soband army - gather,

incisioná t - razré zat,

speak -to tell .

Types of grammar categories

There are several classifications of GC.

1. Depending on the number of opposing members the same GC in different languages ​​can be organized in different ways.

binomial GC:

cat. numbers in Russian language,

cat. kind in Romance (male ↔ female) and Iranian languages ​​(according to soul / inanimate) [LES, p. 418];

cat. time in Khanty: past ↔ present-future.

Trinomial:

cat faces;

cat. numbers in Slovene, Lusatian, Arabic, Nenets, Khanty languages, where the forms of units, dv. and plural. For example, hunter:

hot'house', hot- ng  n 'two houses', hot-  t ‘at home (more than two)’

yuh'wood', yuh-ng  n ‘two trees’, yuh- t ‘trees (more than two)’.

Polynomial:

Papuan languages ​​also have triple number;

2. GCs are divided into

morphological,

syntactic.

The concept of GC was developed mainly on the basis of morphological categories. The issue of syntactic categories is less developed [LES, p. 116].

2.1. Morphological HA characteristic of lexico-grammatical classes of words - significant parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, pronouns):

2.1.1. Among the morphological categories, there are

inflectional- those whose members are represented forms of the same word within its paradigms(cf. Russian forms case nouns; kind,numbers and case adjectives; forms faces at the verb);

classification- those whose members represented by different words, because these are categories that are inherent in the word and do not depend on its use in the sentence (cf. Russian categories kind nouns, animate / inanimate nouns, kind verb) [LES, p. 115].

2.1.2. Morphological categories are divided into

Nominal group of companies: GK of gender, case, animation-inanimateness;

CC verb type: GK of time, type, pledge, inclination.

The GCs of the language are in close cooperation and show a tendency to interpenetration:

cat. time closely related to cat. inclinations, as well as kind: temporary forms, as a rule, are opposed within indicative mood representing real events; if there are many "tenses" in the language, then this temporary forms: perfect= finished / imperfect= unfinished action in the past, aorist= point action in the past, present continious etc.

cat. faces connects verbs and pronouns;

cat. numbers connects a noun and a verb.

Lecture No. 8

I. Central concepts of grammar: grammatical meaning and grammatical category.

II. Types of grammatical categories.

III. Lexico-grammatical categories (categories).

IV. Parts of speech as lexico-grammatical classes of words.

V. Characteristics of the main parts of speech.

I. The central concepts of grammar are grammatical meaning, form and grammatical category.

grammatical meaning- the abstract linguistic content of a grammatical unit that has a regular (standard) expression in the language (for example: the grammatical meaning of words new and old is the general meaning of "attribute", as well as private grammatical meanings - gender, number and case, which have a standard expression in the language in the affix morpheme th).

The grammatical meaning is non-individual, since it belongs to a whole class of words united by a common morphological properties and syntactic functions. Unlike the lexical meaning, the grammatical meaning is not directly called by the word, but is expressed in it “in passing”, with the help of special grammatical means. It accompanies the lexical meaning of the word, being its additional meaning.

The abstracted linguistic content, expressed by grammatical meaning, has a different degree of abstraction, that is, by its nature, the grammatical meaning is heterogeneous (for example: in the word thought the most abstract is the meaning of the process, inherent in all verbs and all its forms; it is followed by the value of the past tense; narrower and more specific is the meaning of the masculine gender, which is inherent only in the forms of the verb that oppose the feminine and neuter forms).

The grammatical meaning of a word is derived from its relation to other units of the same class (for example: the grammatical meaning of the past tense form is derived by relating it to other tense forms).

Grammar category- a set of homogeneous grammatical meanings, represented by rows of grammatical forms opposed to each other. The grammatical category in its connections and relations forms the core of the grammatical structure of the language.

The grammatical category exists as a class of meanings united in a system of oppositions (for example: the grammatical category of the case is united by the unity of the most abstract meaning of relations: “something refers to something” and the opposition of private relations - objective, subjective, attributive and others). The ratio of the grammatical category and the grammatical meaning is the relation of the general to the particular, the necessary feature of the grammatical category is the unity of the expression of the grammatical meaning in the system of grammatical forms.

Each language has its own system of grammatical categories, and it is established only by analyzing the grammatical facts of the language itself. It is impossible to name a single grammatical meaning that would act as a universal grammatical category.

In different languages, even the same grammatical category, depending on the number of opposing members, can be organized in different ways (for example: in Russian the category of number is two-member, and in Slovenian it is three-member; in Russian the category of case is six-member, in German it is four-member, in English - binomial).

In the process of the historical development of the language, the volume of grammatical categories may change. For example, in the Old Russian language the category of number was represented by the singular, dual and plural, but in the process of linguistic development the dual number was lost; the form of the vocative case that existed in the Old Russian language has also been lost, etc.

II. Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic.

Morphological grammatical categories are expressed by lexico-grammatical classes of words - significant parts of speech (for example: the grammatical category of aspect, voice, tense is expressed by a verb). Among these grammatical categories are inflectional and classificatory.

Morphological categories classification type- these are categories whose members are not represented by forms of the same word, that is, categories that are inherent in the word and do not depend on its use in the sentence (for example: the category of noun gender in Russian, German, English).

Syntactic grammatical categories- these are categories that belong primarily to the syntactic units of the language (for example: the category of predicativity), but can also be expressed by units related to other language levels (for example: the word and its form, which participate in the organization of the predicative basis of the sentence and form its predicativity) .

III. Lexico-grammatical categories (or categories) differ from grammatical categories. Lexico-grammatical categories- associations of words that have a common semantic feature that affects the ability of words to express one or another morphological meaning. For example, in the Russian language, among nouns, collective, abstract, real nouns are distinguished, which have features in expressing the category of number: they are not capable of forming number forms, they are used in the form of a single number, more often a singular ( foliage, iron, friendship; German das Gold "gold", die Liebe "love"; English coal "coal", knowledge "knowledge").

Depending on the basis of what signs these words are combined into categories, as well as their belonging to one or different parts of speech, lexico-grammatical categories are divided into two types:

1) categories that combine in their composition words of one part of speech that have a common semantic feature and similarity in the expression of morphological categorical meanings (for example: in all languages ​​of the world, among nouns, categories of proper and common nouns are distinguished, etc.);

2) categories, which are a grouping of words belonging to different parts of speech, but united on the basis of common semantic and syntactic features. For example, in Russian, the category of pronominal words, which combines pronominal nouns in its composition - me, we, you, who; pronominal adjectives - such as any; pronouns - so many, several etc.; pronominal adverbs - where, when, there).

IV. Parts of speech- the main lexico-grammatical classes, according to which the words of the language are distributed. The term is associated with the ancient Greek grammatical tradition, in which sentence was not separated from speech.

The problem of the part of speech is the most complex and debatable problem of linguistics, which has not received a final solution. So far, general principles for the allocation of parts of speech have not been developed. The so-called “mixed principle” has received the greatest recognition, according to which the general (categorical) grammatical meaning of each category of words, their ability to perform a nominative or demonstrative function, grammatical categories inherent in words that are combined as part of one part of speech, types of form and word formation are taken into account. syntactic compatibility, characteristic functions of a word in a sentence and in coherent speech.

The set of these features, their hierarchy in different languages ​​can change: in English, for example, the allocation of parts of speech occurs on the basis of two features: semantic (categorical meaning) and syntactic (compatibility and function in a sentence); in Russian - on the basis of three features: semantic, morphological (a common set of morphological categories) and syntactic.

In different languages ​​of the world, the composition of parts of speech (their structure and volume) is different.

v. Despite the existence of differences in the composition, structure and volume of parts of speech of different languages ​​of the world, the most constant in them is the opposition of the name and the verb.

Name, which includes nominal parts of speech (noun and adjective), in its semantic, grammatical and syntactic features, is opposed to the verb. The division of parts of speech into a name and a verb, which has its origins in ancient Indian, ancient and Arabic linguistics, correlates with the division of an utterance into a subject and a predicate.

Noun - this is a significant part of speech, combining in its composition words with a common meaning of objectivity. Even denoting a property, quality or process, the noun names them in abstraction from the carrier of the sign or the producer of the action (for example: kindness, coolness, drawing, der Gelehrte "scientist", das Leben "life", the poor "", the love "").

The primary syntactic functions of a noun are the functions of the subject and object: Man decorates the place, not place person. - English The train leaves at six ỏclock. "The train leaves at six o'clock" and Ive received a telegram. "I received a telegram" - German Die Studenten sitzen im Horsaal. "Students sit in the audience" and Er begegnet einem Bekannten. "He meets a friend."

Although a noun can perform functions inherent in other parts of speech: a predicate ( experience is the best teacher, English He isa teacher . "He is a teacher", German Karagandaist eine schoneStadt . "Karaganda is a beautiful city"); definitions ( house three floors, German die Museenvon Paris "Museums of Paris" English This isthe manager᾽s room. "This is the manager's room"); circumstances ( go path , English . There is a hospitalin the village . There is a hospital in the village German Er konntevor Erregung nothing sprechen. "He couldn't speak for excitement"); but its use in these functions is associated with certain limitations.

From the point of view of semantics, nouns in all languages ​​of the world are divided into lexical and grammatical categories, among which the most universal are the categories of proper and common, concrete and abstract.

The most typical grammatical categories of nouns are the categories of number and case. Case category in some languages ​​it is expressed with the help of endings or prepositions and endings, in others - analytically, that is, with the help of word order or prepositions. The number of cases may fluctuate. Number category can be expressed in different ways: by affixes (in Russian: sister - sister s , in German: die Blume-die Blum-en "flower - flowers", in English: city-city-es "city - cities"), reduplication (that is, doubling the stem - Armenian), internal inflection (alternations within the root - English: tooth -t ee th "tooth - teeth", German: der Garten-die Gä rten "garden - gardens"), stress (Russian: forests – woods), suppletivism (the formation of forms from different roots or foundations - Russian language: person people), agglutination (Kazakh language).

Of the other categories, the category of certainty / indefiniteness, which can be expressed by the article, has become widespread (languages ​​German: der, das, die- certain, eine, eine, eine indefinite; English: the- definite, a,an- indefinite), affix. There is no such category in Russian.

Categories of gender, animateness / inanimateness in many languages ​​of the world do not have semantic grounds for their selection, therefore, in some languages, in the process of their historical development, they were gradually lost.

In Russian and German, the noun opposes the verb in terms of the set of its word-forming affixes, among which suffixes predominate (for verbs, prefixes occupy the leading position).

Adjective as a part of speech in its composition combines words denoting a sign (property) of an object.

The primary syntactic functions of the adjective are the functions of attribution and predicativity, that is, the functions of definition ( lovely hat - German eineschwere Aufgabe "difficult task" - English cold day "cold day") and the predicate, its nominal part ( you still young and inexperienced. – German Der Apparat istgasdicht . "The device is gas-tight" - English The pencil isred . "Pencil red").

An adjective can denote the qualities and properties of an object as a directly perceived feature ( quality adjectives: salty, red, deaf, angry, etc.; German stark "strong", gesund "healthy"; English big "big", red "red"), and a sign denoting the property of an object through its relation to another object - action, circumstance, number, etc. ( relative adjectives: iron, evening, underground; German morgen "morning", frühlings "spring"; English autumn "autumn").

This division is universal. A sign can be present in an object to a greater or lesser extent, hence the ability of certain categories of adjectives to form degrees of comparison (Rus. wise - wiser (more wise) - wisest (wisest); German laut - lauter - am lautesten "noisy - noisier - noisiest"; English polite – politer - politest "polite - more polite - the most polite"). A sign can be a permanent or temporary property of an object, hence the presence of two forms - complete ( cheerful; German eineschwere Aufgabe "difficult task") and short: ( cheerful, German Die Aufgabe ist schwer"the task is difficult").

In many languages ​​of the world, the adjective is not distinguished as an independent part of speech (Chinese, Korean).

In languages ​​where adjectives gravitate towards the name, they are inflected; where they tend to verbs - they conjugate.

In terms of word-formation, adjectives often oppose another part of speech, having a special set of word-forming means (for example: in Russian -n, -sk, -ov, -liv, -chiv absent in other parts of speech).

Verb- a significant part of speech that combines words with the designation of an action or state ( be in love, German schreiben "to write", English to speak "to speak"). This meaning in the languages ​​of the world is expressed in different ways. The main syntactic function of the verb is the function of predicativity (predicate). In accordance with this function, the verb has special grammatical categories (time, aspect, voice, mood).

The verb denotes an action through the relation 1) to the person or subject of the action, which explains the presence of the verb category of person; 2) to the object of action, hence the category transitivity. The action denoted by the verb takes place in time, which is expressed time category, which is associated with view category(expressing the internal limit reached or not reached by the action); inclinations(expressing a different attitude of action to reality); collateral category(denoting a different direction of action on the subject and object).

Adverb- a lexico-grammatical class of immutable words denoting a sign of a sign, action or object (for example: very close, read lot, eggs soft-boiled; German ganz unbrauchbare "completely unfit", gehengeradeaus "go straight", das Hauslinks "house on the left"; English avery good student "very good student", He workshard . "He works hard").

In the proposal they act as circumstances ( Fast darkness fell. - German Die Delegation wurdeherzlich empfangen. "The delegation was warmly welcomed" - English The sun shinesbrightly . "The sun is shining brightly"), less often as definitions (O n likes coffee Turkish. – German Der Baumrechts is hoch. "The tree on the right is tall").

The main morphological features: the absence of forms of inflection, lexical and derivational correlation with significant words, the presence of special derivational affixes.

According to the lexical composition, adverbs are divided into two lexical and grammatical categories - qualitative and adverbial. quality convey various kinds of quality, property, intensity values ​​( fun, fast, a lot, close; German wenig "little", zweimal "twice"; English too "too", enough "enough", well "good"). circumstantial express circumstantial signs external to their carrier: place, time, cause, purpose ( away, there, yesterday, rashly, intentionally; German hier "here", morgen "tomorrow", darum "therefore"; English inside "inside", now "now").

numeral- a lexico-grammatical class of words denoting number, quantity, measure. A specific grammatical feature of numerals is their compatibility with nouns denoting counted objects: in some cases they control nouns (for example: three tables), in others they are consistent with them (for example: many students).

Another feature of the numerals is their relation to the number: when conveying the concept of a number, the numeral usually does not have this category. In the academic grammar of the modern Russian language, numerals include quantitative, conveying the concept of number in its purest form ( five, two hundred; German Zehn, drei; English one, ninety); collective, denoting the combination of homogeneous objects ( two, three); ordinal are treated as relative adjectives ( first, seventh; German der dritte, der zweite; English eighth, fifteenth); fractional, denoting one or another part of the whole ( one third, five sixths; German ein Viertel, ein Zwanzigstel; English a (one) quarter, two point three five).

Pronouns do not have their own subject-logical content, this is a part of speech that combines in its composition words that indicate an object, attribute or quantity, but do not name them. These are some kind of substitute words. Pronouns refer to

1) objects (in the grammatical sense of the word) are pronominal

nouns(For example: me, you, we, who, what, nobody, somebody;)

2) signs are pronominal adjectives(for example: mine,

3) generalized quantity - pronominal numbers(For example:

how many, how many, several);

4) generalized circumstantial meaning is pronominal

adverbs(for example: where, where, there);

5) generalized procedural meaning - pronominal verbs

(For example: to do in English).

A distinctive feature of pronouns is a demonstrative and substitutive function, therefore, in the grammars of different languages, pronouns are often distributed over other parts of speech (for example: in the academic grammar of the Russian language, only pronominal nouns are included in pronouns).

Service parts of speech- semantically empty, but functionally loaded, participate in the formation of various analytical forms. Yielding to significant words in number, they surpass them in frequency of use. The service parts of speech include prepositions, conjunctions, particles, interjections, articles.

educational:

1. Kodukhov V.I. Introduction to linguistics. Moscow: Education, 1979.

with. 258-271.

2. Maslov Yu.S. Introduction to linguistics. M.: Higher School, 1987. p. 155 - 167.

Term grammar is used in two senses.

1) Grammar as a set of means, methods and rules for constructing phrases and sentences;

2) Grammar - the doctrine of these means, methods, rules with which you can create phrases, sentences in a particular language.

Grammar in the first sense is synonymous with the concept of the grammatical structure of a language.

Grammar consists of several aspects:

1. Morphology - studies the laws of changing words as parts of speech, as well as the categories inherent in a particular part of speech.

2. Syntax (translated from Greek as "military formation") explores various types of word combinations, relationships between words in a phrase and a sentence, and finally, the sentence as a whole, various types and types of sentences.

MORPHOLOGY(from the Greek "the doctrine of form") - a branch of linguistics, the main object of which are the words of natural languages ​​​​and their significant parts - morphemes. The tasks of morphology include the definition of the word as a special linguistic object and the description of its internal structure. Morphology describes not only the formal properties of words and the morphemes that form them, but also those grammatical meanings that are expressed within the word (or "morphological meanings"). In accordance with these two major tasks, morphology is often divided into two areas: "formal" morphology, or morphemics, and grammatical semantics.

SYNTAX(from the Greek "system, order") - a set of grammatical rules of the language related to the construction of phrases and sentences. In a broader sense, syntax refers to the rules for constructing expressions of any sign systems, and not just a verbal language.

Its essence- in the unity of grammatical meaning and the means of its expression.

Signs of grammatical meaning are regularity (the meaning of the number for all nouns) and the typified nature of the means of expression, a limited set of means.

The means of expressing this value is directly dependent on the language.

1) in synthetic languages ​​- auxiliary morphemes (affixes), reduplication (orang-orang), suppletivism (human-human), internal inflection (foot-fiit) and stress (hands-hands).

2) In analytical languages ​​- function words (prepositions, conjunctions, particles, articles), intonation, word order (hi hez a pen, hez hee e pen?)

Grammatical categories differ in their parameters (the system of opposition of members, the two-term system of the category of number, the polynomial system of the category of gender), in terms of their correlation with reality, real - lexical-grammatical (the category of number) and unreal - grammatical proper (category of animation or gender)

A wide variety of words also fall under the masculine category: nouns bread, pencil, house, mind, adjectives big, strong, joyful, beautiful, verbs did, built, wrote.

In Russian, a noun has grammatical categories number, gender and case, and the verb - number, tense, type, mood, pledge, person, gender.

The problem of the category of gender is complicated by the fact that the grammatical category of gender, even in the languages ​​in which it is expressed, very often does not coincide across languages. In Russian watch - masculine, in German and French - feminine. There are languages ​​\u200b\u200bthat have a common gender, examples from the Russian language - an orphan, quiet, bore, crybaby.

For living beings, the ways of differentiation within the grammatical category of gender in different languages ​​are very diverse:

1. with the help of special endings: guest - guest, spouse, or special suffixes: actor - actress, bear - she-bear;

2. using different words (heteronymy): father-mother, brother-sister.

3. with the help of contextual clarification only: whale, squirrel, monkey, magpie, shark, hippopotamus (both males and females).

Number category. Man has long distinguished between one object and many objects, and this distinction could not but find its expression in language. The universality of the category of number lies in the fact that it covers not only nouns and adjectives, but also pronouns and verbs.

If the case system in a particular language is not developed, then the language completely dispenses with it, attracting other ways to express grammatical relations (prepositions, word order, and so on).

By grammatical categories are distinguished by the nature of grammatical meanings:

(2) formal categories reflecting the limitations of word forms associated with compatibility (for example, “consensual” grammatical categories participate in the design of agreement relations).

There are also categories shaping, according to which the lexeme can change (for example, case of a noun; gender, number and case of an adjective; tense and mood of a verb); and classifying, characteristic of the whole lexeme and constant for it (for example, the gender of inanimate nouns, animateness/inanimateness of most nouns, transitivity/intransitivity and personality/impersonality of most verbs).

The concept of the grammatical meaning of a word. Means of expressing the grammatical meanings of words. The concept of the grammatical form of a word. The main ways and means of forming grammatical forms of the word.

The grammatical meaning of the word- a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic constructions and finding its regular expression in grammatical forms.

Ways of expressing grammatical meaning.

1.Flexia. So in the phrase "book of Peter" the connection between the words is achieved with the help of the ending a.

2. Functional words (prepositions, conjunctions, particles, articles, auxiliary verbs) “went to my brother”

3. The order of words acts as a way of expressing grammatical meaning in those languages ​​in which there is no inflection. And the word in the direct and indirect cases retains the same form.

4. Emphasis. For example: Hands-hands, houses-houses. In these examples, the grammatical category of number and case is conveyed by stress.

5. Intonation. Depending on how we say "students are attentive" with an intonation of affirmation or "students are attentive?" with the intonation of the question, the sentence, its meaning, its grammatical design also changes.

6. Suppletivism is a combination of heterogeneous or heterogeneous words into one grammatical pair:

a. when forming degrees of comparison of adjectives: good - better, bad - worse.

b. when forming personal pronouns: I - me.

7. Reduplication (repetitions, doublings) - when there is a complete or partial doubling of the base, for example:

a. to denote the plural in Indonesian orang (person) - orang-orang (people);

b. to form the superlative degree of an adjective in Chinese: hao (good) - hao-hao (very good, excellent).

Grammatical form- this is the connection of grammatical meaning with the grammatical way of its expression. Yes, in verbs jump, burst, shout there is a suffix well-, which indicates a one-time action, and - be- infinitive suffix.

Methods of formation of grammatical forms of the word. Forming methods.

The Russian language belongs to the languages ​​of the synthetic system. Therefore, to identify grammatical meanings, he uses mainly synthetic means.

Shaping methods:

1. Affixation = suffix, ending, prefix express grammatical meaning.

2. Changing the sound composition of the root, expressing various grammatical meanings (remove - remove, send - send); alternation (freeze - freeze, bake - bake).

3. Emphasis: at home (= r.p., singular) - at home (im. p., pl.).

4.Suppletivism - an expression of grammatical meaning using the roots of other words: man - people, I - me, bad - worse.

5. Intonation: for example, in the transfer of various shades of the meaning of the imperative mood of the verb.

Less common, but still used analytical forms. Then the lexical and grammatical meanings receive a separate expression (lexical - by the word itself, grammatical - by an auxiliary component: I will write, let it burst ...).

Finally, are used analytic-synthetic forms, in which the grammatical meanings are partially reflected by the form of the main word - the carrier of the lexical meaning, and partially - by the auxiliary component: with would go.

In order to state that in some language there is a certain grammatical category, it is necessary that there be a number of forms united by some common meaning, that within this association there is an opposition, and that those opposed meanings have a formal expression. Thus, the grammatical category is the category of number, because it unites linguistic units on the basis of the common meaning "number". Within this association, singularity and plurality are contrasted, and the grammatical meanings of the singular and plural are formally expressed using special endings. Por: forest - forests, spring - springs, lake - lakes, where the grammatical meaning of the singular is expressed by the zero ending and the endings -a and o, and the grammatical meaning of the plural is expressed by the endings -i and -nyami -and that -a.

A formal expression is a very important feature of a grammatical category, since it is its presence or absence that is the main criterion for distinguishing a grammatical category. The fact is that a certain meaning in one language can not exist as a grammatical one, and in another language as a lexical one. Hence, grammatical and conceptual categories are distinguished. For example, there is a conceptual category of gender and a grammatical category of gender. The conceptual category of stat is universal, that is, all people, regardless of the language they use, distinguish between male and female. However, the category of gender is not inherent in all languages. Let's say it's not in English, whale. Gaya, Turkic and Finno-Ugric languages, because there are no special formal means of its expression. In the Ukrainian language, as well as in other Slavic, as well as Romance and German languages, there is such a category of iya, because there are formal means of expressing it here: ending (teacher, wall, window), articles (German der Vater "father", die Mutter "mother", dae Kind "child", fr le regue "father", la x and the Romance languages ​​are characterized by the grammatical category of definite / indefinite, formally expressed by marked and indefinite articles. So, in particular, it der Tag "day", die Blume "flower", das Fenst er "window" mean specific concepts, objects already known to the speaker and listener, while the same nouns with an indefinite article - ein Tag, eine Blume, ein Fenster - mean some day, some a flower is some kind of window.Similarly in English, French, Italian: definiteness is expressed by articles - English the, French le, 1a, Italian il, 1a, and uncertainty - by articles - English and French un, une, ital un, una. In Slavic languages, with the exception of Bulgarian and Macedonian, there is no grammatical category of certainty / indefinite, because there is no formal expression of it, but the conceptual category of certainty /. There is NOT certainty and it is expressed lexically (this book, some kind of book, the category of significance / ambiguity is expressed lexically (this book, like a book).

The languages ​​of the world differ in the number and composition of grammatical categories. So, in the Ibero-Caucasian languages ​​there is a category of the grammatical class "person" and "things", in Japanese and Korean languages ​​- the category of politeness and. The language also differs in the number of opposed members within the categories. For example, in English there are two cases, in German - four, in Russian - six, in Ukrainian - seven, in Finnish - fourteen, in Tabasarai - forty sixth - forty six.

Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. The morphological category includes the category of gender, number, case, type, tense, manner, person, to the syntactic category - the category of activity / passivity, to the communicative orientation (narrative, nutritional, spontuality), rigidity / reverberation, syntactic tense and syntactic way.

Classification (word-building, derivational) categories are those whose members act as headings for the classification of words. So, in particular, the classification category is the category of noun gender and the category of the aspect of the verb, therefore, nouns are not declined, but are classified by gender (each noun belongs to one particular gender), and verbs are distributed among three aspect groups - verbs of perfect or imperfect output or two-species.

Inflectional (relative) categories - grammatical categories that a word can acquire depending on another word with which it is combined in a sentence. In the inflectional category, the gender of adjectives belongs, therefore adjectives are not classifiable, but are declined according to gender and the generic form of the adjective depends on the noun combined with it (great success, great deed, great impression). Purely relational also cat. Egoria case: each nominal part of speech changes according to case.

In the languages ​​of the world, the most common grammatical categories are gender, case, number, certainty / indefinitely, degree of quality, tense, aspect, state, mode and person.

It is found in most modern Indo-European languages. It does not exist in English, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, Japanese and other languages. In Ukrainian, every noun has a category of gender (masculine, feminine or neuter). In adjectives, ordinal numbers, possessive, demonstrative, interrogative pronouns, participles and past tense verbs, this category is dependent on the noun with which the word classes are named. In Italian, French, Spanish and Danish, nouns have two genders - masculine and feminine. The genus category has a formal expression. In Slavic languages ​​- ce endings, in Romance and German - articles (German der, ein for masculine, die, eine for feminine, das, ein for middle, fr le, un for masculine, la, une for feminine, Italian il , un for novice, la, una for feminine genus.

The number of cases in different languages ​​is not the same. There are languages ​​in which there are no cases at all: Bulgarian, Italian, French, Tajik, Abkhazian, etc.

In the languages ​​of the world, the category of number does not match. From a language in which, in addition to the singular and plural, there is a dual and a triple. The dual was in the ancient Ukrainian language (two tables, see the remains of these forms in dialects: two hands, two are ele, etc.). Troina is found in some of the Papuan languages ​​on the island. New. Guinea. In the ancient Indo-European languages ​​​​- Sanskrit, ancient Greek, ancient Germanic, there were three numbers: singular, dual and plurality.

The category of certainty / indefinite (determination) is a grammatical category indicating whether the name of an object is thought of as the only one in the described situation (certainty) or as belonging to a class of similar phenomena (uncertainty.

As already noted, this category is typical for Germanic, Romance, Bulgarian, Macedonian and other languages ​​and is expressed using the articles of definitions is the English article the, German der die, das, French le, la, les (the last for the set), and indefinite correspondence a; ein, eine, ein; un, une. In Bulgarian, Macedonian, Romanian and Scandinavian languages, there are postpositive arts kli, that is, articles that appear after a word, joining it as a postfix. Por: bolg table "some kind of chair" - stolgt "certain chair", mass "some kind of table" -. Masato "certain table"; village "some village" - village "a certain village"; village "yakes village" - village "pevne village".

In those languages ​​where there are no articles, the meaning of definite/indefinite is expressed lexically and contextually. For example, in the Ukrainian language, demonstrative pronouns this, this, this, these, then oh, and, then, those, shares only, yet (only the teacher didn’t know. Another cup!), are used for this. Indefinite pronouns some, some, some, some, adjectives sure, whole, unknown, unfamiliar, numeral one, word order (before the predicate - certainty, after - uncertainty: The boy went out into the street;. On a boy came out of the street), phrasal stress (Here is a notebook; Here is a notebook). The strongest means of expressing the meaning of signification / indefiniteness is the context. As we can see, in the Ukrainian language the category of certainty / indefiniteness is not grammatical, but conceptual, since there are no morphological means of its expression here.

Distinguish between ordinary, high and high degree. In some languages, there are only two degrees of comparison - ordinary and elative, combining the meaning of the highest and superlative degrees. The highest degree indicates the presence of b in the object of some quality more than in another, high - more than in all others. A positive degree means quality regardless of the degree.

Degrees of comparison have adjectives and adverbs (heavy, heavier, heavy; dark, darker, darker). In some languages, nouns and verbs also have degrees of comparison. For example, in the Komi language kuzho o "can do", kuzhodzhik "can do more";

The degrees of comparison are expressed by affixes (interesting - interesting - interesting; English large "large" - larger "more" - largest "greatest", German interessant "interesting" - interesanter "more interesting" - inte eresantest "interesting") and analytically (known - more known - the most famous, English difficult "heavy" - more difficult "heavy" (the) most difficult "heavy"). In Slavic, Germanic and Romance languages ​​there are several adjectives and adverbs comparable in meaning, which create degrees of comparison from other bases: Ukr good - best - best; rus good - better - best; English good - better - best, German gut - besser - best (am bestenр. Good - better - best; English good - better - best, German gut - besser - best (am besten).

Category of time - the grammatical category of the verb, which is a specific linguistic reflection of objective time and serves to temporally localize the event or state referred to in the sentence

This category indicates the one-hour, preceding or continuity of the event relative to the moment of speech in most languages ​​there are three tenses: present, past and future. These are absolute times. In addition to them, some languages ​​have sp. PECIAL "relative" tenses, denoting events relative to some reference point, which, in turn, is determined relative to the moment of speech (before the past time, before the future tense of the forthcoming in the past, vinulom toshcho).

In Slavic languages, the perfect and imperfect form are grammatically opposed. The perfect form indicates the achievement of the limit, i.e. shows a limited action or its result (he made a noise, wrote). An imperfect mind does not indicate the limit of action (noises, he wrote). In the Germanic and Romance languages, according to most linguists, there is no grammatical category of aspect, because there are no formal morphological means (special suffixes, prefixes) of its expression.

Category of state - grammatical category of the verb, expressing subject-object relations

In linguistics, there is still no generally accepted classification of states, however, all classifications mention active, when the carrier of the verbal attribute corresponds to the subject (Students perform a song), and passive, when the carrier of the verbal attribute corresponds to the object (The song is performed by students.

This is the speaker's assessment of the action as desirable, possible, supposed (assumption), etc.

Different languages ​​have a different set of mode forms. 6 All languages ​​have real (represents an action as a real fact), conditional (represents an action as possible, desired, supposed, conditioned) and imperative (serves to convey an order, inducement or request) modes. Western European languages, in addition, have created special forms of the conditional to denote conditioned actions and to express assumptions, possibilities, desirability and non-categorical assertions (German Ich w. Igawa, but translates it from the lips of others. In this way they convey a shade of distrust, doubtful "I, sumnivu.

In agglutinative languages ​​(for example, Turkic) there are from four to twelve ways that express obligation, confirmation, intention, consent, etc.

The performer of the action can be the speaker. His interlocutor or a person who does not take part in the conversation. Accordingly, they distinguish between the first, second and third person (I write, write, write)

The category of a person refers to concordant, inflectional. It is expressed by personal endings (I guess, he works; English / work, he works). In some languages ​​(Samoyedic, Paleo-Asiatic), the category of person is characteristic not only for verbs, but also for names in the position of the predicate. Yes, in In the Koryak language, gyolyaigym "man-I", gyolyaigyt "man-ty", gyola "man-he"; nytuigym "y-ti", nytuykyn "young-he" However, there are also languages ​​in which the category of a person as a whole is not expressed. These include Japanese, Chinese, Indonesian, and some others... Japanese, Chinese, Indonesian, and other languages ​​lie before them.

Lexico-grammatical categories (categories)

Lexico-grammatical categories (categories) are grammatically important groups of words within a certain part of speech that have the following properties:

1) are combined according to a common semantic feature. For example, lexical and grammatical categories are collective nouns, material nouns, nouns - the names of creatures, nouns - inanimate names, proper names, basic names, reflexive verbs, because each such group has a common semantic feature - collectability, materiality, too.

2) may or may not have a formal morphological expression. If, say, some prefabricated nouns have a formal expression - suffixes-stv (o), -) (- postfix-sya (wash, correspond, hug), then proper and common names, real names, names of creatures / inanimate formal indicators do not have (city. Eagle and an eagle flies, oil and a window, a crow and a crown));

3) interact with the grammatical categories associated with them. So, the category of state depends on the reflexivity of verbs (reflexive verbs do not belong to the active state), on the being / inanimate - the category of case (in the names of creatures, the form of the accusative case coincides with the form of the genitive, in the names of inanimate the form of the accusative case coincides with the form of the nominative), from persons / non-special - the category of gender (names in ru usually have the category of masculine or feminine, the names are neosib - all three genders), from proper and common names - the category of number (names have only the singular or only the plural form (Kyiv ,. Sumy), common names have singular and plural forms (table - tables, book - books);

4) may or may not have rows of forms contrasted within the category. If, for example, names are opposed to common names, names of creatures are opposed to inanimate names, transitive verbs are intransitive. Dies words, then inside real and collective nouns of a similar opposition. NO.