Natural complexes in which vegetation is fully formed, and which can exist on their own, without human intervention, and if a person or something else violates them, they will be restored, moreover, according to certain laws. Such natural complexes are biogeocenoses. The most complex and important natural biogeocenoses are forest ones. In no natural complex, in any type of vegetation, these relationships are expressed so sharply and so many-sidedly as in the forest.

Biogeocenosis is a set of homogeneous natural phenomena (atmosphere, rocks, vegetation, wildlife and the world of microorganisms, soil and hydrological conditions) over a known extent of the earth's surface, which has a special specificity of interactions of these constituent components and a certain type of metabolism and energy: among themselves and with other natural phenomena and representing an internal contradictory unity, which is in constant motion and development ... ".

This definition reflects all the essence of biogeocenosis, features and characteristics inherent only to it:

Biogeocenosis must be homogeneous in all respects: living and non-living matter: vegetation, wildlife, soil population, relief, parent rock, soil properties, depth and groundwater regimes;

Each biogeocenosis is characterized by the presence of a special, only inherent type of metabolism and energy,

All components of biogeocenosis are characterized by the unity of life and its environment, i.e. the features and patterns of life activity of biogeocenosis are determined by its habitat, thus, biogeocenosis is a geographical concept.

In addition, each specific biogeocenosis should:

Be homogeneous in its history;

To be a sufficiently long-term established formation;

Clearly differ in vegetation from neighboring biogeocenoses, and these differences should be natural and ecologically explicable.

Examples of biogeocenoses:

Forb oak forest at the foot of the deluvial slope of southern exposure on mountain brown-forest medium loamy soil;

Cereal meadow in a hollow on loamy peat soils,

Forb meadow on a high river floodplain on floodplain soddy-gley medium loamy soil,

Lichen larch on Al-Fe-humus-podzolic soils,

Forest mixed broad-leaved with liana vegetation on the northern slope on brown forest soils, etc.

Biogeocenosis is the whole set of species and the whole set of components of inanimate nature that determine the existence of a given ecosystem, taking into account the inevitable anthropogenic impact.

The field of knowledge about biogeocenoses is called biogeocenology. To control natural processes, one must know the patterns to which they are subject. These patterns are studied by a number of sciences: meteorology, climatology, geology, soil science, hydrology, various departments of botany and zoology, microbiology, etc. Biogeocenology, on the other hand, generalizes, synthesizes the results of the listed sciences from a certain angle, focusing on the interactions of the components of biogeocenoses with each other and revealing general patterns that govern these interactions.

2. Definition of biogeocenosis

"Biogeocenosis- this is a section of the earth's surface on which in close interaction develop: vegetation homogeneous in composition and productivity, a homogeneous complex of animals and microorganisms, soil homogeneous in physical and chemical composition; a homogeneous gas and climatic situation is maintained, the same material and energy exchange is established between all components of the biogeocenosis "(V.N. Sukachev).

3.Component composition of biogeocenosis

Components of biogeocenosis- material bodies (components of biogeocenosis). They are divided into 2 groups:

1. Living (biotic, biocenosis)

2. Inert (abiotic substance, raw materials) - ecotope, biotope.

These include carbon dioxide, water, oxygen, etc.

Biotic components of biogeocenosis:

1.Producers

2.Consumers

3. Reducers (detritivores, destructors of organic substances).

Producers - organisms that produce (synthesize) organic substances from inorganic (green plants).

Consumers- organisms that consume ready-made organic substances. Primary consumers are herbivores. Secondary consumers are carnivores.

decomposers - organisms that decompose organic matter to the final decay products (decay and fermentation bacteria).

In the biogeocenosis is established ecological homeostasis- dynamic balance between all components of biogeocenosis.

Occurs periodically ecological succession- regular change of communities in biogeocenosis.

There are several classifications of biogeocenoses.

I.1. Land, Freshwater, 2. Aquatic, Marine

II. By geographic area:

1. Forest, 2. Marsh, 3. Steppe, 4. Meadow, 5. Tundra, etc.

III. Lobachev in 1978 identified biogeocenoses:

1) Natural 2) Rural (agrocenoses)

3) Urban cenoses (urban, industrial)

4. Borders between biogeocenoses.

The configuration and boundaries of the biogeocenosis are determined, according to Sukachev, by the boundaries of the phytocenosis characteristic of it, as its autotrophic base, physiognomically more clearly than other components expressing it in space.

Horizontal boundaries between biogeocenoses, as well as between plant communities, according to J. Leme (1976), are sharp, especially under conditions of human intervention, but they can also be vague, as if smeared in case of interpenetration of components of neighboring biogeocenoses.

B. A Bykov (1970) distinguishes the following types of boundaries between plant communities and, therefore, between biogeocenoses

a) sharp boundaries are observed with a sharp difference in environmental conditions in adjacent cenoses or in the presence of dominants with powerful environment-forming properties;

b) mosaic boundaries, in contrast to sharp ones, are characterized by the inclusion of their individual fragments in the transitional zone of adjacent cenoses, forming a kind of complexity;

c) bordered borders - when a narrow border of a cenosis develops in the contact zone of adjacent cenoses, which differs from both of them;

d) diffuse boundaries between adjacent cenoses are characterized by a gradual spatial change in the species composition in the contact zone during the transition from one to another

The vertical boundaries of the biogeocenosis, as well as the horizontal ones, are determined by the placement of the living plant biomass of the phytocenosis in space - the upper boundary is determined by the maximum height of the above-ground plant organs - phototrophs - above the soil surface, the lower one by the maximum depth of penetration of the root system into the soil.

At the same time, in tree-shrub biogeocenoses, the vertical boundaries, as T. A. Rabotnov (1974a) writes, do not change during the growing season, while in herbal biogeocenoses (meadow, steppe, etc.) they vary by season, as occurs either an increase in herbage, or a decrease in it, or a complete alienation in hayfields and pastures. only their lower borders are not subject to seasonal changes.

Ecosystem (from the Greek word oikos - dwelling, residence) - any natural complex (biokosnaya system). It consists of living organisms (biocenosis) and their habitat: inert (for example, the atmosphere) or bioinert (soil, reservoir, etc.), interconnected by flows of matter, energy and information. A rotting stump with all its numerous inhabitants (mushrooms, microorganisms, invertebrates) is a small-scale ecosystem. A lake with aquatic and semi-aquatic organisms (including birds that feed on aquatic animals, coastal vegetation) is also an ecosystem, but on a larger scale. The largest ecosystem is the entire biosphere as a whole. There is always an energy input and output in an ecosystem. Most of the energy for the existence of ecosystems comes from the energy of the Sun, primarily captured by autotrophs, the bulk of which are green plants. Along food chains, this energy and matter are included in the cycle characteristic of each ecosystem. Primary and secondary heterotrophs (herbivores and carnivores) use the accumulated energy and the substance created by autotrophs, which then re-enters the cycle after its decomposition and mineralization by heterotrophs-saprophytes (fungi, microorganisms). The way out of this cycle is in sedimentary rocks (see. Cycle of substances in nature). The term "ecosystem" was proposed in 1935 by the English botanist A. Tensley. In 1944, the Soviet biologist V.N. Sukachev introduced the concept of "biogeocenosis" close to him. Biogeocenosis, in the understanding of V. N. Sukachev, differs from the ecosystem in the certainty of its volume. An ecosystem can cover a space of any length - from a drop of pond water to the biosphere. Biogeocenosis - a certain area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe territory through which not a single significant biocenotic (see Biocenosis), hydrological, climatic, soil or geochemical boundary passes. Biogeocenoses are the bricks that make up the entire biosphere. On land, the boundaries of biogeocenosis are usually distinguished by the nature of the vegetation cover: vegetation changes mark soil, geochemical, and other boundaries. The sizes of biogeocenoses are different - from several hundred square meters to several square kilometers, and vertically - from several centimeters (on rocks) to several hundred meters (in forests). The totality of populations of organisms that make up an ecosystem (usually within a biogeocenosis), whose life is closely connected with a single, central species, is called a consortium (from the Latin word consortium - community). Usually, a plant plays the role of the central type of the consortium, which determines the entire nature of the biogeocenosis: in spruce forests - spruce, in pine forests - pine, in the feather grass steppe - feather grass, etc. The relationship between the central species and the rest in the consortium can be very different: through food chains as a habitat (lichen on a pine trunk), creation of comfortable microclimatic conditions (humidity, shade under a tree canopy).

17. Ecosystems and biogeocenoses

An ecosystem is any unity that includes all organisms and the whole complex of physico-chemical factors and interacts with the external environment. Ecosystems are the basic natural units on the Earth's surface.

The doctrine of ecosystems was created by the English botanist Arthur Tansley (1935).

Ecosystems are characterized by various kinds of metabolism not only between organisms, but also between their living and non-living components. When studying ecosystems, special attention is paid to functional connections between organisms energy flows and cycling .

The spatial and temporal boundaries of ecosystems can be distinguished quite arbitrarily. The ecosystem can be durable(for example, the biosphere of the Earth), and short-term(e.g. ecosystems of temporary reservoirs). Ecosystems can be natural and artificial. From the point of view of thermodynamics, natural ecosystems are always open systems (they exchange matter and energy with the environment); artificial ecosystems can be isolated (exchange only energy with the environment).

Biogeocenoses. In parallel with the doctrine of ecosystems, the doctrine of biogeocenoses, created by Vladimir Nikolaevich Sukachev (1942), also developed.

Biogeocenosis - this is a set of homogeneous natural phenomena (atmosphere, vegetation, wildlife and microorganisms, soil, rocks and hydrological conditions) over a known extent of the earth's surface, which has its own specific interactions of constituent components and a certain type of exchange of matter and energy between themselves and other natural phenomena and representing an internally contradictory unity, which is in constant motion, development.

Biogeocenoses are characterized by the following features:

- biogeocenosis is associated with a certain area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe earth's surface; unlike an ecosystem, the spatial boundaries of biogeocenoses cannot be drawn arbitrarily;

- biogeocenoses exist for a long time;

- biogeocenosis is a bio-inert system, which is a unity of animate and inanimate nature;

- biogeocenosis is an elementary biochorological cell of the biosphere (that is, a biological-spatial unit of the biosphere);

- biogeocenosis is an arena of primary evolutionary transformations (that is, the evolution of populations takes place in specific natural-historical conditions, in specific biogeocenoses).

Thus, like an ecosystem, a biogeocenosis is a unity of a biocenosis and its inanimate habitat; while the basis of biogeocenosis is biocenosis. The concepts of ecosystem and biogeocenosis are outwardly similar, but, in reality, they are different. In other words, any biogeocenosis is an ecosystem, but not any ecosystem is a biogeocenosis.

Ecosystem structure

Maintaining the vital activity of organisms and the circulation of substances in the ecosystem is possible only due to the constant influx of highly organized energy. The main primary source of energy on Earth is solar energy.

Ecosystems are constantly energy flow that changes from one form to another.

Photosynthetic organisms convert the energy of sunlight into the energy of chemical bonds of organic substances. These organisms are producers, or producers organic matter. In most cases, the functions of producers in ecosystems are performed by plants.

Dead organisms and waste products in any form are consumed by organisms that break down dead organic matter into inorganic substances - decomposers , or destructors. Reducers include various animals (usually invertebrates), fungi, prokaryotes:

– necrophages- corpse eaters;

– coprophages(coprophiles, coprotrophs) - feed on excrement;

– saprophages(saprophytes, saprophiles, saprotrophs) - feed on dead organic matter (fallen leaves, molting skins); saprophages include:

– xylophages(xylophils, xylotrophs) - feed on wood;

– keratinophages(keratinophiles, keratinotrophs) - feed on the horny substance;

– detritivores- feed on semi-decomposed organic matter;

– final mineralizers- completely decompose organic matter.

Producers and decomposers provide matter cycle in an ecosystem: oxidized forms of carbon and minerals are converted into reduced ones and vice versa; the transformation of inorganic substances into organic substances, and organic substances into inorganic substances.

food chains

With the successive transfer of energy from one organism to another, food (trophic) chains .

Trophic chains that begin with producers are called pasture chains , or eating chains . The individual links in a food chain are called trophic levels . In pasture chains, the following levels are distinguished:

1st level - producers(plants);

2nd level - first-order consumers(phytophages);

3rd level - second-order consumers(zoophages);

4th level - consumers of the third order(predators);

Dead organisms and waste products of each level are destroyed by decomposers. Trophic chains that begin with decomposers are called detrital chains . Detrital chains are the basis for the existence of dependent ecosystems in which organic matter produced by producers is not enough to provide energy to consumers (for example, deep-sea ecosystems, cave ecosystems, soil ecosystems). In this case, the existence of the ecosystem is possible due to the energy contained in the dead organic matter.

Organic matter found at each trophic level can be consumed by different organisms and in different ways. The same organism can belong to different trophic levels. Thus, in real ecosystems, food chains turn into food webs .

Below is a fragment of a mixed forest food web.

Productivity of trophic levels

The amount of energy passing through the trophic level per unit area per unit time is called the productivity of the trophic level.. Productivity is measured in kcal/ha·year or other units (in tons of dry matter per 1 ha per year; in milligrams of carbon per 1 sq. meter or 1 cubic meter per day, etc.).

Energy delivered to the trophic level is called gross primary productivity(for producers) or diet(for consumers). Part of this energy is spent on maintaining life processes (metabolic costs, or breathing costs), part - on waste generation(plant litter, excrement, molting skins and other waste from animals), part - on biomass growth. Part of the energy spent on biomass growth can be consumed by consumers of the next trophic level.

The energy balance of the trophic level can be written as the following equations:

(1) gross primary productivity = respiration + litter + biomass growth

(2) diet = respiration + waste products + biomass growth

The first equation is applied to producers, the second - to consumers and decomposers.

The difference between the gross primary productivity (ration) and the cost of breathing is called net primary productivity trophic level. The energy that can be consumed by consumers of the next trophic level is called secondary productivity considered trophic level.

During the transition of energy from one level to another, part of it is irretrievably lost: in the form of thermal radiation (respiration costs), in the form of waste products. Therefore, the amount of highly organized energy is constantly decreasing during the transition from one trophic level to the next. On average, this trophic level receives ≈ 10% of the energy received by the previous trophic level; this pattern is called the ten percent rule, or ecological pyramid rule . Therefore, the number of trophic levels is always limited (4-5 links), for example, already only 1/1000 of the energy received at the first level enters the fourth level.

Ecosystem dynamics

In developing ecosystems, only a part of the biomass growth is spent on the formation of secondary products; in the ecosystem there is an accumulation of organic matter. Such ecosystems naturally give way to other types of ecosystems. The regular change of ecosystems in a certain area is called succession . Succession example: lake → overgrown lake → swamp → peat bog → forest.

There are the following forms of successions:

– primary - arise in previously uninhabited areas (for example, on unsodden sands, rocks); biocenoses that initially form under such conditions are called pioneer communities;

– secondary - occur in disturbed habitats (for example, after fires, in clearings);

– reversible - a return to a pre-existing ecosystem is possible (for example, birch forest → burnt forest → birch forest → spruce forest);

– irreversible - a return to a previously existing ecosystem is impossible (for example, the destruction of relict ecosystems; relict ecosystem- this is an ecosystem that has been preserved from past geological periods);

– anthropogenic - arising under the influence of human activity.

The accumulation of organic matter and energy at trophic levels leads to an increase in the stability of the ecosystem. In the course of succession in certain soil and climatic conditions, the final climax communities . In climax communities, the entire increase in trophic level biomass is spent on the formation of secondary products. Such ecosystems can exist indefinitely.

AT degrading (dependent)ecosystems the energy balance is negative - the energy received by the lower trophic levels is not enough for the functioning of the higher trophic levels. Such ecosystems are unstable and can exist only with additional energy costs (for example, ecosystems of settlements and anthropogenic landscapes). As a rule, in degrading ecosystems, the number of trophic levels is reduced to a minimum, which further increases their instability.

Anthropogenic ecosystems

The main types of anthropogenic ecosystems include agrobiocenoses and industrial ecosystems.

Agrobiocenoses are ecosystems created by man to obtain agricultural products.

As a result of crop rotations in agrobiocenoses, a change in the species composition of plants usually occurs. Therefore, when describing agrobiocenosis, its characteristics are given for several years.

Features of agrobiocenoses:

– depleted species composition of producers (monoculture);

- systematic removal of mineral nutrition elements with the harvest and the need to apply fertilizers;

– favorable conditions for the reproduction of pests due to monoculture and the need to use plant protection products;

- the need to destroy weeds - competitors of cultivated plants;

– reduction in the number of trophic levels due to the depletion of species diversity; simplification of supply chains (networks);

- the impossibility of self-reproduction and self-regulation.

To maintain the stability of agrobiocenoses, additional energy costs are required. For example, in economically developed countries, it takes 5-7 calories of fossil fuel energy to produce one calorie of food.

Industrial ecosystems are ecosystems that are formed on the territory of industrial enterprises . Industrial ecosystems are characterized by the following features:

– high level of pollution (physical, chemical and biological pollution);

– high dependence on external energy sources;

– exceptional depletion of species diversity;

– adverse impact on adjacent ecosystems.

Ecological knowledge is used to control the state of anthropogenic ecosystems.

At the first stage of work, a comprehensive inventory (certification) of anthropogenic ecosystems is necessary. The data obtained must be analyzed, to identify the state of the ecosystem, the degree of its stability. In a number of cases, it is necessary to conduct experiments designed to reveal the action of a complex of factors.

At the next stage, complex models are being built that explain the current state of the ecosystem and serve to predict changes. Recommendations are being developed and implemented to improve the sustainability of ecosystems. The management of human activity is constantly being adjusted.

At the final stage of the work, a monitoring system for the state of the ecosystem is planned and implemented - environmental monitoring(from English. monitor- intimidating). When carrying out environmental monitoring, physical and chemical measuring methods, as well as methods of biotesting and bioindication, are used.

Biotesting is the control over the state of the environment with the help of specially created test-objects. Cell cultures, tissues, whole organisms can serve as test objects. For example, a special variety of tobacco has been bred, on the leaves of which, with an increased ozone content, necrotic spots form.

Bioindication is the control of the state of the environment with the help of the organisms living in it. In this case, the species composition of phytoplankton and the spectrum of morphological types of lichens are used as test objects. For example, the species composition of herbaceous plants can serve as an indication of soil erosion. On soils not affected by erosion, or slightly washed away soils grow: awnless brome, red clover. On washed away soils grow: hairy hawk, coltsfoot.

To detect heavy metals, a physicochemical analysis of the tissues of organisms that selectively accumulate various metals is used. For example, plantain selectively accumulates lead and cadmium, while cabbage selectively accumulates mercury.

20. ecology as a scientific basis for rational nature management and nature protection ECOLOGY(from the Greek "oikos" - house, dwelling, residence and ... ology), - the science of the relationship of living organisms and the communities they form with each other and with the environment. The term "ecology" was proposed in 1866 by E. Haeckel. The objects of ecology can be populations of organisms, species, communities, ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole. Since the middle of the XX century. due to the increased negative human impact on nature ecology has acquired a special meaning as a scientific basis for the rational use of natural resources and the protection of living organisms, and the term "ecology" itself has a broader meaning. The subject of ecology research is biological macrosystems (populations, biocenoses, ecosystems) and their dynamics in time and space. From the content and subject of ecology research, its main tasks also follow, which can be reduced to the study of population dynamics, to the study of biogeocenoses and their systems. The structure of biocenoses, at the level of formation of which the development of the environment takes place, contributes to the most economical and complete use of vital resources. Therefore, the main theoretical and practical task of ecology is to reveal the laws of these processes and learn how to manage them in the conditions of the inevitable industrialization and urbanization of the planet. But, according to L. K. Yakhontova and V.P. Zvereva, "... this aspect of ecology cannot be limited, since the concept of habitat implies a complex natural and technical system, not only biological, but no less also geological-mineral and technological-mineral, associated with the results of technological activities of society.Protection of the environment from the consequences of human activity is of paramount importance, and the study of technogenic mineral formation is of particular importance in solving problems of environmental protection in the territories of mining and industrial complexes.Technogenic mineralization is an indisputable indicator of many processes that damage not only the environment environment (increased concentration of toxic substances in waters, salinity of soils, the presence of mineralized solutions in buildings and structures, intense corrosion of metals, etc.), but also the health of people living in ore areas "(Yakhontova L.K., Zvereva V.P. , 2000). From the 70s. 20th century human ecology, or social ecology, is being formed, which studies the patterns of interaction between society and the environment, as well as the practical problems of its protection; includes various philosophical, sociological, economic, geographical, geological and other aspects (for example, urban ecology, technical ecology, environmental ethics, ecology of geological exploration and mining, etc.). In this sense, one speaks of the "greening" of modern science. The ecological direction began to develop in depth in geology (environmental geology).

The main theoretical and practical task of ecology is to reveal the general patterns of the organization of life and, on this basis, to develop principles for the rational use of natural resources in the face of ever-increasing human influence on the biosphere. The ecological situation in the modern world is becoming more and more far from prosperous, which is associated with the exorbitant thirst for consumption of a "civilized" person. The interaction of human society and Nature has become one of the most important problems of our time, since the situation that develops in the relationship between man and nature often becomes critical: fresh water and minerals (oil, gas, non-ferrous metals, etc.) are depleted, the condition of soils is deteriorating, water and air basins, desertification of vast territories is taking place, the fight against diseases and pests of agricultural crops is becoming more complicated. Anthropogenic changes have affected almost all the ecosystems of the planet, the gas composition of the atmosphere, and the energy balance of the Earth. This means that human activity has come into conflict with Nature, as a result of which its dynamic balance has been disturbed in many parts of the world. To solve these global problems and, above all, the problem of intensification and rational use, conservation and reproduction of the resources of the biosphere, ecology combines the efforts of biologists and microbiologists, geologists and geographers in a scientific search, gives evolutionary doctrine, genetics, biochemistry and geochemistry their true universality. The range of environmental problems also includes issues of environmental education and enlightenment, moral, ethical, philosophical and even legal issues. Consequently, ecology becomes from an originally biological science - a complex and social science. The ecological situation in the modern world is becoming more and more far from prosperous, which is associated with the exorbitant thirst for consumption of a "civilized" person. Environmental problems generated by modern social development have given rise to a number of socio-political movements ("Greens", "Greenpeace", "Pan-European Ecological Network" and many others), opposing environmental pollution and for the preservation or restoration of viable natural ecosystems . For the fight against the negative consequences of scientific and technological "progress", which in their totality have become one of the main global threats to humanity and life on Earth.

The structure of biogeocenosis. Biogeocenosis(from Greek. bio- a life, geo- Earth, cenosis- community) - the smallest structural unit of the biosphere, which is an internally homogeneous spatially limited (isolated) natural system of interconnected living organisms and their environment abiotic(non-living, inert) environment. This term was introduced in 1942 by the famous Russian (Soviet) scientist - biologist V.N. Sukachev (1880 - 1967). Biogeocenosis consists of two complex components of different nature: biocenosis and biotope.

Term biocenosis was introduced by the German biologist K. Möbius (1877) and means the totality of living organisms (animals, plants, microorganisms) that exist in a relatively homogeneous habitat area in terms of living conditions. Biocenosis is a complex set consisting of a number of components of wildlife that mutually determine the existence of each other:

1) phytocenosis– communities of plant organisms;

2) zoocenosis– a biocomplex of animal organisms (invertebrates and vertebrates) living in the soil and above ground environment;

3) microbiocenosis(or microbiocenosis) - communities of microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, etc.) living in the soil, in air and water environments.

biotope(or ecotope) is a space occupied by a biocenosis that is relatively homogeneous in its geomorphological, climatic, geochemical and other abiotic properties. A biotope is a combination of two interacting components of inanimate nature:

1) an atmosphere containing atmospheric moisture and biogenic gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) and characterized by such properties as temperature, humidity, pressure, solar radiation, precipitation, etc.;

2) soil cover with subsoil layers of the mainland rock and soil and groundwater.

General characteristics of biogeocenosis. All of the listed components of any biogeocenosis are closely related to each other by the unity and homogeneity of the territory, the circulation of biogenic chemical elements, seasonal changes in climatic conditions, the abundance and mutual fitness of diverse species populations of autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms. Therefore, a biogeocenosis is a combination of different types of living organisms (biocenosis) coexisting within a spatially limited and homogeneous in terms of its abiotic properties area of ​​​​the territory (biotope) and interacting both with each other and with the biotope. One can talk about the biogeocenosis of a birch grove, meadow, etc., but one cannot call a community of bacteria in a dew drop on a blade of grass a biogeocenosis. Each natural biogeocenosis is a complex self-regulating system that has formed as a result of many thousands and millions of years of evolution and has the ability to transform matter and energy according to its structure and dynamics. Through self-organization, such a system is able to withstand both environmental changes and sharp changes in the number of certain organisms that make up the biocenosis. The basis of biogeocenosis is green plants, which, as you know, are producers of organic matter. Since herbivorous organisms (animals, microorganisms) that consume organic matter are necessarily present in the biogeocenosis, it is not difficult to guess why plants are the main link in the biogeocenosis: it is clear that if plants, the main source of organic matter, disappear, then life in the biogeocenosis will practically cease.

Cycle of substances in biogeocenosis. The circulation of substances is one of the necessary conditions for the existence of life. It arose in the process of the formation of life on Earth and became more complicated in the course of the evolution of living nature. Without the circulation of substances in any biogeocenosis, all stocks of inorganic compounds would very soon run out, since they would cease to be renewed in the course of the life of organisms.

In order for the circulation of substances in a biogeocenosis to be possible, it is necessary to have two types of organisms in it: 1) creating organic substances from inorganic ones, 2) using these organic substances to ensure their vital activity and again turning them into inorganic compounds. As a result of respiration, decomposition of animal corpses and plant residues, organic substances are converted into inorganic compounds, which are returned back to the natural environment and can again be used by plants in the process of photosynthesis. Consequently, plants that use and store converted solar energy play a cardinal role in the circulation of substances in biogeocenosis.

Thus, in the biogeocenosis, as a result of the vital activity of organisms, there is a continuous flow of atoms from inanimate nature to living nature and vice versa, closing in a cycle. The source of energy necessary to create the circulation of substances in the biogeocenosis is the Sun. The movement of matter caused by the activity of organisms occurs cyclically, it can be used repeatedly, while the flow of energy in this process is unidirectional. Therefore, it is unlawful to identify the circulation of matter in biogeocenosis with the circulation of energy.

Biogeocenosis is a concept that combines three bases: "bios" (life), "geo" (earth) and "koinos" (general). Based on this, the word “biogeocenosis” means a specific developing system in which living organisms and objects of inanimate nature constantly interact. They are links in the same food chain and are united by the same energy flows. This concerns, first of all, the place of contact between animate and inanimate nature. For the first time, V.N. Sukachev, famous Soviet scientist and thinker. In 1940, he deciphered this concept in one of his articles, and this term began to be widely used in domestic science.

Biogeocenosis and ecosystem

The concept of "biogeocenosis" is a term that is used only by Russian scientists and their colleagues from the CIS countries. In the West, there is an analogue of the term, the author of which is the English botanist A. Tensley. He introduced the word "ecosystem" into scientific circulation in 1935, and by the early 1940s it had already become generally accepted and discussed. At the same time, the concept of "ecosystem" has a broader meaning than "biogeocenosis". To some extent, we can say that biogeocenosis is a class of an ecosystem. So what is an ecosystem? This is a combination of all types of organisms and their habitat into one single system that is in balance and harmony, lives and develops according to its own laws and principles. At the same time, the ecosystem, unlike biogeocenosis, is not limited to a piece of land. Therefore, biogeocenosis is part of the ecosystem, but not vice versa. An ecosystem can contain several types of biogeocenosis at once. Let's say that the ecosystem of the belt includes the biogeocenosis of the mainland and the biogeocenosis of the ocean.

The structure of biogeocenosis

The structure of biogeocenosis is a very broad concept, which is devoid of certain indicators. This is explained by the fact that it is based on a variety of organisms, populations, objects of the surrounding world, which can be divided into biotic (living organisms) and abiotic (environment) components.

The abiotic part also consists of several groups:

• inorganic compounds and substances (oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, water, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide);
• organic compounds that serve as food for organisms of the biotic group;
• climate and microclimate, which determines the living conditions for all systems that are in it.

Biogeocenosis (ecosystem) is the most important element of the biosphere, the main functional element. An ecosystem includes all the organisms that live in a given area. The interaction of the biotic community with the environment forms biotic structures, the circulation of matter between the living and non-living parts of the ecosystem. The concept of biogeocenosis arose in the 30s of the XX century. The English geobotanist Tansley defined biogeocenosis as an integral formation in the biosphere, in which organisms and inorganic factors act as components in a relatively stable state.[ ...]

BIOGEOCENOSIS - a homogeneous ecological system (a plot of forest, meadow, steppe). A homogeneous area of ​​the agroecosystem is called agrobiogeocenosis.[ ...]

The biogeocenoses of the globe form a biogeocenotic cover, which is studied by biogeocenology. This science was founded by the outstanding Russian scientist V. N. Sukachev. The totality of all the biogeocenoses of our planet creates a giant ecosystem - the biosphere. Biogeocenoses can form on any part of the earth's surface - on land and on water. They are steppe, marsh, meadow, etc. Hybrobiocenoses are of great importance in the functioning of the biosphere. Areas of the earth's surface covered with cultivated plants are called agrophytocenoses.[ ...]

Biogeocenoses are extremely diverse and saturated with living organisms to varying degrees. Accordingly, the rate of the biotic cycle and, consequently, its productivity differ markedly. In aquatic ecosystems, the cycle is faster than in terrestrial ones; in tropical zones, its speed and productivity are higher than in the Arctic.[ ...]

BIOGEOCENOSIS - includes biocenosis and biotope (ecotope). Biocenosis is a collection of plants, animals, microorganisms inhabiting a certain biotope.[ ...]

Terrestrial and aquatic biogeocenoses (all continents, seas and oceans) form the biosphere, which is a general terrestrial (global) ecological system. The biosphere is studied by global ecology.[ ...]

Biogeocenosis is a complex natural system, a set of homogeneous natural conditions (atmosphere, rocks, soil and hydrological conditions, vegetation, wildlife and the world of microorganisms), which has its own specifics of the interaction of its components and a certain type of exchange of matter and energy.[ ...]

Biogeocenosis consists of four categories of interacting terms: producers, consumers, decomposers and inanimate bodies.[ ...]

Each biogeocenosis is characterized by species diversity, population size and density of each species, biomass and productivity. The number is determined by the livestock of animals or the number of plants in a given territory (river basin, sea area, etc.). This is a measure of the abundance of a population. Density is characterized by the number of individuals per unit area. For example, 800 trees per 1.ha of forest or the number of people per 1 km2. Primary productivity is the increase in plant biomass per unit of time per unit area. Secondary productivity is the biomass formed by heterotrophic organisms per unit of time per unit area. Biomass is the total set of plant and animal organisms present in the biogeocenosis at the time of observation.[ ...]

Each biogeocenosis, when climatic or other conditions change (forest fire, human economic activity, etc.), can naturally change its communities, that is, a biogeocenosis more adapted to new conditions develops in its place. The change of biogeocenoses is called succession, that is, a directed and continuous sequence of the appearance and disappearance of populations of different species in a given biotope, which occurs in the direction from less resistant to more resistant.[ ...]

EVOLUTION OF BIOGEOCOENOSIS (ecosystem) - the process of continuous, simultaneous and interrelated changes in species and their relationships, the introduction of new species into the ecosystem and the loss of some species that were previously included in it, the cumulative impact of the ecosystem on the substrate and other abiotic ecological components and the reverse influence of these components to the living components of the ecosystem. In the course of evolution, biogeocenoses adapt to changes in the planet's ecosphere and emerging regional features of its parts (shifts in geographic zoning, etc.).[ ...]

The succession of biogeocenosis is actually the succession of food chains and fundamental ecological niches, i.e., regimes and composition of linked factors. Therefore, the above examples are simplified. In real conditions, everything is much more complicated, and when managing biogeocenoses, this linkage of factors should be taken into account. A characteristic example of the neglect of the doctrine of a fundamental ecological niche is the use of arboricides in forests, carried out on a large scale in order to eliminate "weedy" hardwoods that "compete" with valuable conifers for light and mineral nutrition. Now the use of arboricides in forests on a massive scale has been discontinued. However, in a number of cases, after the destruction of hardwoods, pine and spruce not only do not grow, but even those trees that were before processing die from pests and diseases (new limiting factors). The reason is clear: light and mineral nutrition are just a few of the countless environmental factors that form a fundamental niche. Clarification turns out to be favorable for many insects; the disappearance of the deciduous canopy contributes to the unimpeded spread of fungal infections among the remaining conifers. The flow of organic matter into the soil stops, and in addition, the soil is unprotected by the canopy of hardwood from water erosion, and its still weak humus horizon is washed away.[ ...]

The ability of biogeocenoses after various destructions to provide a certain course of restoration successions and the course of growth of forest stands with target parameters is called the stability of the ecosystem trajectory, and the stability of forest stands in the broad sense of the word is the ability to provide high primary net production at any age, despite random adverse changes in environmental factors.[ ...]

The fauna of biogeocenoses is diverse. It consists of protozoa, sponges, coelenterates, worms, arthropods, birds, mammals, etc. Animals inhabit the terrestrial part of terrestrial BGCs, soil, and aquatic ecosystems.[ ...]

The stability of biogeocenosis in a wide range of external conditions, i.e., a change in environmental pollution within the possible limits should not lead to the destruction of the ecosystem. At present, a large number of ecosystems are not stable due to transcendent anthropogenic impacts, in which only two conditionally positive features can be seen: they gave us the opportunity to increase material wealth and they also brought to life an “environmental boom”.[ ...]

It is advisable to evaluate the change in forest biogeocenoses in connection with felling by the tree, biological, ecological and complex productivity of the forest (according to I.S. Melekhov).[ ...]

The internal heterogeneity of the biogeocenosis is associated with the features of the meso- and microrelief, which affects the structure of the soil, the dynamics of humidity, temperature, and illumination. Therefore, plants within the biogeocenosis (or synusia) can grow in groups and at the same time alternate with more or less open glades (for example, due to "windows" in the canopy of tall trees). In such cases, they speak of the parcelling of the biogeocenosis (from the French parcelle - cell).[ ...]

In the artificial environment of a farm biogeocenosis, a biocenosis is formed that is different from the indigenous, natural one. The main component of the biocenosis is the population of agricultural mammals and birds. As dominant edificators, farm animals largely determine the microclimate (zooclimate) in the livestock building and, thus, indirectly affect the formation and development of the farm biocenosis. The flora of the biocenosis is mainly composed of different types of microflora, sometimes pathogenic (pathogenic) for animals (“shed microflora”). The fauna of the community can be represented by different types of animals. Some of them are pathogens (for example, pathogenic helminths) and carriers of contagious diseases of farm animals (for example, pigeons, mice, rats).[ ...]

Ecologists also use the term "biogeocenosis", proposed by the Soviet botanist V. N. Sukachev. This term refers to the totality of plants, animals, microorganisms, soil and atmosphere on a homogeneous land area. Biogeocenosis is synonymous with ecosystem.[ ...]

The terms "ecological system" and "biogeocenosis" are not synonymous. An ecological system is any combination of organisms and their environment. So, as an ecosystem, one can consider, for example, a flower pot, a terrarium, a phytotron, a manned spacecraft. All of the named sets of organisms and the environment lack a number of features given in the definition of V. N. Sukachev, and first of all, the element "geo" - the Earth. Biogeocenoses are natural formations. At the same time, biogeocenosis can also be considered as an ecological system. Thus, the concept of "ecosystem" is broader than "biogeocenosis". Any biogeocenosis is an ecological system, but not every ecological system is a biogeocenosis. In addition, the totality of organisms in such ecosystems is not a population. Hence a more precise definition: an ecosystem is a collection of living organisms and their environment.[ ...]

The terms "ecological system" and "biogeocenosis" are not synonymous. An ecosystem is any combination of organisms and their habitat, including, for example, a flower pot, an anthill, an aquarium, a swamp, a manned spacecraft. The listed systems lack a number of features from the definition of V. N. Sukachev, and first of all, the “geo” element - the Earth. Biocenoses are only natural formations. However, the biocenosis can be fully considered as an ecosystem. Thus, the concept of "ecosystem" is broader and fully covers the concept of "biogeocenosis" or "biogeocenosis" - a special case of "ecosystem".[ ...]

Thus, if we take into account that the “core” of biogeocenosis is the soil cover with special properties and functions of its constituent soils, manifested in their fertility, as well as its ability to produce organic mass, it becomes obvious that the soil cover is the main lever of ecosystem evolution. In other words, soil fertility, to a certain extent, becomes an important criterion for assessing the evolution of soils and is an integral function of all biogeocenotic, as well as, in our opinion, II agrocenotic functions.[ ...]

Changes in the biosphere and its elementary units of biogeocenoses have accelerated sharply since the Anthropogen. Humanity has become a powerful force that changes the nature of the Earth, its biogeocenoses. Biogeocenoses are natural, natural (natural biogeocenoses) and anthropogenic (cultural, artificial). There are very few natural complexes that have not been altered by man on Earth. Anthropogenic called biogeocenoses, transformed by human activities or created by him. Examples of such BGCs are forest plantations, fields and cultivated pastures, livestock farms and complexes, aquariums, ponds and reservoirs. Human settlements are also referred to anthropogenic biogeocenoses: farms, villages, villages and other settlements.[ ...]

Secondly, the population, being a structural unit of the biogeocenosis (ecosystem), performs one of its main functions, namely, it participates in the biological cycle. In this case, a species-specific feature of the type of metabolism is realized. A population represents a species in an ecosystem, and all interspecific relationships are carried out in it at the population level. Sustainable implementation of the function of participation in biogenic processes is determined by specific autoregulation mechanisms that create the conditions for self-maintenance of the population as a system in changing internal and external environmental factors.[ ...]

Organisms inhabit the biosphere and are not included in one or another biogeocenosis in any combination, but form a certain community of species adapted to cohabitation. Groups of cohabiting and interconnected species in biogeocenoses are called biocenoses. The total number of species in biocenoses reaches many tens and hundreds. The members of the biocenosis are similar in their relation to abiotic environmental factors. The place where they live is called an ecotope. Each species within the biocenosis occupies the position that meets its vital needs. Therefore, the position of a species in space, its functioning role in the biocenosis, its relationships with other species and its relationship to biotopes determine the ecological niche of the species.[ ...]

In 1944 V.N. Sukachev proposed the term "biogeocenosis", which is not a complete synonym for the ecosystem. So, in a number of works, biogeocenosis is understood as a community of plants, animals, microorganisms in a certain area of ​​the earth's surface with its microclimate, geological structure, landscape, soil, and water regime. Thus, the ecosystem concept is broader, since biogeocenosis is only a terrestrial formation with certain boundaries (Fig. 38).[ ...]

According to the theory of V. N. Sukachev, the creator of biogeocenology (the science of biogeocenoses), biogeocenoses consist of two main components - a biocenosis (community of organisms) and an ecotope (inert environment). The composition of the biocenosis includes plants that form a plant community (phytocenosis), animals and microorganisms. The environment in which organisms live (ecotope) is determined by climate conditions, hydrology, parent rock, and soil. There are complex relationships between organisms and their environment in biogeocenoses (Fig. 64). Biogeocenoses are sometimes called ecosystems.[ ...]

A small cycle, being part of a large one, occurs at the level of biogeocenosis and consists in the fact that the nutrients of soil, water, air are accumulated in plants, spent on creating their mass and life processes in them. The decay products of organic matter under the influence of bacteria again decompose to mineral components available to plants, and they are involved in the flow of matter.[ ...]

Scheme 2.3 shows the main elements and relationships between models of biogeocenosis, as well as the relationship of this model with a model of a higher ecological level - an economic region. The main elements of the biogeocenosis model include: decomposers (fauna, soils), forest (plant community), consumers (consumers of plant biomass), inorganic substances in the soil and atmosphere (water, oxygen, nitrogen, etc.) used in the process of life of plants.[ ...]

Species of living organisms provide sustainable maintenance of the biogenic cycle in the biogeocenosis at the population level. Populations have been studied for a long time, and by now there is a certain understanding of the features of their functioning. A population is understood as a historically established natural community of individuals of living organisms of the same species, genetically related, inhabiting common habitats and realizing regular functional interactions.[ ...]

Despite the high protective properties of the soil, especially its organic component, the resistance of soils and biogeocenoses to chemical pollution is not unlimited. In extreme cases, the technogenic impact leads to such a profound change in the properties of the soil and biota that the normal functioning of the biogeocenosis becomes possible only after the complete reclamation of the soil or the creation of a new soil layer. The strategy for the protection of the biosphere from chemical pollutants currently involves such measures as the proper storage of toxic waste from various industries, the reduction of emissions of harmful substances into the environment, the creation of low-waste and waste-free technologies, strict control over the use of pesticides and herbicides, other chemicals, reasonable, environmentally optimal use of mineral and organic fertilizers.[ ...]

Vitality is a property that characterizes the actual indicators of the ecological protection of an ecosystem and manifests itself in the ability of landscape biogeocenoses to self-repair.[ ...]

The accuracy of measurements in industrial ecosystems acts as an objective measure of properties assessment in relation to both technogenesis and anthropogenic changes in natural landscape biogeocenoses.[ ...]

Real technogenic loads on the components of the geospheres during the construction of industrial or civil facilities form the potential levels of anthropogenic changes in the biogeocenoses of the regional landscape. From this point of view, the task of optimizing structural-rational restrictions on the construction process from the point of view of minimal impact on the natural landscape and further providing the necessary initial control and technological prerequisites (in relation to the functioning of the construction complex) to maintain the ecological balance in the region acquires an extremely important scientific and methodological significance.[ .. .]

Modern biologists (for example, N. F. Reimers) reasonably believe that this law, formulated for non-living systems, is also valid for natural, including ecological, systems. This is understandable: any natural system from a cell to a biogeocenosis is a physicochemical system. We will also meet with the manifestation of this principle when considering other dynamic processes in ecosystems.[ ...]

Comparing the structure of various natural units studied by scientists of different profiles, one can see that they consist of a different number of basic components. Phytocenosis consists only of community plants, biocenosis - from phytocenosis and zoocenosis, biogeocenosis - from phytocenosis, zoocenosis, water and atmosphere. The natural territorial complex, according to Solntsev, is a complete natural unity and is composed of all five main components of nature, that is, in addition to the atmosphere, water, plants and animals, it includes a lithogenic base, under the leading influence of which it develops. So H.A. Solntsev called PTK "full" unities, in contrast to "private" ones, which include only a part of the components of nature.[ ...]

One of the most important properties of biogeocenosis is the interconnection and interdependence of all its components. It is quite clear that the climate completely determines the state and regime of soil factors, creates a habitat for living organisms. In turn, the soil to some extent determines climatic features (for example, its reflectivity - albedo, and hence warming, air humidity) depends on the color of the soil surface, and also affects animals, plants and microorganisms. All living organisms are closely related to each other, being for each other either a source of food, or a habitat, or factors of mortality. Particularly important is the role of microorganisms (primarily bacteria) in the processes of soil formation, mineralization of organic substances and often acting as pathogens of diseases of plants and animals.[ ...]

At the regional level (in particular, at the stage of reforestation), the scheme of formation of felling types in connection with the initial forest types and the scheme of staged changes in vegetation cover after felling are of great importance. The more productive, complex and richer the forest biogeocenosis and, consequently, the stronger and more diverse its internal connections, the wider the range of qualitative changes in the ecosystem in connection with felling. With an increase in the productivity (bonitet) of the forest, the number of types of felling in the place of the same type of forest increases (Melekhov, 1989).[ ...]

In the vicinity of the plant, a mole colony was found at a distance of 16 km from the emission center, voles were caught no closer than 7–8 km, and shrews at 3–4 km. Moreover, at these distances from the plant, animals do not live permanently, but only temporarily enter. This means that biogeocenosis, with an increase in anthropogenic load, is simplified primarily due to the loss or sharp reduction of consumers (see Fig. 4) and the carbon (and other elements) cycle scheme becomes two-term: producers recedepts.[ ...]

The main function of the soil is to provide life on Earth. This is determined by the fact that it is in the soil that the biogenic elements necessary for organisms are concentrated in the forms of chemical compounds available to them. In addition, the soil has the ability to accumulate the water reserves necessary for the life of the producers of biogeocenoses, also in a form accessible to them, evenly providing them with water throughout the entire growing season. Finally, the soil serves as an optimal environment for the rooting of terrestrial plants, the habitat of numerous invertebrates and vertebrates, and various microorganisms. Actually, this function defines the concept of "soil fertility".[ ...]

Singling out the biocenosis as an independent object of study, one should not forget about the conditionality of such an isolation of a part from the natural whole, since a community of plants and animals cannot exist without an environment, that is, inanimate nature. Biocenosis with its habitat forms a natural complex - biogeocenosis (BGC). Examples of biogeocenoses: forest - forest biogeocenosis, i.e. forest plants, animals, microorganisms, soil, water, air, etc.; the lake in its entirety is a lake biogeocenosis.[ ...]

The components of the biocenosis and their abiotic environment are so closely interconnected that they form a unity, for which A.G. Tensley in 1935 proposed the term "ecosystem"; in modern ecology, the corresponding section is called the doctrine of ecosystems. In Russian and German literature, the concept of biogeocenosis, introduced by V.N. Sukachev. Biogeocenosis is the unity of a biocenosis and a biotope confined to a certain area of ​​the earth's surface, while an ecosystem is a broader concept.[ ...]

Radiation ecology is a section of general ecology that studies the relationships in the system "radioactive substance - radiation - a living organism", radiation of natural and artificial origin, the contribution of radioactivity to the overall effect of ionizing radiation on living organisms, migration routes and areas of concentrations of radioactive substances in the biosphere, their influence on the biogeocenosis and evolution of living organisms, the consequences of the use of nuclear energy and radioactive biotechnologies.[ ...]

The first 2 types of ecological pyramids in aquatic systems can be inverted due to the violation of the scale and rate of formation of phyto- and zooplankton. Pyramids of energy are not inverted. Almost all animal species use multiple food sources, so if one member of the ecosystem falls out, the whole system is not disturbed. The most important factor regulating the number of populations in biogeocenosis is food resources. The population usually has as many individuals as they can feed on the occupied territory. The structure of biogeocenoses is formed in the process of evolution, which leads to the fact that each species occupies a certain niche in the ecosystem, i.e. the location of this species in space and in the food chain.[ ...]

The volume of integrated forest productivity is expanding more and more in the theoretical and practical sense. This is due to scientific and technological progress, expanding the scope of the multi-purpose use of the forest. However, the multilateral significance of the forest does not exclude its targeted use in certain, relatively narrow specialized areas. Moreover, scientific disclosures of various components of the forest biogeocenosis and the specific needs of certain industries expand the possibilities for the effective targeted use of individual forest components in their original or transformed form.