Rhyme as a regular consonance of the endings of a verse appeared relatively late. In European literature, this happened in the High Middle Ages (the German epic "Song of Ludwig", 9th century, the poetry of the troubadours in France and the minnesingers in Germany, the 12th century), in Russia - at the beginning of the 17th century in presyllabic verses (see section " Tonic versification", heavenly verse). In Latin and Romanesque medieval poetry, rhyme, as an additional rhythmic means of organizing verse, developed from ancient oratory prose, where it was an important stylistic figure, expressed in the similarity of the endings of commensurate segments of speech. Further, rhyme spread into Germanic and Slavic literatures along with the syllabic system of versification.

Rhymes, like clauses, are divided into masculine, feminine, dactylic and hyperdactylic. Accordingly, in male rhymes the stress falls on the first syllable from the end (deeds - was, ran in - trembled). AT feminine rhymes the stress falls on the second syllable from the end (right - glory, light - poet). AT dactylic rhymes to the third syllable from the end (free - folk, opportunities - caution). In very rare hyperdactylic rhymes the stress is on the fourth syllable from the end and on (twisted - lost, fettering - charming).

Along with traditional rhyming, poets of the 20th century widely use rhyming of various types of clauses: masculine and dactylic (they beat the forehead on the door - I wouldn’t believe it), dactylic and hyperdactylic (to part with them - encrustations), female with dactylic (have fun - counterintelligence officer).

The purpose of any rhyme is to combine verses in pairs or more. Sometimes a single rhyme combines all or several stanzas (monorhyme). Usually in poetry, monorhyme was used for satirical purposes. An example is the ironic verses of A. Apukhtin "When you, children, are students ...". But S. Kulish in his poem "The Boy and the Mouse" uses a monorhyme to create a tragic image of a German concentration camp:

boy and mouse

The mouse is silent

The mouse is shshsh

delusional baby

Rustle into the distance of roofs

Towers along the roofs

Gray mouse

Prison silence ... shh ...

Usually, when they talk about rhyme, they mean the end consonances of verses. But the rhyme can be elementary, and internal. As a rule, these consonances are irregular and arise unpredictably in the environment of other poems, as, for example, in the poem "Oz" by A. Voznesensky, an ironic paraphrase of the famous "Crow" by E. Poe, where in one line of poetry there is a rhyme initial, internal and final:

Oz. Is it a rose, a bitch -

How boring are metamorphoses,

In the box sooner or later...

However, there are poems in which the initial and internal rhymes occur regularly in the same position of the verse. In such cases, the functions of these rhymes should be considered on a par with ordinary, terminal rhymes. A similar technique was used by V. Benediktov in his translation of A. Mickiewicz's ballad "Ambush":

From the gazebo of the garden voivode, stern,

Breathless, he ran into his castle.

Here is his wife's bed. He pulled the curtain: what is it?

The bed is empty - and the pan trembled.

Depending on the consonance of vowels and consonants, rhymes are divided into accurate and imprecise(the criterion here is not letters, but sounds). If the vowels and consonants that form rhyming endings basically coincide, then the rhyme will be accurate (vine - thunderstorm, marvel - happily). If consonant consonants before the stressed syllable are added to such an exact rhyme, then it will be called supporting or rich(frosts - roses, threads - sorry), and if one more syllable or more is consonant before the last stressed syllable, then such an exact rhyme will be called deep(swan - single, on foot - bag).

There are many deviations from the exact rhymes. We refer them to imprecise rhymes. A special kind of inexact rhymes are truncated rhymes that could become accurate if one of the rhyming words had a part of the ending missing from the other (undressing - giving, Antibukashkin - blotting papers). Widely used truncated rhymes V. Mayakovsky: strengths - a textile worker, a beehive - coolies, eagles - parliament, stage - will appreciate. There were no "forbidden" truncations for him.

The group of inexact rhymes also includes assonant and dissonant rhymes. Assonances(French assonance- consonance, from lat. assono- I respond) - these are rhymes where stressed vowels coincide and consonants do not coincide: hand - back - order - sovereign. This type of rhyme was common in medieval Romano-Germanic poetry ("The Song of Roland", Spanish romances). AT dissonant rhymes (French) dissonance- dissonance), on the contrary, consonants coincide, and stressed vowels do not coincide: mosques - mosque, saga - god, Marta - myrtle. Dissonant rhymes were sometimes used by I. Severyanin, A. Blok, V. Bryusov, but both dissonances and assonances were not widely used in Russian poetry.

Service parts of speech tend to form composite rhymes, adjoining significant words: where - less often, if only - estates, vanity - not the same. A compound rhyme can also be made up of only significant parts of speech: a toady is not bad for them, it's time for me - with axes, in a trap I'm deserted.

The characteristic of different types of rhymes is related to the way of rhyming. The most common rhyming methods are adjacent, cross and annular.

With adjacent rhyming, adjacent verses rhyme - the first with the second, the third with the fourth, etc.:

The mermaid floated on the blue river, (a)

Illuminated by the full moon; (a)

And she tried to splash to the moon (b)

Silvery foam waves. (b)

(M. Lermontov)

Adjacent rhyming scheme: aabb (rhyming word endings are indicated by the same letters).

cross rhyming suggests the final consonance of the first verse with the third, the second with the fourth:

The fields are compressed, the groves are bare, (a)

Fog and damp from the water. (b)

Wheel behind the blue mountains (a)

The sun went down quietly. (b)

(S. Yesenin)

Annular called rhyming, in which the first verse rhymes with the fourth, and the second with the third:

How the ocean embraces the globe, (a)

Earthly life is surrounded by dreams; (b)

Night will come - and sonorous waves (b)

The element hits its shore. (a)

(F. Tyutchev)

In poetry, rhymes that are repeated three times and many times in a variety of combinations and variants are also used. From combinations of paired, cross and ring rhymes, more complex rhyme configurations are formed, but this already relates to the problems of strophic and is considered in the next paragraph.

Being mastered by Russian poetry at the beginning of the 17th century, rhyme became one of the main features of a poetic text. And meanwhile, already in the era of the dominance of rhymed verse, experiments were made from time to time unrhymed verse(Anacreontics by A. Kantemir, Tilemakhida by V. Trediakovsky, poetry by N. Karamzin). Starting from the 19th century, such experiments in the field of unrhymed verse became quite regular, and Russian poetry was enriched with such wonderful masterpieces as translations of the Homeric epic by N. Gnedich and V. Zhukovsky, "Boris Godunov" by A. Pushkin, "Song about ... the merchant Kalashnikov " M. Lermontov, "Who should live well in Russia" by N. Nekrasov, etc. The unrhymed verse began to be combined with the rhymed one.

This form of interpenetration could be very different. For example, the poetic text included idle verse(i.e., a verse that does not have a rhyming pair). Take, for example, Nekrasov's very famous poem "In Memory of Dobrolyubov", where the final line does not have a rhyming pair, which creates the illusion of incompleteness of the poem. Meanwhile, this is a conscious device of the poet, emphasizing and emotionally intensifying the moment that Dobrolyubov's life died out too early.

You did not give birth to such a son

And she did not take her back into the depths;

Treasures of spiritual beauty

They were graciously combined in it ...

Mother nature! when such people

You sometimes did not send to the world,

The field of life would have died out ...

Poets also used insertions into a verse rhyming text in the form of expanded passages of a non-rhyming verse (for example, the 18-line song of the girls in "Eugene Onegin"). The poets resorted to the reception "semi-rhymes". As an example, here is the famous song to the words of A. Merzlyakov "Among the flat valley ...", where the author rhymed in each quatrain only the second and fourth verses, and the first and third do not have a rhyming pair.

Gradually, white verse (as unrhymed verse is usually called) gains its own space in poetry, and in a number of lyrical samples it is already presented in a completely pure form. White verse penetrates into the elegy ("I visited again ..." A. Pushkin), then it is fixed in lyrical free verse free verse(French vers libre) - a verse that does not have a meter and rhyme and differs from prose only in the presence of a given division into verse segments. Classical examples of vers libre can be found in A. Blok ("She Came from the Frost..."), M. Kuzmin ("Alexandrian Songs" cycle), V. Soloukhin, E. Vinokurov developed vers libre. Here is an example from "Alexandrian Songs" by M. Kuzmin:

When they say to me: "Alexandria",

I see the white walls of the house,

a small garden with a bed of levkoy,

pale autumn sun

and hear the sounds of distant flutes.

More about schemes...

RHYME - the order of alternation of rhymes in a verse. Basic ways of rhyming:

1. Adjacent rhyme "AABB".

So that a comrade carries friendship through the waves, -
We are a crust of bread - and that in half!
If the wind is an avalanche, and the song is an avalanche,
Half for you and half for me!
(A. Prokofiev)

2. Cross rhyming "ABAB".

Oh, there are unique words
Who said them - spent too much
Only blue is inexhaustible
Heavenly and mercy of God.
(A. Akhmatova)

3. Ring rhyme
(covering, encircling) "ABBA"

The hops on the tyne are already drying up.
Behind the farms, on the melons,
In the soft sunshine
Bronze melons turn red ...
(A. Bunin)

4. Idle rhyme "ABCB".
The first and third verses do not rhyme.

The grass is green
The sun is shining
Swallow with spring
It flies to us in the canopy.
(A.N. Pleshcheev)

6. Mixed rhyme (free) - a way of alternating and mutual arrangement of rhymes in complex stanzas. The most famous forms are: octave, sonnet, rondo, tercine, triolet, limerick, etc.
Mixed rhyming example:

Does the beast roar in the deaf forest,
Does the horn blow, does the thunder rumble,
Does the maiden sing beyond the hill -
For every sound
Your response in the empty air
You suddenly give birth.
(A.S. Pushkin)

TERZINA - a series of three lines with rhyming ABA BCB CDC ... ("Divine Comedy" by Dante).

Having passed half of earthly life,
I found myself in a dark forest
Having lost the right path in the darkness of the valley.

What was he, oh, how to pronounce,
That wild forest, dense and threatening,
Whose old horror I carry in my memory!

He is so bitter that death is almost sweeter.
But, having found good in it forever,
I will tell about everything that I saw in this more often ...
(A. Dante)

LIMERICK - a five-line anapaest with the rhyme AABBA. In limericks, verses 3 and 4 have fewer stops than verses 1, 2 and 5.

Once upon a time there was an old man at the pier,
Whose life was depressing.
They gave him a salad
And they played the sonata
And he felt a little better.
(E. Lear)

TRIOLET - an eight-line rhyme ABAA ABAB, where verses A and B are repeated as refrains.

Oh, youth, my swift,
One big delusion!
You flashed like a vision
And I'm left with regret
And the later wisdom of the serpent.
You flashed like a vision -
Oh, my youth is swift!
(K. Balmont)

MONORIM - a verse built on one rhyme - monorhyme (AAAA, AA-BB-SS ...), rare in European poetry, but widespread in classical poetry of the Near and Middle East. Monorims include: ghazal, qasida, mesnevi, fard... Example of fard:

Then only a word to put your debt into action,
When you are sure that there will be a sense.
(Saadi)

RUBAI - rhyming in oriental poetry according to the AABA scheme.

In the cradle - a baby, a dead man in a coffin:
That's all that is known about our fate.
Drink the cup to the bottom and do not ask much:
The master will not reveal a secret to a slave.
(Omar Khayyam)

PANTORIFMA (pantorim) - a verse in which all words rhyme with each other.

Bold running intoxicates
Whipping white snow
The noise cuts the silence
Nezhat thoughts about spring.
(V. Bryusov)

Rhyming 4 + 4 ("square rhyming") - rhyming of two quatrains according to the scheme: ABCD ABCD

And then summer said goodbye
With a station. Taking off your hat
One hundred blinding photographs -
At night I took away the memory of thunder.

The brush of lilac froze. In it
Time he, having picked up an armful
Lightning, from the field they trafil
Light up the management house.
(B.L. Pasternak)

Rhyming 3 + 3 ("triangular rhyming") - rhyming of two three-line rhymes with each other according to the ABC ABC scheme.

And then I dreamed of mountains -
In white robes
rebellious peaks,

And crystal lakes
At the foot of the giants
And desert valleys...
(V. Nevsky)

rhyme- the order of alternation of rhymes in a verse. Basic ways of rhyming:

1.Adjacent rhyme "AABB".

So that a comrade carries friendship through the waves, -
We are a crust of bread - and that in half!
If the wind is an avalanche, and the song is an avalanche,
Half for you and half for me!
(A. Prokofiev)
2. Cross rhyming "ABAB".

Oh, there are unique words
Who said them - spent too much
Only blue is inexhaustible
Heavenly and mercy of God.
(A. Akhmatova)

3. ring rhyme
(covering, encircling) "ABBA"

The hops on the tyne are already drying up.
Behind the farms, on the melons,
In the soft sunshine
Bronze melons turn red ...
(A. Bunin)
4. Single rhyme "ABCB".
The first and third verses do not rhyme.

The grass is green
The sun is shining
Swallow with spring
It flies to us in the canopy.
(A.N. Pleshcheev)

5. Mixed rhyme (free) - a way of alternating and mutual arrangement of rhymes in complex stanzas. The most famous forms are: octave, sonnet, rondo, tercine, triolet, limerick, etc.
Mixed rhyming example:

Does the beast roar in the deaf forest,
Does the horn blow, does the thunder rumble,
Does the maiden sing beyond the hill -
For every sound
Your response in the empty air
You suddenly give birth.
(A.S. Pushkin)

Stanza- A group of poetic lines (poems), connected by a common rhyming system and, as a rule, a single intonation. In Russian versification, such types of stanzas as couplet, quatrain (quatrain), sextine, octave, etc. are used.

A special strophic formation is the "Onegin stanza".
The sources of the "Onegin stanza" are a sonnet and an octave using iambic tetrameter, and the stanza always begins with a line with a feminine ending, and ends with a masculine one; the stanza has a regular alternation of masculine and feminine rhymes.

Such a stanza made it possible to develop a free narrative, including various compositional elements, it is easy to change the emotional tone, and the last couplet often contained a conclusion or aphorism (" So people - I'm the first to repent - // There's nothing to do friends"; "The spring of honor is our idol, // And this is what the world revolves on!").

Tercet - A poetic stanza consisting of three verses (poetic lines) that rhyme with each other or with the corresponding verses of the subsequent tercet; for example, the final two stanzas of "Sonnet" by A. S. Pushkin, as well as the two final stanzas of "Sonnet to Form" by V. Ya. Bryusov, are tercetes:

...And I want all my dreams,
Reached to the word and to the light.
Found the traits you want.
Let my friend, having cut the volume of the poet,
Get drunk in it and the harmony of the sonnet
And letters of calm beauty!

Terza rima- A poetic stanza in which the first verse (poetic line) rhymes with the third, and the second with the first and third verses of the second stanza, the second verse of the second stanza rhymes with the first and third verses of the third stanza, etc. (that is, the scheme is as follows: aba, bcb, cdc, etc.). Dante's "Divine Comedy", A. K. Tolstoy's poem "Dragon", "The Song of Hell" by A. A. Blok were written in tercines.

Dolnik(previously used the term spider) - a type of tonic verse, where only the number of stressed syllables matches in the lines, and the number of unstressed syllables between them ranges from 2 to 0.

The general formula X Ú X Ú X Ú, etc. (Ú - stressed syllables, X - unstressed; the value of X is variable; X = 0, 1, 2). Depending on the number of stresses in a line, two-strike doler, three-shock, four-shock, etc. are distinguished. This type of verse is typical for languages ​​with tonic versification and is very common in English, Russian, and German poetry. One can distinguish a number of modifications of the dolnik, depending on the number of stresses in a line (some modifications of the dolnik do not retain an equal number of stresses, for example, many of Mayakovsky's poems), on the degree of variation in the number of unstressed syllables between stressed ones, etc.

If lines with an inter-stroke interval of 3 are allowed, they talk about a tactician, if 4 or more - about an accent verse.

In Russian poetry, dolnik is a very old verse form. In its structure, it undoubtedly goes back to folk verse, which - with the exception of its musical side - basically fits the tactician formula, and many lines fit into the rhythm of the dolnik (it was from folk verse that he argued theoretically ("Experience on Russian versification", 1812) and practically (“Rivers”, translated from Confucius and others) of the East, who defended the introduction of dolnik into Russian poetry). In a certain sense, the three-syllable sizes of the syllabic-tonic versification are also close to the dolnik, in which the scheme number of unstressed between the shocks was not respected in some cases, due to which they were a formation close to the dolnik (for example, Russian hexameter).

In Russian poetry, dolnik was cultivated by the Symbolists, then by the Futurists. It was especially widespread in the poetry of the early 20th century (see the chapters on dolnik in V. M. Zhirmunsky’s Introduction to Metrics, pp. XXX, 184 and following).

The term “dolnik” was introduced in the early 1920s by V. Ya. Bryusov and G. A. Shengeli, but in relation to what is now known as accent verse. Initially, dolnik was called in Russian poetry spider(a term first noted by S.P. Bobrov), however, starting from the works of V.M. Zhirmunsky, the terms “dolnik” and “pauznik” are used as equivalent.

Basic concepts of poetic language and their place in the school curriculum in literature.

POETIC LANGUAGE, artistic speech, is the language of poetic (poetic) and prose literary works, a system of means of artistic thinking and aesthetic development of reality.
Unlike the usual (practical) language, in which the communicative function is the main one (see Functions of the language), in P. I. the aesthetic (poetic) function dominates, the implementation of which focuses more attention on the linguistic representations themselves (phonic, rhythmic, structural, figurative-semantic, etc.), so that they become valuable means of expression in themselves. The general figurativeness and artistic originality of lit. works are perceived through the prism of P. I.
The distinction between ordinary (practical) and poetic languages, that is, the actual communicative and poetic functions of the language, was proposed in the first decades of the 20th century. representatives of OPOYAZ (see). P. Ya., in their opinion, differs from the usual tangibility of its construction: it draws attention to itself, in a certain sense slows down reading, destroying the usual automatism of text perception; the main thing in it is “to survive doing things” (V. B. Shklovsky).
According to R. O. Yakobson, who is close to OPOYAZ in the understanding of P. Ya., poetry itself is nothing more than “a statement with an attitude towards the expression (...). Poetry is language in its aesthetic function.
P. i. closely connected, on the one hand, with the literary language (see), which is its normative basis, and on the other hand, with the national language, from which it draws various characterological linguistic means, for example. dialectisms when transmitting the speech of characters or to create a local color of the depicted. The poetic word grows out of the real word and in it, becoming motivated in the text and performing a certain artistic function. Therefore, any sign of a language can, in principle, be aesthetic.

19. The concept of the artistic method. The history of world literature as a history of changing artistic methods.

The artistic method (creative) method is a set of the most general principles of the aesthetic assimilation of reality, which is consistently repeated in the work of a particular group of writers that form a direction, trend or school.

O.I. Fedotov notes that “the concept of “creative method” is not much different from the concept of “artistic method” that gave rise to it, although they tried to adapt it to express a larger meaning - as a way of studying social life or as the basic principles (styles) of entire trends.

The concept of the artistic method appears in the 1920s, when critics of the Russian Association of Proletarian Writers (RAPP) borrow this category from philosophy, thereby seeking to theoretically substantiate the development of their literary movement and the depth of creative thinking of "proletarian" writers.

The artistic method has an aesthetic nature, it represents the historically conditioned general forms of emotionally colored figurative thinking.

Art objects are the aesthetic qualities of reality, i.e. “the wide social significance of the phenomena of reality, drawn into social practice and bearing the stamp of essential forces” (Yu. Borev). The subject of art is understood as a historically changeable phenomenon, and changes will depend on the nature of social practice and the development of reality itself. The artistic method is analogous to the object of art. Thus, the historical changes in the artistic method, as well as the emergence of a new artistic method, can be explained not only through the historical changes in the object of art, but also through the historical change in the aesthetic qualities of reality. The subject of art contains the lifeblood of the artistic method. The artistic method is the result of a creative reflection of an object of art, which is perceived through the prism of the general philosophical and political worldview of the artist. “The method always appears before us only in its concrete artistic embodiment – ​​in the living matter of the image. This matter of the image arises as a result of the artist’s personal, most intimate interaction with the concrete world around him, which determines the entire artistic and thought process necessary to create a work of art” (L.I. Timofeev)

The creative method is nothing more than a projection of imagery into a certain concrete historical setting. Only in it does the figurative perception of life receive its concrete realization, i.e. is transformed into a certain, organically arisen system of characters, conflicts, storylines.

The artistic method is not an abstract principle of selection and generalization of the phenomena of reality, but a historically conditioned understanding of it in the light of the main questions that life poses to art at each new stage of its development.

The diversity of artistic methods in the same era is explained by the role of worldview, which acts as an essential factor in the formation of the artistic method. In each period of the development of art, there is a simultaneous emergence of various artistic methods depending on the social situation, since the era will be considered and perceived by artists in different ways. The proximity of aesthetic positions determines the unity of the method of a number of writers, which is associated with the commonality of aesthetic ideals, the relationship of characters, the homogeneity of conflicts and plots, and the manner of writing. So, for example, K. Balmont, V. Bryusov, A. Blok are associated with symbolism.

The artist's method is felt through style his works, i.e. through the individual manifestation of the method. Since the method is a way of artistic thinking, the method is the subjective side of the style, because. this way of figurative thinking gives rise to certain ideological and artistic features of art. The concept of method and individual style of the writer correlate with each other as the concept of genus and species.

Interaction method and style:

§ Variety of styles within one creative method. This is confirmed by the fact that representatives of this or that method do not adjoin any one style;

§ stylistic unity is possible only within one method, since even the outward similarity of the works of authors adhering to the same method does not give grounds for classifying them as a single style;

§ Reverse influence of style on method.

The full use of the style techniques of artists who are adjacent to one method is incompatible with the consistent observance of the principles of the new method.

Along with the concept of creative method, the concept direction or type of creativity, which in the most diverse forms and relationships will be manifested in any method that arises in the process of development of the history of literature, since they express the general properties of the figurative reflection of life. In their totality, the methods form literary currents (or trends: romanticism, realism, symbolism, etc.).

The method determines only the direction of the artist's creative work, and not its individual properties. The artistic method interacts with the creative individuality of the writer

The concept of "style" is not identical with the concept "creative individuality of the writer". The concept of "creative individuality" is broader than what is expressed by the narrow concept of "style". In the style of writers, a number of properties are manifested, which in their totality characterize the creative individuality of writers. The concrete and real result of these properties in literature is style. The writer develops his own individual style on the basis of this or that artistic method. We can say that the creative individuality of the writer is a necessary condition for the further development of each artistic method. We can talk about a new artistic method when new individual phenomena created by the creative individualities of writers become general and represent a new quality in their totality.

The artistic method and creative individuality of the writer are manifested in literature through the creation of literary images, the construction of motives.

Rhyme (ancient Greek υθμς “dimension, rhythm”) is a consonance at the end of two or more words, the ends of verses (or half-verses, the so-called internal rhyme), marking their boundaries and connecting them with each other. Rhyme helps the reader to feel the intonational articulation of speech and forces them to correlate the meaning of those verses that it unites.

Developed from the natural consonances of syntactic parallelism; in European poetry it has been common since the 10th-12th centuries.

It should be noted that rhyme is not the only sign of the completeness of the rhythm; due to the presence of a strong pause, final stress and clause, the end of the line (as a rhythmic unit) is determined even without rhyme, for example:

"Four unfaithful kings
Don Rodrigo won
And they called him Sid
Defeated Tsars" (Zhukovsky).

But the presence of rhyme emphasizes and enhances this completeness, and in verses of a freer rhythmic structure, where the commensurability of rhythmic units is expressed with less distinctness (the lines are different in the number of syllables, places of stress, etc.), the rhythmic meaning of R. appears with the greatest distinctness ( in free and free verse, in raeshnik, etc.)

It is most commonly used in poetic speech and in some eras in some cultures acts as its obligatory or almost obligatory property. Unlike alliteration and assonance (which can occur anywhere in the text), rhyme is determined positionally (by the position at the end of the verse, capturing the clause). The sound composition of a rhyme - or rather, the nature of consonance necessary for a pair of words or phrases to be read as rhyme - is different in different languages ​​and at different times.

Types of rhymes

By syllable volume rhymes are divided into:

• masculine (stress on the last syllable),
• feminine (stress on the penultimate syllable from the end),
• dactylic (stress on the third syllable from the end),
• hyperdactylic (stress on the fourth syllable from the end).
• If a rhyme ends in a vowel, it is called open; if it ends in a consonant, it is called closed.

By the nature of the sound(accuracy of consonances) rhymes are distinguished:

• accurate and approximate
• rich and poor,
• assonances, dissonances,
• composite,
• tautological,
• unequal,
• multi-shock.

By position in verse rhymes are:

• final,
• initial,
• internal;

By position in the stanza:

• adjacent,
• cross
• covering (or belted)

With regard to the multiplicity of repetitions, rhymes are paired, triple, quadruple and multiple.

Poems without rhyme are called white, inexact rhymes - "rhymes".

There are also the following poetic devices and terms for them:

• Pantorhyme - all words in the line and in the next one rhyme with each other (for example, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd words of two lines rhyme, respectively)
• through rhyme - a rhyme that runs through the entire work (for example - one rhyme in each line)
• echo rhyme - the second line consists of one word or a short phrase rhymed with the first line.

Rhyme examples

Men's- rhyme with stress on the last syllable in the line:

Both the sea and the storm rocked our boat;
I, sleepy, was betrayed by every whim of the waves.
Two infinities were in me,
And they arbitrarily played with me.

Women's- with stress on the penultimate syllable in the line:

Quiet night, late summer
How the stars shine in the sky
As under their gloomy light
Dormant fields are ripening.

Dactylic- with stress on the third syllable from the end of the line, which repeats the dactyl pattern - -_ _ (stressed, unstressed, unstressed), which, in fact, is the reason for the name of this rhyme:

A girl in a field with a willow pipe,
Why did you hurt the spring branch?
She cries at her lips like a morning oriole,
Crying more bitterly and more and more inconsolably.

Hyperdactylic- with stress on the fourth and subsequent syllables from the end of the line. This rhyme is very rare in practice. It appeared in the works of oral folklore, where the size as such is not always visible. An example of such a rhyme sounds like this:

Goblin scratches his beard,
The stick is hewn gloomily.

Exact and approximate rhymes

AT exact sufficient rhyme match:

• a) last stressed vowel
• b) sounds starting from the last stressed vowel.

In exact rhyme a rhyme like "writes - hears - breathes" (Okudzhava) is also considered. The so-called. iotized rhymes: "Tani - spells" (ASP), "again - a handle" (Firnven).

An example of a stanza with exact rhymes (it is the sounds that match, not the letters):

It's nice, squeezing a katana,
Turn the enemy into a vinaigrette.
Katana - the dream of a samurai
But better than her - a gun. (Gareth)

AT inaccurate rhyme not all sounds coincide, starting from the last stressed vowel: "towards - cutting", or "book - King" by Medvedev. There can be much more imprecise rhymes than precise ones, and they can greatly decorate and diversify a verse.

Rich and poor rhymes

rich rhymes, in which the reference consonant sound coincides. An example is the lines from A. S. Pushkin's poem "To Chaadaev":

Love, hope, quiet glory
The deceit did not live long for us,
Gone are the funs of youth
Like a dream, like a morning mist.

In poor rhymes, stressed sounds and a stressed vowel partially coincide.

Assonances, dissonances

• assonant rhymes in which the vowel stressed sound coincides, but the consonants do not.
• dissonant (consonant) rhymes, where, on the contrary, stressed vowels do not match:

It was

Socialism -

awesome word!

With a flag

With a song

stood on the left

And herself

On the heads

glory descended

• Compound rhymes, where the rhyming pair consists of three or more words, as in lines 2 and 4 of N. S. Gumilyov:

You will take me in your arms
And you, I will hug you
I love you prince of fire
I want and wait for a kiss.

tautological rhyme - repetition of the same words: "curtained the window - look in the window again" - Blok).

truncated rhyme- a rhyming technique, when one of the words rhyming at the end of the verse does not completely cover the consonances of another word. In Russian classical verse U. r. a rhyme with a truncation of the sound “th” (short “and”) is considered:

So what? The sad God believed.
Cupid jumped for joy
And in front of his eyes with all his strength
I tightened the new one for my brother.

Poetry of the 20th century truncated rhyme is sometimes called uneven rhyming:

Whistle in an undertone aria,
Drunk with brilliance and noise, -
Here on the night sidewalk
She is a free bird!
Childishly playing with a curl,
Curly boldly to the eyes,
Then he suddenly leans towards the windows,
Looks at the rainbow junk.

(V. Bryusov)

In nonequisyllabic rhymes, the stressed part has a different number of syllables (externally - pearls).

AT multi-stressed rhymes the sounds of rhymed words coincide, but the stressed vowels occupy different positions in them (about glasses - butterflies).

• Ioted rhyme is one of the widespread examples of a truncated rhyme; so in it, as the name implies, the sound "y" becomes an additional consonant sound. This type of rhyme is used in this poem by A. S. Pushkin in lines 1 and 3:

Clouds are rushing, clouds are winding;
Invisible moon
Illuminates the flying snow;
The sky is cloudy, the night is cloudy ...

Types of rhyme

ring(girdle or enveloping) rhyme abba,

adjacent(pair) rhyme aabb,

cross rhyme abab and, more rarely, through rhyme aaaa.

Adjacent- rhyming of adjacent verses: the first with the second, the third with the fourth (aabb) (the endings of the verses that rhyme with each other are indicated by the same letters).

This is the most common and obvious rhyming system. This method is subject even to children in kindergarten and has an advantage in the selection of rhymes (an associative pair appears in the mind immediately, it is not clogged with intermediate lines). Such stanzas have greater dynamics, the fastest pace of reading.

Weaved on the lake the scarlet light of dawn,
Capercaillie are crying in the forest with bells.
An oriole is crying somewhere, hiding in a hollow.
Only I don’t cry - my heart is light.

The next way is cross rhyming- also appealed to a large number of the writing public.

Cross - rhyming of the first verse with the third, the second - with the fourth (abab).

Although the scheme of such a rhyme seems to be a little more complicated, it is more flexible in terms of rhythm and allows you to better convey the necessary mood. Yes, and such verses are easier to learn - the first pair of lines, as it were, pulls out of memory the second pair that rhymes with it (while with the previous method everything breaks up into separate couplets).

I love the storm in early May,
When the first spring thunder
As if frolicking and playing,
Rumbles in the blue sky.

The third way - ring(in other sources - belted, embracing) - already has a smaller representation in the total mass of poems.

Ring (belted, embracing) - the first verse - with the fourth, and the second - with the third. (abba)

Such a scheme can be given to beginners a little more difficult (the first line, as it were, is overwritten by the next pair of rhyming lines).

I looked, standing over the Neva,
Like Isaac the giant
In the frosty haze
The golden dome shone.

And finally woven rhyme has many patterns. This is a common name for complex types of rhyming, for example: abvabv, abvvba, etc.

Far from the sun and nature
Far from light and art
Far away from life and love
Your younger years will flash,
Feelings that are alive will die,
Your dreams will shatter.

Inner rhyme- consonance of half-lines:

"Children's shoulders of your trembling,
Children's eyes bewilderment
Meeting moments, goodbye hours,
A long hour, like a century of languor"

The semantic role of rhyme

Along with the rhythmic, rhyme also has a great semantic meaning. The word at the end of the line, underlined by the pause following it and highlighted with the help of sound repetition, naturally attracts the most attention to itself, occupies the most advantageous place in the line. With inexperienced poets, the desire for rhyme leads to the pursuit of sound repetition and to the detriment of meaning; rhyme, as Byron said, turns into "a mighty steamer that makes poetry swim even against the current of common sense."

The emergence and development of rhyme

The rhymed half-lines, on which the theory sometimes stops, are, in essence, ordinary verses, rhymed according to the scheme and printed in pairs in a line. - The appearance of rhyme in the poetry of European peoples has not been fully elucidated; it was supposed to have passed here from Semitic poetry, where it is very common, through the Spanish Arabs, in the 8th century; but it is hardly possible to insist on this after acquaintance with the Latin poetry of the first centuries before Christ. Already in Ovid, Virgil, Horace there are rhymes that cannot be considered accidental. It is highly probable that rhyme, known to the Roman classics and neglected by them like an unnecessary toy, gained importance among the minor poets of decadence, who paid exclusive attention to the game of formal contrivances. In addition, the displacement of strictly metrical versification by elements of tonic versification required a more distinct distinction between individual verses, which was achieved by rhyme.

In the verses of Christian poets of the IV century. Ambrose of Milan and Prudentius, assonances sometimes turn into full-sounding rhymes. However, rhymes were fully introduced into Latin verses in the 5th century. the poet Sedulius, who was that “deaf child” and “crazy black man” whom Paul Verlaine considered the inventor of rhyme.

The first entirely rhyming work is Commodian's Latin "Instructiones" (270 AD); there is one rhyme throughout the poem. Rhyme varied and changing with each couplet appears in the so-called Leonine hexameter, where the first half-line rhymes with the end; then from 600 we find it in ecclesiastical Latin poetry, where from 800 it becomes obligatory and from where it passes into the secular poetry of the Romanesque, and then the Germanic peoples.

Rhyme is already characteristic of the oldest Welsh texts, but their dating presents significant difficulties. Thus, the surviving copies of the poem "Gododdin" on the basis of paleographic data date back to the 9th century, however, after the works of the classic of Welsh philology Ivor Williams, it is generally accepted to attribute almost all of its text, as well as some works attributed to Taliesin, to the 6th century. In this case, the Welsh rhyme - due to a fixed stress on the last (since the 9th or 11th century - on the penultimate) syllable - is the earliest systematically used rhyme in Europe.

In Irish poetry, rhyme begins to be used systematically in poetic genealogies dated on the basis of linguistic data of the 7th century, which also indicates the "outrunning" of continental trends.

The "Celtic rhyme", characteristic of both Irish and Welsh poetry (in the latter, however, the name odl Wyddeleg, "Irish rhyme" is adopted for it), was very free: all vowels, deaf and voiced consonant variants rhymed among themselves ( k / g, t / d, p / b), smooth and nasal (r / l, m / n), and even consonants, subjected and not subjected to various mutations characteristic of the Celtic languages ​​(b / bh [v] / mb [m], t/th[θ], d/dh[ð], m/mh[v], c[k]/ch[x], etc.). Alliteration was arranged in a similar way.

Rhyme was introduced into German poetry under the influence of Romanesque forms. “Insinuating Italian or French melodies found their way to Germany, and German poets substituted German texts for them, as the minnesingers and poets of the Renaissance did later; with such melodies, songs and dances came rhyme. We first meet it on the upper Rhine, from where it probably originally spread.

The fate of rhyme in French poetry was associated with literary movements that emphasized form. Already Ronsard and Du Bellay, not carried away by the metrical verse unusual for the French language, avoided non-rhyming verses, demanding precise, rich, but by no means refined rhymes, and forbidding them to sacrifice a happy turnover or precision of expression. Malherbe made rhyme even more stringent requirements: he forbade light and banal rhymes - a prohibition that found such brilliant application in the verses of his contemporaries and even more so in the poetry of romanticism. The importance of rhyme in French - syllabic - versification is due to the severity in its application, unknown to other languages: here - despite the complete consonance - it is forbidden to rhyme the plural with the singular, the word ending in a vowel, with the word ending in a consonant (canot and domino, connus and parvenu ) etc.

The very emergence of rhyme in European literature, as one might think, is connected with the sound organization of the verse. Sound repetitions that were initially unorganized, if they coincided with the words most clearly distinguished at the end of the rhythmic unit, sounded most sharp and noticeable; thanks to this, a certain attraction was created for them to the ends of lines or half-verses. This attraction was also intensified due to syntactic parallelism, i.e., the repetition of homogeneous parts of speech with similar endings. At the same time, the transition from oral poetic systems with a musical-rhythmic organization to written verse, weakening the clarity of the rhythmic organization of the verse, caused a search for new rhythm-forming elements, which, in particular, was a rhyme that was essentially unknown to either ancient or folk versification (although sporadically she appeared in them). The complex of these conditions, in each given case, is historically unique, and underlies the appearance of rhyme in the new poetry.

In Russia, rhyme occasionally appeared in epics, as well as in written monuments of the 17th century. as a result of the coincidence (with parallelism of verses) of grammatical endings:

“We offer an end to this scripture.
We do not forget things for ever.
Looking for the real
We will write this long story in this long story" etc.

But basically, rhyme develops in syllabic verses, starting with Simeon of Polotsk (1629-1680) and other poets, in whom it developed under the influence of Western poetry and, above all, Polish poets. This influence itself was based on the process of creating written verse instead of oral, which took place in the 17th century. in Russia and was caused by sharp social and cultural shifts.

Blank verse

White verse is a verse that does not have a rhyme, but, unlike free verse, has a certain size: white iambic, white anapaest, white dolnik. Refers to liroaeropic.

The term white verse passed into Russian poetics from French - vers blanc, which, in turn, was taken from English poetics, where unrhymed verses are called blank verse (blank - to smooth, erase, destroy), i.e. verses with an erased, destroyed rhyme . Ancient poets wrote poetry without rhymes.

White verse (more precisely, without rhyme) is most commonly used in Russian folk poetry; the structural role of rhymes here is played by a certain clause. In bookish Russian poetry, blank verse, on the contrary, is less common.

The use of this term is possible only for those national poetry for which both meter and rhyme are characteristic, system-forming features: for example, in relation to ancient Greek poetry, in which something similar to rhyme arose only as an exception, it is not customary to speak of blank verse.

In Russian poetry, white verse enjoyed considerable popularity at certain periods (mainly at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries); this is especially true of white iambic, which was widely used in poems and poetic dramas.

The presyllabic and syllabic period of Russian poetry is characterized by the special attention of poets to rhyme. But already V. Trediakovsky, having seen the basis of the verse not in rhyme, but in rhythm, meter, dismissively called rhyme "a child's nozzle." He was the first to write hexameters in blank verse, without rhyme.

Following him, A. Cantemir translated Anacreon's Songs and Letters by Quintus Horace Flaccus in blank verse - a fact of great importance, indicating that the syllabist poets considered the main thing in verse not rhyme, but, as Cantemir wrote, "a certain dimensional agreement and some pleasant ringing”, i.e. metric rhythm, foot size.

If white verse in hexameter and other ancient meters were accepted in Russian book poetry without dispute, then blank verse in other meters did not immediately take root in the practice of poets.

The most resolute defender of white verse in the early 19th century. was V. Zhukovsky. He was supported by A. Pushkin, A. Koltsov, and partly by M. Lermontov; and further blank verse ceases to be a rare phenomenon in Russian poetry.

For B. s. astrophic or poor strophicity is characteristic, since the strophic variety in foot verse is determined by a diverse system of rhyming. However, the absence of rhyme does not deprive white verse of poetic merit; the main components of verse—rhythm, imagery of language, clause, etc.—are preserved in it. In particular, blank verse remains the most accepted in dramatic works—usually iambic pentameter. Here are some examples:

iambic tetrameter:

Lampada in a Jewish hut
In one corner it burns pale,
An old man in front of the lamp
Reads the bible. gray-haired
Hair falling on the book...
(A. Pushkin)

iambic pentameter:

Everyone says: there is no truth on earth.
But there is no higher truth. For me
So it is clear, like a simple gamma.
I was born with a love for art...
(A. Pushkin)

Four foot trochee:

It is difficult for the bird-catcher:
Learn bird habits
Remember flight times
Whistle with different whistles.
(E. Bagritsky)

In the 20th century, the use of blank verse in Russian poetry is declining, and its appearance usually indicates a deliberate stylization.

ῥυθμός - regularity, rhythm or ancient German rim- number) - consonance at the end of two or more words.

Depending on the position of the stress in a rhyming word, there are several types of rhyme:

• masculine rhyme, where the stress is on the last syllable of the rhyming verse. For example, this type is used in M. Yu. Lermontov's poem "Death":
  The chain of a young life is broken,
  The road is over, the hour has struck, it's time to go home,
  It's time to go where there is no future,
  No past, no eternity, no years.
• feminine rhyme where it falls on penultimate. For example, it is this type that is used in an excerpt from A.S. Pushkin "Groom": "
  Silver and gold everywhere
  Everything is bright and rich."
• dactylic rhyme, in which the stress is on the third syllable from the end of the line. This is how lines 1 and 3 of S. A. Yesenin’s poem “Rus” rhyme, and lines 2 and 4 are another example of male rhyme:
  The village drowned in potholes,
  Covered the huts of the forest,
  Only visible, on the bumps and hollows,
  How blue are the skies.
• hyperdactylic rhyme, in which the stress falls on the fourth syllable or beyond, is used much less frequently than the others. An example is the line of V. Ya. Bryusov:
  From the moon the rays are stretched,
  They touch the heart with needles ...

Rhymes also differ in the accuracy of consonances and how they are created:

• rich rhymes in which the reference consonant coincides. An example is the lines from A. S. Pushkin's poem "To Chaadaev":
  Love, hope, quiet glory
  The deceit did not live long for us,
  Gone are the funs of youth
  Like a dream, like a morning mist.
• poor rhymes, where stressed sounds and a stressed vowel partially coincide.

Also in versification, a group of inaccurate rhymes is distinguished, which are a conscious artistic device:

• assonant rhymes in which the vowel stressed sound coincides, but the consonants do not.
• dissonant (consonant) rhymes, where, on the contrary, stressed vowels do not match:

It was

Socialism -

awesome word!

With a flag

With a song

stood on the left

And herself

On the heads

glory descended

• a truncated rhyme in which there is an extra consonant sound in one of the rhyming words.
• iotated rhyme, which is one of the most widespread examples of truncated rhyme; so in it, as the name implies, the sound "y" becomes an additional consonant sound. This type of rhyme is used in this poem by A. S. Pushkin in lines 1 and 3:
  Clouds are rushing, clouds are winding;
  Invisible moon
  Illuminates the flying snow;
  The sky is cloudy, the night is cloudy ...
• compound rhyme, where a rhyming pair consists of three or more words, as in lines 2 and 4 of N. S. Gumilyov:
  You will take me in your arms
  And you, I will hug you
  I love you prince of fire
  I want and wait for a kiss.
• banal rhymes, for example: love is blood, roses are tears, joy is youth. Over the predictability of such rhymes, so often found among different authors, A. S. Pushkin made fun of in “Eugene Onegin”:
  And now the frosts are cracking
  And silver among the fields ...
  The reader is already waiting for the rhyme of "roses",

Ways to rhyme

Previously, in the school literature course, they necessarily studied the basic methods of rhyming in order to give knowledge about the diversity of the position in the stanza of rhyming pairs (or more) of words, which should be of help to anyone who writes poetry at least once in their life. But everything is forgotten, and the bulk of the authors are somehow in no hurry to diversify their stanzas.

Adjacent- rhyming of adjacent verses: the first with the second, the third with the fourth ( aabb) (the same letters denote the endings of poems that rhyme with each other).

This is the most common and obvious rhyming system. This method is subject even to children in kindergarten and has an advantage in the selection of rhymes (an associative pair appears in the mind immediately, it is not clogged with intermediate lines). Such stanzas have greater dynamics, the fastest pace of reading.

Weaved out on the lake the scarlet light of dawn, Capercaillie are crying on the forest with ringing. An oriole is crying somewhere, hiding in a hollow. Only I don’t cry - my heart is light.

The next method - cross-rhyming - also appealed to a large number of the writing public.

cross- rhyming of the first verse with the third, the second - with the fourth ( abab)

Although the scheme of such a rhyme seems to be a little more complicated, it is more flexible in terms of rhythm and allows you to better convey the necessary mood. Yes, and such verses are easier to learn - the first pair of lines, as it were, pulls out of memory the second pair that rhymes with it (while with the previous method everything breaks up into separate couplets).

I love a thunderstorm in early May, When the first spring thunder, As if frolicking and playing, Rumbles in the blue sky.

The third method - ring (in other sources - belted, embracing) - already has a smaller representation in the total mass of poems.

Ring(belted, embracing) - the first verse - with the fourth, and the second - with the third. ( abba)

Such a scheme can be given to beginners a little more difficult (the first line, as it were, is overwritten by the next pair of rhyming lines).

I looked, standing over the Neva, Like Isaac the giant In the darkness of the frosty fog The golden dome shone.

And finally woven rhyme has many patterns. This is a common name for complex types of rhyme, for example: abvabv, abvvba and etc.

Far from the sun and nature, Far from light and art, Far from life and love Your young years will flash, Your feelings will die alive, Your dreams will vanish.

In conclusion, it is useful to note that it is not always necessary to adhere so rigidly, strictly and dogmatically to certain canonical forms and patterns, because, as in any kind of art, there is always a place for the original in poetry. But, nevertheless, before rushing into the unrestrained inventing of something new and not entirely known, it always does not hurt to make sure that you are still familiar with the basic canons.

Sound repetitions are the main element of the phonics of a verse, the essence of which is the repetition within a verse and in adjacent verses of a group of identical or similar sounds. The main function of Z. p. is to ensure the phonetic expressiveness of the verse. It is noteworthy that in the Russian system of versification, sound repetitions are not a canonized device, as, for example, in Finnish, Estonian, Yakut and some other languages.


According to the place in the verse, the ring is distinguished when the sounds are repeated at the end and beginning of the verse (“The flying ridge is thinning clouds”, A. S. Pushkin; symbol AB ... AB), anaphora, epiphora, junction (... AB - AB ...), there are also sound repetitions decomposed (AB ... A ... B ...) and summing (A ... B ... AB), metathetic (AB ... BA), exact and inaccurate , double and triple. Sound repetitions include alliteration, assonance, rhyme.

Alliteration- the repetition of identical or homogeneous consonants in a poem, giving it a special sound expressiveness (in versification).

It implies a greater frequency of these sounds in comparison with the Central Russian frequency in a certain segment of the text or throughout its entire length. It is not customary to talk about alliteration in cases where the sound repetition is a consequence of the repetition of morphemes. The word type of alliteration is tautogram. (repeating consonants).

A variety of assonance in some sources is considered assonant rhyme, in which only vowels are consonant, but not consonants. It was precisely as a kind of rhyme that assonance was defined, in particular, by the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary, which noted at the end of the 19th century that

Spanish and Portuguese poets especially often resort to assonance. German - only in translations and imitations of these poets, and only a few in original works, for example Schlegel in his Alarkos. In the folk poetry of the Slavs, from the appearance of rhyme, assonance is often found, but usually already next to the consonance of consonants in two adjacent lines of the verse, thus a complete more or less developed rhyme is, that is, the consonance of vowels and consonants.