The main reasons for the formation of the ancient Russian state. East Slavs

Plan

Introduction

4.2 Social order

Conclusion

Introduction

"Where did the Russian land come from?"

We usually remember these words of the first Russian chronicler Nestor, who began his chronicle like this: "Behold the Tales of the temporary (past) years, where did the Russian Land come from, who in Kyiv began first to reign, and where did the Russian Land come from ..." This question disturbs the minds of scientists husbands for tens and hundreds of years, many theories have been put forward on this subject, the most famous of which are the so-called "Norman theory", put forward by German scientists G. Bayer, G. Miller and A. Schlozer invited to Russia, declaring the German core of the fundamental Russian history and Russian statehood. As well as "Slavic" or "anti-Norman", put forward by Mikhail Lomonosov as opposed to Miller's. The Slavic theory claims that the Varangians - representatives of the South Baltic, Pomeranian Slavs - large tribal unions that dominated the southern Baltic shores in VIII-IX-X, determined the history of the emergence of the ancient Russian state and had a huge impact on the religion, culture of this region, and on the development of everything Eastern Slavs.

The Norman theory, buried in the 1860s and 1870s by Gedeonov, received new life during the First World War. The German government saw in Normanism a powerful ideological base for a campaign in the East. "Drang nach Osten!" - shouted the German newspapers, resurrecting the seemingly forgotten ideology of Normanism. So, the theory that appeared in Russia in the 18th century about the superiority of the state-forming German element stirred up the minds of German youth and directed their battle for living space in the East ...

Old Russian state East Slavic tribe

In this term paper, I will consider both theories and on the basis of material sources and try to draw a conclusion about the validity or inconsistency of both theories, I will conduct their comparative analysis.

In the process of writing this work, the following tasks were set and solved:

study of the prerequisites for the formation of the Russian state

study of the life of the Slavic tribes in the proto-state period

consideration of evidence about the way of life of the Slavs (political history, culture, places of settlement, etc.);

the study of the Norman and Slavic theory of the emergence of the ancient Russian state;

summarizing the results of the studies and writing the work.

In the process of work, the works of such authors S. Gedeons as B. Rybakov, L. Grot, M. Lomonosov, G. Nosovsky and A. Fomenko and others were studied.

Chapter 1

The birth of the ancient Russian state was a long process. The origin of Slavic society stretched for many centuries.

The starting point for the study of the history of the Slavs, as noted by the largest researcher of Russia, academician B.A. Rybakov, one should consider the moment of separation of the Slavic language family from the common European array, which dates back to the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. By this time, the ancestors of the Slavs, the so-called "Proto-Slavs", had come a long way in the development of a tribal society.

Tribes settled in new territories, mixed, assimilated. By the middle of the II millennium BC. the process of uniting settled tribes into ethnic communities began. One of these ethnic communities were the Proto-Slavs. At that time, the Proto-Slavic world was at the primitive communal level, had serious historical baggage. The Slavic community of that time was not a single, formed ethnic group, although it had much in common. In the second half of the II millennium BC. the uniformity of the Slavic ethnos begins to collapse. The reason for this was the complex processes that were taking place at that time in Europe. As a result of a series of wars, new ethnic groups were formed from fragments of old ethnic groups, and some disappeared altogether. Our Proto-Slavic ancestors entered one of these new ethnic communities, but without losing the common Proto-Slavic language, as noted by B.A. Rybakov. The Middle Dnieper becomes a key historical region - the core of Russian statehood - Kievan Rus will be laid here.

The Slavs, who lived on the banks of the middle Dnieper, were engaged in agriculture, cultivated mainly wheat, barley, rye, oats, millet, peas, buckwheat, exported grain to the Roman Empire, thereby stimulating the development of agriculture as the main branch of the economy. The position of the Eastern Slavs in the world at that time was closely connected with the Roman Empire, which at that time determined the course of history throughout Europe. She crossed Europe diagonally - from Scotland to the Don. Rome acted as a catalyst for the development of hundreds of barbarian tribes, including the Slavs. Trade, craft, military affairs, mercenary - all these factors contributed to the stratification within the barbarian tribes and the Slavs were no exception. All these factors were expressed in a number of large-scale offensive operations, united in tribal alliances. The wars of those times left a strong mark in the course of the further historical development of the ancient Russian tribes. The defeat of the Roman provinces in the Black Sea region by the Hunnic hordes undermined the most important source of income for the Slavic tribes - the trade in bread. The result was some equalization of the Middle Dnieper Slavs with the less developed northerners. Despite the fact that the Slavs were defeated, it did not work out to include the Middle Dnieper region in the system of dominion of the Huns.

In the history of the ancient Russian people, the events that took place in the 6th century BC played an important role. In his historical work "The Tale of Bygone Years" ( further PVL, approx. auth.)chronicler Nestor attaches great importance to these events. In the VI century. there is a mass migration of Slavs to the Balkan Peninsula. The Slavs reach ancient Sparta and the Mediterranean islands. Calling this people "Slavs", one should understand the ethnonym of this word. Academician B.A. Rybakov claims that in the VI-VII centuries. the ethnonym "Slavs" refers to all the Venedian and Andean tribes. That is, all those communities that in the I-VI centuries. merged with the ancient Balts and lived in the neighborhood - Dregovichi, Krivichi, Polovtsy, used the Dnieper and its tributaries. The main rivers - Pripyat, Dnieper, Berezina, Desna - flowed to the heights, later called Kiev. In the further history of the Slavs, they played a big role.

Chapter 2. Stages of development of the state

2.1 East Slavic tribes before the formation of the Kievan state

In the VII-VIII centuries. Eastern Slavs, settled vast territories in Eastern Europe, gradually mastered the dense forests covering the center of modern Russia. Since the new territories were mostly sparsely populated, the Slavs did not have to come into conflict with the natives. The Slavs, who had a high level of agricultural culture acquired in the fertile south, were gladly welcomed by the indigenous people. Living side by side with the Balts and Ugrofins, the Slavs gradually assimilate them. Historical sources indicate that in the VII-VIII centuries. in Slavic society, the process of decomposition of the tribal system begins. The initial chronicle tells us about large East Slavic tribal groups - glades who settled on the banks of the Dnieper near Kyiv, their neighbors - the Drevlyans, with a capital in Iskorosten, Slovenes, or Ilmen Slavs who lived near Lake Ilmen (future Novgorodians), Dregovichi, who lived between Pripyat and Western Dvina, Krivichi, whose main city was Smolensk, Polovtsy, who settled on the banks of the Polota River with the capital in Polotsk, northerners - the northern neighbors of the glades, Radimichi in the Sozh river basin, Vyatichi in the Oka basin, etc.

Toponyms of Slavic associations are mainly associated not with origin, but rather with the area of settlement. So, for example, the meadow lived in the fields, the Drevlyans lived in the forests, the northerners lived in the north, etc. This is clear evidence that at that time for the Slavs, territorial ties stood above tribal ones.

But we are not talking about tribes, but about larger tribal associations - unions, original proto-states, rather fragile, but which are a prerequisite for the emergence of a full-fledged state. One of the important reasons for the creation of such unions was the ongoing hostility with the nomads - the Khazars, Pechenegs, etc. Each of these unions had its own "principality", which Byzantine historians mention, but they were not yet full-fledged principalities, in the feudal sense of the word, but were rather something like a transitional system from tribal to feudal system, where the reign was ruled by tribal leaders, called "princes", who belonged to the then-nascent tribal nobility, distinguished from the rest of society by their property status. The basis of the Slavic society was the patriarchal family community.

The consolidation of the Slavs took place in different ways. By the middle of the 1st millennium, Volhynians, Drevlyans, Ulichs and Tivertsy, lived in a territorial community, consisting of large and small families. Plowed agriculture became the main branch of the economy, private property arose, the power of the leaders began to be inherited, based on property and social status, as a result, the union of tribes develops into larger and larger unions.

In the northern lands - the area of \u200b\u200bresidence of northerners, Krivichi, Polyans and Slovenes, at that time the patriarchal-clan system was still indestructible, there was still no mention of social stratification of society, the basis of society was a large patriarchal community. Slash-and-burn agriculture flourished, but it was not the main branch of management.

In the middle of the 1st millennium, the differences between the two Slavic groups gradually disappear, their rapprochement begins, individual families and clans from the Middle Dnieper region flee to the North, fleeing the endless raids of nomads. At the same time, the "forest" tribes move south in search of fertile land. Moving to other territories, both Slavic groups carry their foundations, customs and their way of life, assimilating with each other, they become a more monolithic ethnic and social community. The final unification of the North and South is completed during the formation of the Old Russian state.

Uniting, the Slavs also included foreign tribal groups (Lithuanians, Finns, etc.). Thus, spreading from the main center of the Middle Dnieper, the circle of Slavic tribes increased all the time and covered an ever larger territory.

2.2 Decomposition of the primitive communal system and the emergence of feudal relations in ancient Russia

The economic basis of the Slavic tribes was agriculture, so the decomposition of the primitive communal system is also primarily associated with agriculture.

At the initial stage of the decomposition of the primitive communal system, the Slavs still live in large communities, "hillforts". Agriculture has not yet become the main branch of the economy. Cattle breeding, hunting, fishing, beekeeping are of great importance, agriculture remains slash-and-burn, craft and exchange are poorly expressed.

As a result of further agricultural work, primitive tools of labor appear - a plow, an iron coulter, livestock is used as a draft force, labor productivity thereby increased, agriculture passes from slash to arable, thereby becoming the main branch of the economy.

The more perfect agricultural technology becomes, the more affordable it becomes for each small family to run an independent household. The tribal community becomes a relic of the past, the need for it disappears and the patriarchal family breaks up, it is replaced by a territorial neighborhood community. An increase in productivity leads to the appearance of surpluses, private, family property, private plots of arable land appear.

The appearance of surpluses provokes the development of exchange, trade and crafts, and there is a division of labor. There is a process of social stratification, a rich stratum stands out, while other families, on the contrary, go bankrupt and fall into the service of their more successful compatriots. Thus, through the exploitation of poor neighbors, military industry and trade, the rich stratum enhances its importance, economic and social significance.

There is a redistribution and seizure of land by princes, military leaders and combatants, tribute is levied from the occupied territories, and peasants are enslaved for debts.

Tribal nobility and wealthy community members create the ruling class. The stratification of society was facilitated by constant wars, as a result of which the seizure of booty and slaves took place, the dependence of the communal peasants on the princes-military leaders, who provided them with protection from external threats, increased. Voluntary tribute is replaced by a mandatory tax. In addition to their own tribe, the princes also tax the danbyu and neighboring captured tribes.

Over time, tribal unions begin to emerge. Arab sources report that in the VIII century. there are three large Slavic associations - Kuyaba, Slavia and Artania, which have signs of statehood. The forerunner of the emergence of statehood, in addition to internal socio-economic processes, was also the need to protect against external enemies, wage wars, organize and maintain trade relations, overcome contradictions as a result of the increasing stratification of society.

The power of the leaders of tribal unions is growing, and an apparatus of political power is emerging. Thus, by the end of the 1st millennium, the socio-economic system of the Eastern Slavs is characterized by the final decomposition of the tribal system, the emergence of class division, the reorganization of tribal forms of power into the bodies of the economically dominant class, and statehood arises.

2.3 The unification of the East Slavic tribes into a single Old Russian state

The beginning of the 9th century was marked by the unification of the ancient Russian tribes into a single state with its capital in Kyiv. The emergence of this state was facilitated by the promotion of crafts, the development of tillage techniques, the establishment of trade relations with neighbors, the difficult political situation with Byzantium, the constant raids of the Polovtsian nomads, the Khazars and other tribes who constantly attacked the Eastern Slavs. All these conditions required the emergence of an armed squad, the reorganization of foreign trade.

But there is no doubt that the main prerequisite for unification was the position of the Kiev prince, who had at his disposal rich lands, many slaves, dependent peasants, a combat-ready squad capable of protecting the feudal lords in the face of increasing class contradictions. The Kiev principality, unlike other ancient Russian lands, experienced the transformation of tribal apparatuses into institutions of state power much earlier. The Kyiv prince, taking polyudye from his lands, kept numerous servants, palace servants, a squad, and governors. The institutes of power introduced by the Kievan prince played the role of central administration and assisted petty princelings.

At the same time, in addition to Kyiv, Novgorod became the center of Russian statehood; the process of unification of the northern Slavic tribes was going on around it ( Slavia).

The process of creating the Old Russian state was completed by consolidation in the second half of the 9th century. southern and northern Slavic tribes into a single state with its capital in Kyiv. This event is closely connected with the name of Oleg, in 882. After the campaign of squads under his leadership from Novgorod to Kyiv on the way "from the Varangians to the Greeks", the centers of Russian statehood were united.

After that, the rest of the East Slavic tribes swore allegiance to the Kiev prince. Consolidation takes place during the reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavovich. In 981, the region of the Cherven cities of Przemysl, that is, the East Slavic lands, up to San, joins the Kiev estate. In 992, the lands of the Croats located on both slopes of the Carpathians became part of the Old Russian state. In 989, Russian warriors laid the foundation for Black Russia, going to the Yatvags and the Russian population living up to the Prussian borders. In 981, Vyatichi joined Kiev, although they retained signs of their former independence for a long time. Thus, by the end of the X century. the process of unification of the Eastern Slavs into a single state was completed.

The resulting Old Russian state occupied a rather large territory and became one of the strongest European states. Kyiv had diplomatic, trade and other international relations with many Western countries. The Russian army victoriously passed through the lands of Byzantium, Khazaria, Bulgaria. Having united, the Slavs ensured the development of their economy and culture, developed a system of feudal land tenure, contributed to the strengthening of feudal landowning power, the oppression of the feudal lords.

Chapter 3

"What dirty tricks such a beast admitted to them will roam in Russian antiquities."

Since the 17th century, researchers of Russian history have been divided into two camps - adherents of the Norman theory and anti-Normanists (Slavs). The founders of the Norman theory were invited German scientists - Johann Gottfried Bayer, a Koenigsberg linguist, Gerard Friedrich Miller, invited by Peter I to work in St. Petersburg in 1724. Based on the text of the PVL, they claimed that their name was "Rus" together with statehood - Normans - Swedes. This theory served as the basis for the political, state claims of the German world in relation to the Slavic lands. Foreign scientists, who, by the way, did not even know the Russian language, exposed the Slavs as primitive barbarians, who only with the arrival of the Germans threw off their tails, climbed down from the birches and learned to speak. This theory was humiliating for the Russians, and the entire St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences was not only outraged, but indignant! Such prominent Russian scientists as Tatishchev, Derzhavin, Sumarokov, Shishkov, as well as other Russian historians of that time, vehemently objected to this falsification.

The Norman theory is based on the fact that the process of the origin of the Old Russian state is described in the oldest Russian chronicle - "The Tale of Bygone Years". Based on this theory, the chronicle makes it clear that in the 9th century. Slavs lived in conditions of statelessness. The southern and northern Slavic tribes, after the expulsion of the Varangians, were mired in civil strife, could not agree among themselves and turned to the Norman rulers to establish order. The Varangian princes came to Russia and in 862 sat on the thrones: Rurik - occupied Novgorod, Truvor - Izborsk, Sineus - Beloozero. This moment is considered the starting point for the formation of the Russian state.

Anti-Normanists raise a number of objections to the consistency of the Norman theory.

Firstly, there is no direct indication in the PVL that Russian statehood began after the calling of the Varangians. On the contrary, she argues that the Eastern Slavs had statehood long before the Varangians. Secondly, the genesis of any state is a laborious historical process, and one or several even the most prominent personalities cannot arrange it. With regards to the facts mentioned in the annals of the calling of the Varangian princes by the Slavs with their squads, they were invited as military specialists. In addition, many authors doubt the Norman origin of Rurik, Sineus and Truvor, reasonably suggesting that they could also be representatives of the northern Slavic tribes. This is supported by the almost complete absence of traces of the Varangian culture in the history of Russia.

A.V. Seregin, in refutation of the Norman theory, cites signs of statehood among our ancestors before the calling of the Varangians in 862 AD.

Firstly, we know from ancient Arabic sources that already by the 6th c. AD there were three proto-state formations among the Eastern Slavs - this is Slavia (in the area of \u200b\u200bLake Ilmen, with a center in Novgorod), Kuyaba (around Kyiv) and Artania (Tmutarakan - Crimea and Kuban)

Secondly, in itself the calling of the Varangians to reign in 862 AD, after their expulsion, testifies to the presence of sovereignty and a political principle in ancient Russian society. So, M.F. Vladimirsky-Budanov in his book concluded that "the Varangian princes found a ready state system everywhere."

Thirdly, long before the arrival of the Varangians, the Eastern Slavs had a territorial division, which follows from the Tale of Bygone Years, which notes: "They called themselves by their names from the places where they sat down. Settled in the forests - the Drevlyans, along the river Cloths - Polotsk. According to the Bug - Buzhan. " The Varangians did not establish a new territorial division of the state.

Fourth, there are no traces of Norman law in Russian history. And the formation of the state is inseparably connected with the emergence of law. And if the Varangians had a more developed state than the Slavs, and it was they who created statehood in Russia, then the sources of Old Russian law, of course, should have been based on Varangian law. Neither Russkaya Pravda nor the Treaties with Byzantium contain any traces of Swedish terminology or even words borrowed from the Swedish language.

Fifthly, ancient sources testify that as early as the 1st c. AD Slavs paid their leaders a special tax-rug, which amounted to one hundredth of the property of each family. And the word "polyudye", which meant the collection of tribute, was borrowed by the Varangians precisely from the Russian language, from which it follows that the collection of tax, as a sign of statehood, appeared among the Slavs much earlier.

Thus, the first Russian states arose as a result of the internal socio-economic development of the Eastern Slavs, and not under the influence of external circumstances, and certainly not as a result of the calling of the Varangians. It is not possible to establish the time of the appearance of the first Russian principalities. But the formation of the Old Russian state, which is also commonly called Kievan Rus, is associated with the moment of the unification of the East Slavic lands into one state. Most authors attribute this event to the end of the 9th century AD, when in 882 the Novgorod prince Oleg captured Kyiv and united the two most important groups of Russian lands; then he managed to annex the rest of the Russian lands, creating a huge state. In addition to the Slavs, the Old Russian state also included some neighboring Finnish and Baltic tribes. But it was based on the ancient Russian nationality, which is the beginning of the three Slavic peoples - Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.

The most ardent opponent of the treacherous Norman theory was the great Russian scientist - Lomonosov. He argued in his writings that Slavic history is several thousand years deeper and that it must be considered together with the history of all European peoples. Outraged by Miller's dissertation, Lomonosov was forced to start writing ancient Russian history based on primary sources.In correspondence with Shuvalov, he mentioned his works "Description of impostors and streltsy riots", "On the state of Russia during the reign of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich", "Abbreviated description of the affairs of the sovereign" (Peter the Great), "Notes on the labors of the monarch".

However neither these works, nor the numerous documents that Lomonosov intended to publish in the form of notes, nor preparatory materials, nor the manuscript of parts 2 and 3 of volume 1"Ancient Russian History" has not come down to us. They were confiscated and disappeared without a trace.

4. Characteristics of the ancient Russian state

4.1 The political system of the state is feudal

The form of government of the Old Russian state was the early feudal monarchy. The Grand Duke was the eldest (suzerain) in relation to the local princes. He owned the largest and most powerful principality. Relations with other princes were built on the basis of agreements - letters of the cross.

The Grand Duke's throne was inherited. First to the eldest in the family, then to the eldest son. Gradually, relatives of the Grand Duke became local princes.

Initially, the functions of the princes were to organize a squad, a military militia, collect taxes, and foreign trade. Gradually, activities in the field of administration, legislative and judicial functions acquired greater importance. The prince was the highest court.

In his activities, the Grand Duke relied on the advice of large feudal lords - the boyars and the clergy. Feudal congresses were sometimes convened to resolve important issues (the adoption of laws, etc.).

At first, the central administration had a numerical system, which was based on the organization of a military militia. The military structural units corresponded to certain military districts, which were under the control of the thousand, sot and ten. Over time, correspondence to the numerical designation is lost. A thousand became not an armed number of people, but a territorial concept. The Thousands were, first of all, the leaders of the military forces of the district, but at the same time they concentrated power, judicial and political functions in their hands.

Later, a palace-patrimonial system of government was formed. The state apparatus, as it were, coincided with the apparatus of managing a domain, a fiefdom. The main ranks in charge of the prince's household and state affairs were palace servants. The most important of them were the butler (dvorsky), who managed the princely court, the voivode, who led the armed forces, and the equerry, who provided the princely army with horses. In the subordination of these higher princely ranks were various servants - tiuns.

Local authorities were posadniks (governors) in cities and volostels in rural areas. They were representatives of the prince in the city or volost: they collected tribute, duties, judged, established and levied fines. They kept a part of the collected from the population for themselves - instead of a salary for the service, the so-called "feed". The size of the "feed" was determined in letters. Assistants of posadniks and volostels - tiuns, virniks and others - also received "feed". This control system was called the feeding system.

State administration was based on a system of taxes. Initially, the tax was only in the form of polyudia, when the princes, usually once a year, traveled around the subject lands and collected income directly from their subjects. Later, graveyards were established, i.e. special collection points. Then there was a system of various taxes, as well as trade, judicial and other duties. Taxes were usually collected in furs, which were a specific monetary unit.

One of the most important elements of the political system of ancient Russian society was the church, closely connected with the state. Of great importance was the introduction of Christianity in the 10th century, which preached the divine origin of the power of the monarch, the obedience of the people to the rulers. At the head of the Orthodox Church was the Metropolitan, who was appointed initially from Byzantium, and then by the Grand Dukes. In some Russian lands the church was headed by a bishop.

The territorial structure of the Old Russian state was initially based on a kind of federal principles. A.N. Chertkov in his article proposes to introduce the term "Old Russian Prafederation". At the heart of the Old Russian Prafederation was the testament of Yaroslav the Wise, who established the principles of dividing Russia into destinies. Yaroslav's testament established the basis for the succession of princely thrones and the territorial structure of the state; proclaimed Russia as a single fiefdom of the Rurik family; determined the relationship between the center and the regions on the basis of the seniority of the Kiev prince, the significant independence of the specific princes; gave an ideological basis for the unity of state power and territory (we are all grandchildren of the same grandfather). The federal nature of the Old Russian state was also reflected in public agreements, which were concluded not only between the city (local prince) and the Grand Duke, but also between individual local princes. In the Old Russian state, such a democratic institution as the veche was preserved. The competence of the veche originally included all issues of public administration: legislation, courts, disputes, etc. Gradually, the range of issues narrowed. Later veche remained only in individual cities. His most significant influence was in Novgorod. Present in the Old Russian state and the body of local peasant self-government - the territorial community - verv. Its functions included: the distribution of land plots, the taxation and distribution of taxes, the resolution of litigation, the execution of punishments. Thus, the Old Russian state was an early feudal monarchy with federal principles in the territorial structure.

4.2 Social order

By the time of the formation of the Old Russian state, feudal ownership of land was established among the Eastern Slavs, and classes were formed - feudal landowners and feudal-dependent peasants.

The largest feudal lords were princes: Kievan and local (tribal). The land holdings of the princes grew through the seizure of communal lands, as well as through the seizure of the lands of other tribes as a result of wars.

The boyars were also big feudal lords - the feudal aristocracy, which grew rich due to the exploitation of the peasants and predatory wars. In addition, the class of feudal lords also included warriors of princes who received land from the prince. Such land ownership was called a patrimony, a permanent possession that could be inherited.

After the adoption in the X century. Christianity appeared collective feudal lords - monasteries and churches. Their lands mainly grew at the expense of tithes and other incomes (judicial, etc.).

The lowest layer of the feudal lords were servants, princely and boyar, service people. They received land for service and for the duration of service.

All groups of feudal lords were in a relationship of suzerainty-vassalage. The Grand Duke was the supreme suzerain, his vassals were the local princes - the overlords of their boyars and servicemen. Vassals carried out military service.

The main right of the feudal lords was the right to land and exploitation of the peasants, which was expressed primarily in the fact that they received feudal taxes from the peasants.

Gradually, the feudal lords received from their overlords-princes the so-called immunities, were exempted from paying tribute in favor of the prince and acquired the right to have a squad, judge the population dependent on them, collect various taxes, etc. Ie. political power became an attribute of large feudal property. The law also established the privileges of the ruling class: increased punishment for the murder of a feudal lord or causing property damage to him, broader rights to transfer property by inheritance, etc.

With the growth of feudal property, the number of dependent population increased through economic enslavement, when the ruined community members were forced to become dependent on the feudal lord on various conditions (purchasing, patronage, hiring, etc.), as well as non-economic coercion. As a result, there were almost no free peasants-communes, and the main peasant population fell under one form or another of feudal dependence.

The main group of the peasantry were smerds, who lived in communities-vervs. They had their own house, farm, a plot of land in use. The dependence of the smerds on the feudal lords was expressed in the fact that they were obliged to serve feudal duties (pay tribute, taxes). In the absence of sons and unmarried daughters, all their property after death passed to the master. Smerdy were subject to the court of the prince, his vassals, the church. But these are not yet serfs, since they were not attached to the land and the personality of the feudal lord.

Another category of dependent population consisted of purchases - smerds, forced to go into bondage to the master. Having borrowed money or property (kupa) from the feudal lord, they were obliged to work for the owner. Moreover, the purchase cannot work out the kupa and practically remains with the master for life if he does not pay the debt. In the event of an escape, the purchase turned into a serf.

There were other categories of the feudal-dependent population: outcasts - people who left the community; forgiveness - those who fell under the patronage of the church, monasteries or secular feudal lords and are obliged to work in their households for this.

Slaves also existed in the Old Russian state - servants, serfs. They were practically powerless and equated to cattle. The sources of servitude were: captivity, birth from a slave, self-sale into slavery, marriage with a slave, entry into the service “without a row” (i.e. without any reservations), bankruptcy, escape from a purchase, committing serious crimes (arson of a threshing floor, horse stealing).

However, slavery in the Kievan state was not the basis of production, but was predominantly domestic. Subsequently, serfs became the first serfs.

Large and numerous cities existed in the Old Russian state. Merchants, who were a privileged category of people, stood out among the urban population. Skillful artisans also lived in the cities, building magnificent temples and palaces for the nobility, making weapons, jewelry, etc.

The urban population was freer than dependent peasants. In cities, from time to time, people's assemblies - veche - were convened. But the class differentiation was very significant.

The Russian state has always been polyethnic (multinational). The Slavs mixed with the Finnish tribes, and this process was peaceful. All peoples were equal. There was no advantage for the Slavs, including in the sources of Old Russian law.

Thus, the social system of the Old Russian state was a pronounced class division of society, characteristic of the early feudal monarchy. Feudal landownership was based on the dependent position of smerds and purchases. Slavery was used mainly for domestic purposes and did not form the basis of production. At the same time, there was no division along national lines.

Conclusion

In the IX-XII centuries, Kievan Rus was one of the largest medieval European powers, which played an important role in the fate of the peoples and states not only of the West, but also of the East and even the distant North. Just as a caterpillar turns into a butterfly, so the young Russian state, from a small handful of the Dnieper Slavs, turned into a huge power, uniting under its wing all the East Slavic tribes, the tribes of the Balts and the Finno-Ugrians. The spirit of that time can be conveyed by the words of the Russian poet S. Yesenin: "O Russia, flap your wings, put up a different support!". And she waved, and waved so much that half the world learned about the young Slavic state - Western rulers dreamed of intermarrying with the Kiev princes, the Greeks were a constant trading partner of Russia, Russian merchants walked along the Caspian Sea, reached Baghdad and Balkh. Streams of the Varangians incessantly adjoined the rapidly developing neighbor, joining princely squads and joining overseas expeditions. And in Gardarik, as the Varangians called it, newcomers found a new home, assimilating with the local population.

From the main historical work of those times that has come down to us - "The Tale of Bygone Years", we learn that the Slavs had extensive knowledge in the geography of the then world, from the coast of Britain in the west to the Chinese lands in the east, he mentions "Island" (Indonesia), located at the end of the earth, talks about the Indian Brahmins.

The population of Kievan Rus quickly merged into the pan-European current, joining the Byzantine and Western European culture, creating their own literary, architectural and artistic works of art. With the adoption of Christianity by Russia, the young state joins the book culture. Although there was writing in Russia even before baptism, however, the greatest development of literature begins after 988.

Could it be that our ancestors, being illiterate savages, as the adherents of the Norman theory expose them, could build such a strong state? Would they be able to declare themselves to half the world? Can it be that yesterday's barbarians, who threw off their tails and climbed down from the birches, were able to build the largest state in the world, withstanding the attacks of Europeans from the West and countless hordes from the east? and about Byzantine sources and about Arabic information indicating that long before Rurik came to Russia, the Slavs had their own princes, who managed perfectly well without the "German core".

However, let us leave the Norman theory, choking in its death throes, rushing about with unsubstantiated loud statements, and take a sober look at things. The formation of statehood among the ancient Slavs was a natural result of the collapse of the tribal community, the emergence of a class society, the reorganization of tribal authorities into the bodies of the economically dominant class. It completed the process of creating the ancient Russian state of the East Slavic tribes into a single state, which firmly occupied its niche among other strong states of medieval Europe.

List of used literature

1.Belkovets L.P., Belkovets V.V. History of the state and law of Russia. Lecture course. - Novosibirsk: Novosibirsk book publishing house, 2010. - 216 p.

2.Vladimirsky-Budanov M.F. Review of the history of Russian law. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2007. - 524 p.

.Isaev I.A. History of State and Law of Russia: Textbook. - M.: Jurist, 2004. - 797 p.

.History of the domestic state and law: Textbook / Ed. Yu.P. Titov. - M.: OOO "TK Velbi", 2011. - 544 p.

.Mavrodin V.V. Formation of the Old Russian state. - L.: Izd-vo LGOLU, 2005. - 432 p.

.The Tale of Bygone Years // Tale of Ancient Russia. - M.: Baluev, 2012. - 400 p.

.Chertkov A.N. Territorial structure of the Old Russian state: the search for a legal basis // History of State and Law. - 2010. - N 21. - P.34 -

.Rybakov B.A. Kievan Rus and Russian principalities. M.: Nauka, 2009. P.12

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The formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs was a logical result of a long process of decomposition of the tribal system and the transition to a class society. The process of property and social stratification among the community members led to the separation of the most prosperous part from their midst. The tribal nobility and the prosperous part of the community, subjugating the mass of ordinary community members, needs to maintain their dominance in state structures.

The embryonic form of statehood was represented by the East Slavic unions of tribes, which united in superunions, however, fragile ones. One of these associations was, apparently, the union of tribes headed by Prince Kiy. There is information about a certain Russian prince Bravlin who fought in the Khazar-Byzantine Crimea in the VIII-IX centuries, passing from Surozh to Korchev (from Sudak to Kerch). Eastern historians talk about the existence on the eve of the formation of the Old Russian state of three large associations of Slavic tribes: Kuyaba, Slavia and Artania. Kuyaba, or Kuyava, then called the area around Kyiv. Slavia occupied the territory in the area of Lake Ilmen. Its center was Novgorod. The location of Artania - the third major association of Slavs - has not been precisely established.

That is, at the beginning of the 8th century AD, there were already the beginnings of statehood on the territory of Russia.

According to The Tale of Bygone Years, the Russian princely dynasty originates in Novgorod. In 859, the Northern Slavic tribes, who then paid tribute to the Varangians, or Normans (according to most historians, immigrants from Scandinavia), drove them across the sea. However, soon after these events, internecine struggle began in Novgorod. To stop the clashes, the Novgorodians decided to invite the Varangian princes as a force standing above the opposing factions. In 862, Prince Rurik and his two brothers were called to Russia by the Novgorodians, laying the foundation for the Russian princely dynasty.

The Norman legend about the calling of the Varangian princes served as the basis for the creation of the so-called Norman theory of the emergence of the Old Russian state. Its authors were invited in the XVIII century. to Russia, German scientists G.Bayer, G.Miller and A.Schletser. The authors of this theory emphasized the complete absence of prerequisites for the formation of a state among the Eastern Slavs. The scientific inconsistency of the Norman theory is obvious, since the determining factor in the process of state formation is the presence of internal prerequisites, and not the actions of individual, even outstanding, personalities.

If the Varangian legend is not fiction (as most historians believe), the story of the calling of the Varangians only testifies to the Norman origin of the princely dynasty.

The version about the foreign origin of power was quite typical for the Middle Ages. The date of formation of the Old Russian state is conditionally considered to be 882, when Prince Oleg, who seized power in Novgorod after the death of Rurik (some chroniclers call him the governor of Rurik), undertook a campaign against Kyiv. Having killed Askold and Dir, who reigned there, for the first time he united the northern and southern lands as part of a single state. Since the capital was moved from Novgorod to Kyiv, this state is often called Kievan Rus.

The head of state was the prince, who was considered by the people to be the mentor of God on this earth. The prince collected taxes from the lands subject to him and protected them from the raids of other tribes, tried to increase the subject territories in the form of seizure, in order to obtain greater profits in the form of taxes. Thus, the first rudiments of statehood appeared in the form of separate principalities. At that time, there were all the prerequisites for the emergence of a strong state on the territory of the Eastern Slavs. But there was no strong state due to constant strife between the ruling princes. Each time, after the death of a prince who had several children, Russia was divided into separate principalities, in which the children of the deceased prince ruled. Each of the princes wanted to own more territory and killed his brothers to get their lands.

The emergence and development of the Old Russian state (IX - beginning of the XII century).

The emergence of the Old Russian state is traditionally associated with the unification of the Ilmen and Dnieper regions as a result of a campaign against Kyiv by the Novgorod prince Oleg in 882. Having killed Askold and Dir, who reigned in Kyiv, Oleg began to rule on behalf of the young son of Prince Rurik, Igor.

The formation of the state was the result of long and complex processes that took place in the vast expanses of the East European Plain in the second half of the 1st millennium AD.

By the 7th century East Slavic tribal unions settled in its expanses, the names and location of which are known to historians from the ancient Russian chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" by St. Nestor (XI century). These are the meadows (along the western bank of the Dnieper), the Drevlyans (to the north-west of them), the Ilmen Slovenes (along the banks of Lake Ilmen and the Volkhov River), the Krivichi (in the upper reaches of the Dnieper, the Volga and the Western Dvina), the Vyatichi (along the banks of the Oka), northerners (along the Desna), etc. The Finns were the northern neighbors of the eastern Slavs, the Balts were the western ones, and the Khazars were the southeastern ones. Of great importance in their early history were trade routes, one of which connected Scandinavia and Byzantium (the path "from the Varangians to the Greeks" from the Gulf of Finland along the Neva, Lake Ladoga, Volkhov, Lake Ilmen to the Dnieper and the Black Sea), and the other connected the Volga regions with the Caspian Sea and Persia.

Nestor cites a famous story about the calling of the Varangian (Scandinavian) princes Rurik, Sineus and Truvor by the Ilmen Slovenes: “Our land is great and plentiful, but there is no order in it: go reign and rule over us.” Rurik accepted the offer and in 862 he reigned in Novgorod (that is why the monument "Millennium of Russia" was erected in Novgorod in 1862). Many historians of the XVIII-XIX centuries. were inclined to understand these events as evidence that statehood was brought to Russia from outside and the Eastern Slavs could not create their own state on their own (Norman theory). Modern researchers recognize this theory as untenable. They pay attention to the following:

Nestor's story proves that among the Eastern Slavs by the middle of the 9th century. there were bodies that were the prototype of state institutions (the prince, the squad, the assembly of representatives of the tribes - the future veche);

The Varangian origin of Rurik, as well as Oleg, Igor, Olga, Askold, Dir is indisputable, but the invitation of a foreigner as a ruler is an important indicator of the maturity of the prerequisites for the formation of a state. The tribal union is aware of its common interests and is trying to resolve the contradictions between the individual tribes by calling the prince who stands above local differences. The Varangian princes, surrounded by a strong and combat-ready squad, led and completed the processes leading to the formation of the state;

Large tribal superunions, which included several unions of tribes, were formed among the Eastern Slavs already in the 8th-9th centuries. - around Novgorod and around Kyiv; - external factors played an important role in the formation of the Ancient T. state: threats coming from outside (Scandinavia, the Khazar Khaganate) pushed for unity;

The Varangians, having given Russia a ruling dynasty, quickly assimilated, merged with the local Slavic population;

As for the name "Rus", its origin continues to cause controversy. Some historians associate it with Scandinavia, others find its roots in the East Slavic environment (from the Ros tribe that lived along the Dnieper). There are other opinions on this matter as well.

At the end of the 9th - beginning of the 11th century. The Old Russian state was going through a period of formation. The formation of its territory and composition was actively going on. Oleg (882-912) subjugated the tribes of the Drevlyans, Northerners and Radimichi to Kiev, Igor (912-945) successfully fought with the streets, Svyatoslav (964-972) - with the Vyatichi. During the reign of Prince Vladimir (980-1015), Volynians and Croats were subordinated, power over the Radimichi and Vyatichi was confirmed. In addition to the East Slavic tribes, the Finno-Ugric peoples (Chud, Merya, Muroma, etc.) were part of the Old Russian state. The degree of independence of the tribes from the Kiev princes was quite high.

For a long time, only the payment of tribute was an indicator of submission to the authorities of Kyiv. Until 945, it was carried out in the form of polyudya: from November to April, the prince and his squad traveled around the subject territories and collected tribute. The murder in 945 by the Drevlyans of Prince Igor, who tried to collect a second tribute that exceeded the traditional level, forced his wife, Princess Olga, to introduce lessons (the amount of tribute) and establish graveyards (places where tribute was to be brought). This was the first example known to historians of how the princely government approves new norms that are obligatory for ancient Russian society.

Important functions of the Old Russian state, which it began to perform from the moment of its inception, were also protecting the territory from military raids (in the 9th - early 11th centuries, these were mainly raids by the Khazars and Pechenegs) and conducting an active foreign policy (campaigns against Byzantium in 907, 911, 944, 970, Russian-Byzantine treaties of 911 and 944, the defeat of the Khazar Khaganate in 964-965, etc.).

The period of formation of the Old Russian state ended with the reign of Prince Vladimir I of the Holy, or Vladimir the Red Sun. Under him, Christianity was adopted from Byzantium (see ticket No. 3), a system of defensive fortresses was created on the southern borders of Russia, and the so-called ladder system of transfer of power finally took shape. The order of succession was determined by the principle of seniority in the princely family. Vladimir, having taken the throne of Kyiv, planted his eldest sons in the largest Russian cities. The most important after Kiev - Novgorod - the reign was transferred to his eldest son. In the event of the death of the eldest son, his place was to be taken by the next in seniority, all other princes moved to more important thrones. During the life of the Kiev prince, this system worked flawlessly. After his death, as a rule, there was a more or less long period of struggle between his sons for the reign of Kiev.

The heyday of the Old Russian state falls on the reign of Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054) and his sons. It includes the oldest part of Russian Truth - the first monument of written law that has come down to us ("Russian Law", information about which dates back to the reign of Oleg, was not preserved either in the original or in the lists). Russian Truth regulated relations in the princely economy - the patrimony. Its analysis allows historians to talk about the established system of state administration: the Kyiv prince, like the local princes, is surrounded by a retinue, the top of which is called the boyars and with whom he confers on the most important issues (a duma, a permanent council under the prince). Of the combatants, posadniks are appointed to manage cities, governors, tributaries (collectors of land taxes), mytniki (collectors of trade duties), tiuns (managers of princely estates), etc. Russkaya Pravda contains valuable information about ancient Russian society. Its basis was the free rural and urban population (people). There were slaves (servants, serfs), farmers dependent on the prince (purchases, ryadovichi, serfs - historians do not have a single opinion about the situation of the latter).

Yaroslav the Wise pursued an energetic dynastic policy, linking his sons and daughters by marriage with the ruling families of Hungary, Poland, France, Germany, etc.

Yaroslav died in 1054, before 1074. his sons managed to coordinate their actions. At the end of the XI - beginning of the XII century. the power of the Kiev princes weakened, individual principalities gained more and more independence, the rulers of which tried to agree with each other on cooperation in the fight against the new - Polovtsian - threat. Tendencies towards the fragmentation of a single state intensified as its individual regions grew richer and stronger (for more details, see ticket No. 2). The last Kiev prince who managed to stop the collapse of the Old Russian state was Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125). After the death of the prince and the death of his son Mstislav the Great (1125-1132), the fragmentation of Russia became a fait accompli.

The original region of the ancient ethnic Slavs, which received the name of the "ancestral home" of the Slavic tribes, is still ambiguously determined by scientists. The so-called migration theory dates back to the Middle Ages. Its first author was the ancient chronicler Nestor. In The Tale of Bygone Years, he pointed to the Lower Danube and Pannonia / Hungary / as the original territory of the Slavic settlement. This opinion was shared by such historians as S. M. Solovyov and V. O. Klyuchevsky.

Another medieval theory is called "Scythian-Sarmatian". According to her, the ancestors of the Slavs came from Western Asia and settled along the Black Sea coast under the names "Scythians", "Sarmatians", "Roksolans". From here they gradually settled to the west and southwest. M.V. Lomonosov saw the ancestors of the Slavs in the Roxolans.

The largest scientist of the early XX century. A. Shakhmatov put forward the "Baltic" theory of the Slavic ancestral home.

In contrast to various versions of the migration theory, the historiography of the Soviet period recognized the autochthonous origin of the Slavs.

Modern domestic historical science believes that the ancestors of the Slavs emerged from the ancient Indo-European unity that inhabited most of Eurasia, no earlier than the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. The initial area of their settlement is from the Baltic states in the north to the Carpathians in the south. Some scientists / eg. academician B. Rybakov / believe that those mentioned by Herodotus / V c. BC / "Scythians-plowmen" - this is the Proto-Slavs. Others add to them another people mentioned by Herodotus - the neurons, who lived in the forests north of the Scythians.

By the I-II centuries. n. e. include reports /ancient authors /Tacitus, Ptolemy/ about the Wends - a people who lived along the Baltic coast and in Central Europe. The Germans still call the Slavs "Wends". Later, Byzantine sources refer to only the Western Slavs as Wends, while the Eastern ones are known as "Antes". They lived from the lower reaches of the Danube to the Don.

In the history of the Slavs, as well as other peoples of Europe, the Hun invasion / IV c. AD/. The invasion of the Huns caused mass migrations in Eurasia, which continued through the 7th century. inclusive, and called the "Great Migration of Nations". It marked the beginning of the history of many modern peoples, incl. and Russian. The resettlement of the Slavs went in a westerly direction up to the Elbe, in the south.

In the south, the neighbors of the Eastern Slavs were the Iranians, in the north, various Finnish tribes, in the northwest, the Baltic tribes. The Iranians, who for several centuries played a leading role in the civilizations of the south of our country, had a particularly great influence on the Slavs. This is evidenced by language borrowings and influence on religion. The Iranian origin of the words "god", "hero", "hut", "dog", "axe", etc. Of the pagan gods revered by the Slavs, Iranian were Khors, Simargl, Stribog.

The basis of the economy of the Eastern Slavs was agriculture in combination with cattle breeding and various crafts. Iron tools were actively used in the economy, which made it possible to obtain surplus agricultural products, which were used for exchange with other peoples. In trade with the developed countries of the East and Byzantium, the export of furs played a special role. The life of the Slavs was determined by the nature of their activities. They lived sedentary, choosing hard-to-reach places for settlements or erecting defensive structures around them. The main type of dwelling is a semi-dugout with a two- or three-pitched roof.

At the beginning of the 1st millennium, the Slavs lived in tribal communities. Each community represented several families connected by consanguinity. Such a community was the main production cell primitive communalbuilding. The economy in it was carried out collectively: products and tools were in common ownership.

However, already at that time the tribal system began to outlive itself. Under the tribal system, the products of labor of members of the clan were concentrated in the hands of the heads of the clans - he was their main manager. This created the prerequisites for the emergence of property inequality and private property.

The Slavs distinguished leaders with hereditary power. Detachments of professional warriors and advisers - "teams" - are formed around them. At the same time, the people's militia and the people's assembly continued to play an important role.

At the turn of the VIII-IX centuries. formed about a dozen tribal unions - military associations. Nestor (late 11th century - early 12th century) in The Tale of Bygone Years tells of the creation in the 6th century. a large union of Slavic tribes in the middle Dnieper region, which adopted the name of one of the tribes "ros" or "rus". Already in the VIII - IX centuries. this union united several dozen Slavic tribes with a center in Kyiv and occupied a significant territory. The Novgorod chronicle tells about the elder Gostomysl, who headed the Slavic association around Novgorod. According to Eastern sources, on the eve of the formation of the Old Russian state, three large political centers were formed on this territory, which can be considered proto-state associations: Kuyavia (the southern group of Slavic tribes with a center in Kyiv), Slavia (the northern group with a center in Novgorod) and Artania (the southeastern group , presumably the region of Ryazan). At the same time, the southern Slavs paid tribute to the Khazars, the northern - to the Varangians.

Prerequisites and causes of the emergence of the Old Russian state

The development of production, social differentiation led to the need to regulate relations between different groups of the population;

Complication of the socio-political organization: alliances of tribes, strengthening of princely power, a special military organization (squads);

External factor: wars, danger from nomads.

The formation of the state was the result of long and complex processes that took place in the vast expanses of the East European Plain in the second half of the 1st millennium AD.

Large tribal superunions, which included several unions of tribes, were formed among the Eastern Slavs already in the 8th-9th centuries. - around Novgorod and around Kyiv; - external factors played an important role in the formation of the Old Russian state: threats coming from outside (Scandinavia, the Khazar Khaganate) pushed for unity;

The Varangians, having given Russia a ruling dynasty, quickly assimilated, merged with the local Slavic population;

At the end of the 9th - beginning of the 11th century. The Old Russian state was going through a period of formation. The formation of its territory and composition was actively going on. Oleg (882-912) subjugated the tribes of the Drevlyans, Northerners and Radimichi to Kiev, Igor (912-945) successfully fought with the streets, Svyatoslav (964-972) - with the Vyatichi. During the reign of Prince Vladimir (980-1015), Volynians and Croats were subordinated, power over the Radimichi and Vyatichi was confirmed. In addition to the East Slavic tribes, the Finno-Ugric peoples (Chud, Merya, Muroma, etc.) were part of the Old Russian state. The degree of independence of the tribes from the Kiev princes was quite high.

Important functions of the Old Russian state, which it began to perform from the moment of its inception, were also protecting the territory from military raids(in the 9th - early 11th centuries, these were mainly Khazar and Pecheneg raids) and an active foreign policy (campaigns against Byzantium in 907, 911, 944, 970, Russian-Byzantine treaties in 911 and 944, the defeat of the Khazar Khaganate in 964- 965 and others).

The period of formation of the Old Russian state ended with the reign of Prince Vladimir I the Holy, or Vladimir the Red Sun. Under him, Christianity was adopted from Byzantium, a system of defensive fortresses was created on the southern borders of Russia, and the so-called ladder system of transfer of power finally took shape. The order of succession was determined by the principle of seniority in the princely family. Vladimir, having taken the throne of Kyiv, planted his eldest sons in the largest Russian cities. The most important after Kiev - Novgorod - the reign was transferred to his eldest son. In the event of the death of the eldest son, his place was to be taken by the next in seniority, all other princes moved to more important thrones. During the life of the Kiev prince, this system worked flawlessly. After his death, as a rule, there was a more or less long period of struggle between his sons for the reign of Kiev.

The heyday of the Old Russian state falls on the reign of Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054) and his sons. It includes the oldest part of Russian Truth - the first monument that has come down to us written law ("Law Russian", information about which dates back to the reign of Oleg, was not preserved either in the original or in the lists). Russian Truth regulated relations in the princely economy - the patrimony. Its analysis allows historians to talk about the established system of state administration: the Kyiv prince, like the local princes, is surrounded by a retinue, the top of which is called the boyars and with whom he confers on the most important issues (a duma, a permanent council under the prince). Of the combatants, posadniks are appointed to manage cities, governors, tributaries (collectors of land taxes), mytniki (collectors of trade duties), tiuns (managers of princely estates), etc. Russkaya Pravda contains valuable information about ancient Russian society. Its basis was the free rural and urban population (people). There were slaves (servants, serfs), farmers dependent on the prince (purchases, ryadovichi, serfs - historians do not have a single opinion about the situation of the latter).

Yaroslav the Wise pursued an energetic dynastic policy, linking his sons and daughters by marriage with the ruling families of Hungary, Poland, France, Germany, etc.

The main stages in the formation of the Old Russian state

In the process of formation of the Old Russian state, three main stages can be distinguished:

Stage I (VIII-mid-IX centuries). going on maturation of the prerequisites for statehood in the East Slavic tribes. Internal factors played a decisive role in this process:

ethnic community,

A certain similarity of economic interests,

Proximity of the area

The need for protection from external enemies (neighboring tribes and states),

The need to expand the territory through military campaigns.

Starting from the VI century. among the Eastern Slavs, power is isolated and strengthened tribal aristocracy, primarily military leaders, relying directly on real armed force - squad. This type of social organization is called "military democracy".

Against this background, there are tribal unions and their centers are highlighted. By the 8th century the Eastern Slavs had certain state forms. Historical sources testify to the existence of unions of East Slavic tribes:

- Valinana (among the Volhynians in the upper reaches of the Bug River),

- Kuyavia (identified with Kiev),

- Slavia (associated with Novgorod),

· - Artania (location unknown, possibly in the area of the modern city of Ryazan).

Appears polyudya system(collection of tribute from community members in favor of the leader-prince, so far voluntarily, perceived as compensation for military expenses and administrative activities).

Stage II (II half of the IX-mid-X centuries). The process of folding the state accelerated largely due to the active intervention of external forces - the Khazars and the Normans (Varangians), who forced the Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes to pay tribute.

But one can speak about the real principles of ancient Russian statehood first of all when prince's power came to be seen as special state power(second half of the 9th-first half of the 10th centuries). Its character can be judged, first of all, by the organization of the collection of tribute and people, by an active foreign policy, especially in relation to Byzantium.

Vocation Rurik Novgorodians (862) and unification by his successor Oleg (879-912) Northern and Southern Russia under the rule of Kyiv in the 9th century. allowed to concentrate the power of the Kiev princes over the territory from Ladoga to the lower reaches of the Dnieper.

There was a kind of federation of tribal principalities, headed by Prince of Kiev. His power was manifested in tribute collection from all the tribes included in this association.

Oleg, relying on the power of the Slavic-Norman squad and "wars" (armed free community members), commits successful campaigns against Byzantium in 907 and 911. As a result, they signed beneficial agreements for Russia, providing her with the right to duty-free trade on the territory of the empire and a number of other privileges.

Igor(912-945)

and also defended its borders from the formidable nomads who appeared - Pechenegs.

In 944-945. he committed two trips to Byzantium, which violated its agreements with Russia, but, having suffered defeat, was forced to conclude a less favorable agreement with the empire.

In an agreement with Byzantium in 945, the term itself is found "Russian land". In the same year, during the polyudya, he was killed by the Drevlyans for demanding tribute in excess of the usual.

Stage III (II half of the X-beginning of the XI centuries). It begins with the reforms of the princess Olga (945-964). Having avenged the Drevlyans for the death of her husband, in order to prevent what happened to Igor in the future, she established a fixed rate of tribute collection (“lessons”), and to collect it set special places ("graveyards"), where the boyar with a small retinue "sat" (i.e. watched the collection of tribute).

"Polyudye" turned into "reason».

Graveyards become the backbone of local princely power.

Politics of Olga's son, Prince Svyatoslav (964-972) was aimed mainly at fight against an external enemy. The defeat of Khazaria and campaigns on the Danube required a lot of effort, money and time. In connection with this, the prince-warrior (that was the name of Svyatoslav both among the people and in the annals) practically did not deal with issues of the internal structure of the state.

New steps in the development of the Russian state is associated with the activities of the illegitimate son of Svyatoslav - Vladimir I (980-1015), who came to power as a result of a cruel, bloody struggle with his brothers for the throne of Kyiv.

1. He expanded the territory of Kiev states, adding to it the southwestern (Galicia, Volyn) and western (Polotsk, Turov) Slavic lands.

In addition, feeling the danger to the strength of his power, associated with the inferiority of his origin (the son of the slave Malusha - the housekeeper of Princess Olga), Vladimir sought strengthen princely power basically -

Introduction monotheistic religion (monotheism) .

Introduction institute of governors

It first does this by creating pantheon of 5 gods headed by Perun, which was especially revered by warriors. But this reform did not take root, and he went for radical changes - he introduced monotheism, accepting himself and forcing all of Russia to accept Christianity.

The introduction of Christianity not only created the basis for the spiritual unity of the Russian people, but also strengthened the supreme power in the state ("one god in heaven, one prince on earth"), increased the international prestige of Kievan Rus, which ceased to be a barbarian country. In addition, Christian morality called for humility, which justified the feudal exploitation of ordinary community members by the prince, his entourage, and the landowning boyars, who were the backbone of princely power.

The next decisive step, completing the creation of the state, was the replacement of the tribal princes by Vladimir governors (they were 12 sons of Vladimir and approximate boyars), appointed by the Kiev prince. Governors should have

defend the new faith

and to strengthen the power of the prince in the field, being the "eye of the sovereign."

The strengthening of power gave Vladimir the opportunity to organize the population of the country for creating powerful defensive lines on the southern borders state and resettle part of the population here from more northern territories (Krivichi, Slovenes, Chudi, Vyatichi). This made it possible to successful fight with raids Pechenegs . As a result, the prince, as epics testify, began to be perceived in the popular mind not just as a warrior-defender, but as the head of state, organizing the protection of his borders.

The final step in the formation of Russian statehood was made by the son of Vladimir I, Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054), which marked the beginning of Russian written legislation. He created the first part of the first written code of laws - "Russian Truth" ("The Truth of Yaroslav"). It was written back in 1015, when he was his governor in Novgorod, and was intended for Novgorodians. Having entered the throne of Kyiv in 1019, Yaroslav extended it to the territory of the entire state. Subsequently, for a century and a half, Yaroslav's Truth was supplemented by his sons ("The Truth of the Yaroslavichs"), Vladimir Monomakh ("Charter of Vladimir Monomakh") and subsequent rulers of the Russian state and existed as a legislative basis until the adoption of the first Sudebnik in 1497.

The emergence of a written code of laws in the early ninth century. became necessary because disintegration of the tribal community many ordinary people lost their status and suffered insults, not being able to turn to tribal groups. The only protection for community members and ordinary citizens was the prince and his squad. This further increased the power of the prince.

Russkaya Pravda, as a developing monument, gives an idea of the increasingly complex social structure, categories of free and dependent population, i.e. actually objects and subjects of state administration.

Being predominantly a procedural collection, Russkaya Pravda spoke little about judicial organization (the prince and judges are mentioned as court bodies, and the princely court as a court place). The fact is that many disputes were resolved out of court, by the forces of the interested parties themselves.

The significance of Russkaya Pravda lies in the fact that it influenced the development of local legislation and, in the future, national legislation.

In addition, it carried the idea of the responsibility of the authorities in court cases, primarily before God, and the self-serving court in the interests of the authorities itself was qualified as wrong.

In general, the first written legislative code of Russia is important evidence of the maturity of the state.

Thus, by the beginning of the XI century. Kievan Rus had the main features of the formed statehood:

A single territory covering the place of residence of all Eastern Slavs;

Portal for the student. Self-training

Tutoring

The main stages in the formation of the Old Russian state

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