Introduction
The richness and diversity of the vocabulary of the Russian language is noted not only by specialists - learned linguists, but also by writers and poets. One of the factors of the richness of our language is the ambiguity of most words. This allows you to use them not in one specific context, but in several, sometimes completely different ones.
The meanings of polysemantic words can be direct and figurative. Figurative meanings are involved in creating vivid figurative texts. They make the literary language richer and richer.
Purpose of the work: to find examples of the use of words with direct and figurative meanings in the text of M. Sholokhov "Quiet Flows the Don".
Work tasks:
- Determine which values are considered direct and which are figurative;
- · Find examples of words with direct and figurative meanings in the text of M. Sholokhov "Quiet Flows the Don".
The work consists of two chapters. The first chapter presents theoretical information on the problem of direct and figurative meanings of words. The second chapter is a list of examples illustrating words used in the literal sense and figuratively.
Direct and figurative meaning of words in Russian
Words in Russian have two types of meanings: basic, direct meaning, and non-basic, figurative.
The direct meaning of the word is “a direct connection between the sound complex and the concept, a direct nomination” Modern Russian Literary Language / Ed. P. Lekanta - M .: Higher. school, 1988. - S. 9-11 ..
The figurative meaning is secondary, it arises on the basis of associative links between concepts. The presence of similarity in objects is a prerequisite for the fact that the name of one object begins to be used to name another object; thus, a new, figurative meaning of the word arises.
The use of words in a figurative sense is a generally recognized method of expressiveness of speech. The main varieties of figurative meaning are the techniques of metaphor and metonymy.
A metaphor is “the transfer of a name from one object to another based on some similarity of their features” Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. Modern Russian language. - M.: International Relations, 1995. - 560 p..
The similarity of objects that receive the same name can manifest itself in different ways: they can be similar in shape (ring 1 on the hand - ring 2 of smoke); by color (gold medallion - golden curls); by function (fireplace - room stove and fireplace - electric appliance for space heating).
The similarity in the arrangement of two objects in relation to something (the tail of an animal - the tail of a comet), in their assessment (clear day - clear style), in the impression they make (black veil - black thoughts) also often serves as the basis for naming different phenomena. Rapprochement is also possible on other grounds: green strawberries - green youth (a unifying feature is immaturity); fast running - quick mind (common feature - intensity); mountains stretch - days stretch (associative connection - length in time and space).
Metaphorization of meanings often occurs as a result of the transfer of qualities, properties, actions of inanimate objects to animate ones: iron nerves, golden hands, an empty head, and vice versa: gentle rays, the roar of a waterfall, the voice of a stream.
It often happens that the main, original meaning of the word is metaphorically rethought on the basis of the convergence of objects according to various signs: a gray-haired old man - a gray-haired antiquity - a gray-haired fog; black veil - black 2 thoughts - black ingratitude - black Saturday - black box (on the plane).
Metaphors that expand the polysemanticism of words are fundamentally different from poetic, individual author's metaphors. The former are linguistic in nature, they are frequent, reproducible, anonymous. The linguistic metaphors that served as the source of the new meaning of the word are mostly unfigurative, therefore they are called "dry", "dead": pipe elbow, boat nose, train tail. But there can be such transfers of meaning, in which the imagery is partially preserved: a blooming girl, a steel will. However, the expressiveness of such metaphors is much inferior to the expression of individual poetic images.
Dry metaphors that give rise to new meanings of words are used in any style of speech (scientific: eyeball, word root; official business: point of sale, alarm signal); language figurative metaphors gravitate toward expressive speech, their use in an official business style is excluded; individual author's metaphors are the property of artistic speech, they are created by masters of the word.
Metonymy is "the transfer of a name from one object to another on the basis of their adjacency."
Thus, the transfer of the name of the material to the product from which it is made is metonymic (gold, silver - Athletes brought gold and silver from the Olympics); place names - to groups of people who are there (audience - Audience listens attentively to the lecturer); names of dishes - on its contents (porcelain dish - delicious dish); the name of the action - on its result (embroidering - beautiful embroidery); the name of the action - to the place of action or those who perform it (crossing the mountains - underground transition); the name of the object - to its owner (tenor - young tenor); author's name - on his works (Shakespeare - set Shakespeare) etc.
Like metaphor, metonymy can be not only linguistic, but also individual authorial.
Synecdoche is “the transfer of the name of the whole to its part, and vice versa” Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. Modern Russian language. - M.: International Relations, 1995. - 560 p. For example, a pear is a fruit tree and a pear is the fruit of this tree.
Transfers of meaning are based on synecdoche in such, for example, expressions: a sense of elbow, a faithful hand.
word polysemantic metaphor expressiveness
Figurative sense
Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism. From allegory to iambic. - M.: Flinta, Nauka. N.Yu. Rusova. 2004
See what "figurative meaning" is in other dictionaries:
MEANING- MEANING, meaning, husband. 1. Internal, logical content (words, speeches, phenomena), comprehended by the mind, meaning. The direct meaning of the word. The figurative meaning of the word. Get into the meaning of events. The meaning of the law is quite clear. Give something some... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov
The meaning that a word or phrase receives in a particular speech situation. The broadly holistic content of any statement, not reducible to the meanings of its constituent parts and elements, but itself determining these meanings ... ... Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism
portable- I portable / portable portable / th and portable / portable (device for carrying) II portable / portable (not literal). Figurative sense … Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language
meaning- Literal, important, great, inner, sublime, second, high, supreme, main, deep, deep, formidable, sad, double, real, single, pitiful, lively, vital, veiled, disguised, alluring, ... ... Dictionary of epithets
meaning- a (y); m. 1. General logical content, irreducible to the values of its constituent parts; the main idea, the essence, the essence of what l. C. article. C. events. S. words. S. speeches is clear. Direct and portable with. Understand with. what l. Explain with. what l... encyclopedic Dictionary
meaning of direct- Same as direct meaning. Meaning is portable. Same as figurative... Dictionary of linguistic terms
meaning- a (y); m. see also. in the sense, in the sense that, semantic 1) General logical content, irreducible to the meanings of its constituent parts; the main idea, the essence, the essence of what l. Sm/sl articles. Sm/sl events… Dictionary of many expressions
inner meaning of speech- (innocent) hidden, portable, allegorical ... Michelson's Big Explanatory Phraseological Dictionary
The inner meaning of speech- The inner meaning of speech (inosk.) Hidden, figurative, allegorical ... Michelson's Big Explanatory Phraseological Dictionary (original spelling)
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS- a branch of church biblical studies that studies the principles and methods of interpreting the text of the Holy. The Scriptures of the OT and NT and the historical process of the formation of its theological foundations. G. b. sometimes perceived as the methodological basis of exegesis. Greek word ἡ… … Orthodox Encyclopedia
Books
- Why did you say so? Useful poems for preschoolers and younger students, Zernes Svetlana Pavlovna. In our speech there are many phrases that are familiar to the ear of an adult, but require an explanation for a child. From this book, children will learn what this or that expression means, which has a figurative meaning - `ride ...
1. What is the difference between a direct meaning and a figurative one?
2. What types of figurative meanings of words are distinguished?
3. Why are words with a figurative meaning used in speech?
4. What are the ways to transfer the name?
How do different lexical meanings of a polysemous word differ?
According to the method of naming an object (feature, action), the lexical meanings of words are divided into direct and figurative.
A figurative meaning is one of the meanings of a polysemantic word.
The main meaning in a polysemantic word is the direct lexical meaning. It is directly related to reality.
The figurative lexical meaning of a word names an object (attribute, action) on the basis of various associations that arise in a person when compared with other objects (attributes, actions), namely: on the basis of comparison, adjacency. In this case, the direct meaning is used to name new objects (signs, actions).
The transfer of a name (i.e. word) already assigned to some object (attribute, action) to another object (attribute, action) occurs if there is a similarity, contiguity or functional commonality between objects (attributes, actions).
There are different ways to transfer the name. Transfer by resemblance is a metaphorical transfer. It arises as a result of assimilation - the association of one object (sign, action) with another based on their comparison, comparison, for example: the nose of a person and the bow of a boat (the common part is the protruding part).
Adjacency transfer is a metonymic transfer. It arises as a result of likening objects (signs, actions) on the basis of their proximity, for example: he broke a plate and ate a plate (of soup); remove your hat and stop the hat (i.e. "the man in the hat").
Transfer by functional generality is a functional transfer. It arises as a result of assimilation of objects according to their main purpose, for example: an elderly janitor (a person) and remove the janitor (“mechanism on the windshield of a car”).
The new lexical meaning of a word, which appears on the basis of similarity, contiguity or commonality of functions, at first gives the impression of unusualness, novelty.
The fate of the figurative lexical meaning of the word is different. Some figurative lexical meanings of a word eventually become direct names of objects, signs, actions, for example: the bow of a boat, a door handle, emerald (about color); in the explanatory dictionary in this case there is no mark "transl.". Others retain a metaphorical connotation, for example: porridge (confusion), throw ("spread" - about the shadow, light, rays, look, look), ebullient (active, ardent); in explanatory dictionaries, they are marked “peren”.
For many words, figurative meanings are the author's new formations, individual means of expression in works of art. Explanatory dictionaries do not include such lexical meanings.
Exercise 272.
First write out examples in which the highlighted words are used in a direct, and then in a figurative sense.
1. Under the wing of an airplane, the green sea of the taiga sings about something. (From a song). 2. No matter how perfect the wing of a bird, it would never have raised it into the sky if it had not relied on the air (Pavlov). 3. The village where Eugene missed was a lovely corner (A. Pushkin). 4. I fell in love with late autumn for the purity of the air, the cold, when the cheeks are burning, the tinny ripples of the rivers, the heavy movement of the clouds. (K. Paustovsky). 5. True, when Christian Andersen settled in a hotel, there was still some ink left in the tin inkwell. 6. I remembered an expensive face with gray strands of hair. 7. Over the gray plain of the sea, the wind gathers clouds. (M. Gorky) 8. And the forest stands for itself, smiling (I. Nikitin). 9. The ladies moved closer to her, the old women smiled at her. (A. Pushkin) 10. Look, it's hay time, the whole village is in the meadow. (N. Nekrasov.)
Exercise 273.
Find in the sentences the words used in a figurative sense, underline and understand their meaning.
1. Winter sings, haunts, the shaggy forest cradles the pine forest with the ringing sound. (S. Yesenin).
2. Winter is not without reason angry, its time has passed - spring is knocking on the window and driving from the yard.
(F. Tyutchev).
3. A mournful wind drives a flock of clouds to the edge of heaven, a bruised spruce groans, a dark forest whispers muffledly. (A. Pushkin).
4. What, dense forest, thoughtful? (A. Koltsov).
Exercise 274.
Read the text. Define the text style. Write down the words used in figurative meanings, as part of word combinations that clarify their meaning; select synonyms for them that correspond to their meaning in the text, determine what semantic, stylistic role these words play in the text.
In his work, he fled from worn out, worn-out words, looking for words in live, spring speech, hitherto untouched and full-sounding. A man of the greatest conscience and naturally shy, he was irreconcilable in writing: “The accepted literary forms - as poems and dramas are written - did not have a soul. I wanted to express myself in my own way.” He was distinguished by high demands on himself: “I feel a decrease in the verbal level. The element of language dissipates. Reading Dahl is not at all in order to put words into circulation, but without them you can suffocate. Reading Russian is air. He had a heightened ear for the elements of language, doubt - his distinguishing feature - gave rise to the beauty of the figurative structure, the poetic metaphorical nature of his dictionary: “... I thought a lot about the word: they somehow misunderstand when they start talking about verbal “intricacies”. It is forgotten that the word is a living being, and not a trinket and a lead typographic set. He spoke about the origins of his work as follows: “I lead mine from Gogol, Dostoevsky and Leskov. The miraculous is from Gogol, the pain is from Dostoevsky, the wonderful and righteous is from Leskov.”
These are reflections from letters, diary entries and memoirs of the Russian writer and playwright - storyteller and inventor Alexei Mikhailovich Remizov. (1877-1957).
The modern reader, by the will of circumstances, is still little acquainted with the work of this most talented writer and person.
(Journal "Russian speech")
Exercise 275.
Read, underline metaphors and comparisons, explain their meaning. On the basis of the similarity of what features does the transfer occur.
1. There is no sun, but ponds are bright,
They stand as cast mirrors,
And bowls of still water
It would seem completely empty
But gardens are reflected in them.
Here is a drop, like a nail head,
Fell - and, hundreds of needles
Backwaters of ponds furrowing,
A sparkling downpour jumped -
And the forest rustled with rain.
And the wind, playing with foliage,
Mixed young birches,
And a ray of sunshine, as if alive,
Ignite dormant sparkles,
And the puddles poured blue.
(I. Bunin)
First, he walked to the side,
Then, having gained fresh strength,
Rustling in the foliage dry and thin,
He babbled, he spoke.
And here it babbles incessantly,
Loquacious and stubborn
And for a needle a needle
Uselessly pours into the window frames.
Then - must be tired! -
Quiet, thought and again
Reluctantly set to work -
Whip cabbage and carrots.
Grumbling, bubbling, everything is stubborn
Streams run from slimy steeps,
And he is sweeping, with stitches
The holes darn at the clouds.
The patches burst with a bang
Something roaring sparkles
And just like that - all of a sudden - on the curtains
The gold of the beam slipped.
Everything brightened up, shone...
Weakening in flight
The rain hit, already timidly,
The last drop on the sheet.
And the garden breathes, easily, deeply
With a whole breast of apple trees, pears and plums,
In the murmur of a stormy stream
Wet stockings to the thread.
And I want to run, laugh.
Slap barefoot through the puddles,
As long as the drops are golden
And the distant thunder subsides!
(Sun. Christmas)
3. I'm going to a radiant country
Named Spring -
Where March is outrageous
Waking up from sleep
Where the snow coat
He throws off his shoulders
So that the chest of cherries to the sun,
Lie down with an earthly chest.
Where the finches rejoice so,
Where, breaking the snow,
Streams with crooked sabers
Crash into the meadows
Where over any thaw
There is still steam
Where in every drop is small
The fire is shaking in the spring.
(N. Brown)
(Reference material I. 14. p. 206)
Learn one of your favorite poems by heart.
The same words can be used in different ways in speech, getting different meanings. stand out straight and portable word meanings. direct(or the main, main) meaning of a word is a meaning that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality.
Yes, the words table, black, boil have the main meanings: 1. A piece of furniture in the form of a horizontal board on high supports, legs; 2. Color of soot, coal; 3. Boil, bubbling, evaporating from strong heating (about liquids). These values are stable, although they may change historically. For example, the word table in the Old Russian language it meant "throne", "reigning".
The direct meanings of words less than all others depend on the context, on the nature of the connections with other words.
Portable(indirect) meanings of words - such meanings that arise as a result of the conscious transfer of a name from one phenomenon of reality to another based on the similarity, commonality of their features, functions, etc.
Yes, the word table used in several figurative meanings: 1. An item of special equipment or part of a cold-form machine ( operating table, raise the machine table); 2. Nutrition, food ( rent a room with a table); 3. A department in an institution in charge of a special range of affairs ( information desk).
Word black has such figurative meanings: 1. Dark, as opposed to something lighter, called white ( black bread); 2. Having taken on a dark color, darkened ( black from sunburn); 3. In the old days: chicken ( black hut); 4. Gloomy, bleak, heavy ( black thoughts); 5. Criminal, malicious ( black betrayal); 6. Not the main, auxiliary ( back door in the house); 7. Physically difficult and unskilled ( dirty work).
Word boil has the following metaphors:
1. Manifest to a strong degree ( work is in full swing); 2. To manifest something with force, to a strong degree ( boil with indignation); 3. Randomly move ( river boiled with fish).
As you can see, when transferring the meaning, words are used to name phenomena that do not serve as a constant, ordinary object of designation, but come close to another concept through various associations that are obvious to speakers.
Portable meanings can preserve figurativeness ( black thoughts, black betrayal). However, these figurative meanings are fixed in the language; they are given in dictionaries when interpreting words. In this figurative-figurative meanings differ from the metaphors that are created by writers.
In most cases, when transferring meanings, imagery is lost. For example: pipe elbow, teapot spout, carrot tail, clock movement. In such cases, one speaks of extinct figurativeness in the lexical meaning of the word.
The transfer of names occurs on the basis of the similarity in something of objects, signs, actions. The figurative meaning of a word can be assigned to an object (sign, action) and become its direct meaning: teapot spout, door handle, table leg, book spine, etc.
The value transfer process goes like this : baby's foot(direct) - table leg(portable) - table leg(direct).
The primary, direct meaning can sometimes be restored only by studying the history of the word.
Let's summarize the above material in the table:
Portable Value Types
Depending on which sign the meaning is transferred from one object to another, the following types of figurative meanings of the word are distinguished.
1) Transferring values for some similarity between objects and events. Such transfers are called metaphorical. Metaphor(from the Greek Metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name from one object, action, property, phenomenon to other actions, properties, phenomena based on the similarity of their features (for example, shape, color, function, location and etc.). Examples of metaphorical meanings:
a) onion head, eyeball - transfer based on the similarity of the shape of objects;
b) the bow of the boat, the tail of the train, the head of the nail - transfer based on the similarity of the arrangement of objects;
c) janitor (in the meaning of "a cleaning device on the glass of a car"), electrical position, watchman (in the meaning of "a device on a dish to hold boiling milk") - transfer based on the similarity of the functions of objects.
For many metaphorical figurative meanings of the word, it is characteristic anthropomorphism, that is, the likening of the properties of the surrounding physical world to the properties of a person. Compare such examples: an evil wind, indifferent nature, the breath of spring, “The River Plays” (the title of the story by V.G. Korolenko), the stream runs, the volcano woke up, etc.
On the other hand, some properties and phenomena of inanimate matter are transferred to the human world, for example: a cold look, an iron will, a heart of stone, a golden character, a shock of hair, a ball of thoughts, etc. There are metaphors general language when one or another metaphorical meaning of a word is used widely, as a result of which it is known to all speakers of a given language (nail head, river arm, black envy, iron will), and individual, created by a writer or poet, characterizing his stylistic manner and not becoming common. Compare, for example, metaphors:
S.A. Yesenin: red mountain ash bonfire, birch tongue of the grove, chintz of the sky, grains of eyes, etc.;
B.L. Pasternak: the labyrinth of the lyre, the bloody tears of September, the rolls of lanterns and the donuts of the roofs, etc.
2) Transferring the name from one subject to another based on adjacency these items. This transfer of values is called metonymy(from Greek Metonymia - renaming). Metonymic transfers of meaning are often formed according to certain regular types:
a) material - a product from this material. For example, the words gold, crystal can denote products made from these materials (she has gold in her ears; there is solid crystal on the shelves);
b) a vessel - the contents of the vessel (I ate two plates, drank a cup);
c) the author - the works of this author (I read Pushkin, I know Nerkasov by heart);
d) action - the object of action (actions aimed at publishing a book, illustrated edition of a book as an object);
e) action - the result of an action (construction of a monument - a monumental structure);
f) action - a means or instrument of action (putty of cracks - fresh putty, gear attachment - ski mount, motion transmission - bicycle gear);
g) action - place of action (exit from the house - stand at the exit, traffic stop - bus stop);
h) animal - animal fur or meat (the hunter caught a fox - what kind of fur, arctic fox or fox?).
One of the peculiar types of metonymy is synecdoche. Synecdoche(from the Greek. Sinekdoche - ratio) - the ability of a word to name both a part of something and a whole. For example, the words face, mouth, head, hand denote the corresponding parts of the human body. But each of them can be used to name a person: unauthorized persons are not allowed to enter; in family five mouths; Kolya- light head.
Some characteristic signs of a person - a beard, glasses, clothes and others are often used to refer to a person. For example:
- Hey, beard, where are you going?
- I'm standing behind the blue cloak...
- It's true that it's expensive, - red pantaloons sigh (Ch.)
A word can have both direct and figurative lexical meaning. Multi-valued words have a figurative meaning.
The direct meaning of the word is its main lexical meaning. It is directly directed to the designated object, phenomenon, action, sign, immediately causes an idea of them and is least dependent on the context. Words often appear in the direct meaning.
The figurative meaning of the word- this is its secondary meaning, which arose on the basis of the direct one.
A toy, -and, well. 1. A thing that serves for the game. Kids toys. 2. trans. One who blindly acts according to someone else's will, an obedient instrument of someone else's will (disapproved). To be a toy in someone's hands.
The essence of the transfer of meaning is that the meaning is transferred to another object, another phenomenon, and then one word is used as the name of several objects at the same time. In this way, the ambiguity of the word is formed.
Depending on the basis of which sign the meaning is transferred, there are three main types of value transition:
- metaphor,
- metonymy,
- synecdoche.
The direct meaning of the word
The words of our speech call objects, their signs and actions. Unambiguous words directly correlate with the object of reality, directly name the object, its sign or process of action. This is direct meaning the words.
In the flow of speech, such words immediately evoke an idea of what they are called. Their meaning does not depend on the context, for example:
Over the forest, over the field, over the villages stretched the blue sky.
The sky beckons future astronauts.
Fluffy white clouds float lazily across the sky.
Most of the words of the Russian language appear in the direct meaning, for example:
daughter, house, grass, polite, huge.
The direct meaning of the word is its main lexical meaning.
The figurative meaning of the word
A word can have several lexical meanings that arise from the direct meaning. This new additional lexical meaning is called portable. It appears on the basis of the similarity of objects in appearance, on the basis of the action (function) performed, for example:
in the phrase "stone building" word "stone" names the material from which the building is composed, and denotes a direct sign of the object "strong, firm, immovable".
In the phrase "stone face" adjective "stone" stands for " harsh, unfeeling" or "evil" face. In this example, the word "stone" has a secondary figurative meaning formed on the basis of a direct meaning.
The essence of the transfer of meaning is that it passes to another object, another phenomenon or process along common points of contact in the meaning. Then one word is used as the name of several objects at the same time. This is how the ambiguity of words arises. Multi-valued words have a figurative meaning, for example:
- the blue sea - the sea of wheat - the sea of the people;
- light burden - light hand - light industry.
