Russian spelling
Russian spelling- a set of rules governing the spelling of words in the Russian language.
Modern Russian spelling.
The main principle of modern orthography of the Russian language is the morphological principle (the same morpheme in phonetically different forms of the word is spelled the same). Phonetic and other principles in the Russian language are of much lesser importance and are not the main ones. Simultaneous violations of both principles occur in words like shearless, bad taste.
The Russian alphabet, which is based on the Cyrillic alphabet, is used as the alphabet.
Story
Initially, individual spellings dominated the language. One of the earliest works on the theory of spelling is the work of V. K. Trediakovsky, published in 1748, where the principles for constructing the alphabet and spelling are formulated, which even the modern Russian alphabet corresponds well to. M. V. Lomonosov in the “Russian Grammar”, published in 1755, which was widely used and used for teaching the Russian language for many years, published spelling rules and such fundamental principles as ease of reading for everyone, proximity to the three main Russian dialects, proximity to morphology and pronunciation :12-15. The first academic dictionary of the Russian language was published in 1784-1794.
A fairly complete review of spelling rules in their historical perspective was carried out by J. K. Grot in 1873. He considered the main principle to be morphological in combination, to some extent, with phonetic written forms. Subsequently, the primacy of the morphological principle (as opposed to phonetic) in Russian spelling was pointed out by A. N. Gvozdev, A. I. Thomson, M. N. Peterson, D. N. Ushakov: 17-30.
In 1904, a special commission on spelling was created at the Academy of Sciences. Its subcommittee, which included such famous scientists as A. A. Shakhmatov, F. F. Fortunatov, I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, A. I. Sobolevsky, began preparing a spelling reform. The final draft of the reform was ready by 1912, the proposed changes were implemented six years later, with the Russian Spelling Reform of 1918: 262-263. Until 1918, the Russian alphabet had more letters than now. As a result of the reform of 1918, the letters yat, fita, izhitsa, and decimal were removed from the endings of words.
In 1956, the Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation of 1956 were adopted, which changed the spelling of some words and regulated the use of the letter.
Subsequently, under the leadership of V.V. Lopatin, some changes in the rules were put forward, partially reflected in the spelling dictionary edited by him.
The most important rules
Spelling of vowels at the root of words
Unstressed vowels that can be stressedst about ly - st about l
m about l about doi - m about lodost, they say about daytime
to about ditch, to about role, region a ko, b about lotto
In the roots and - and
C and pk, c and rkul, c and tata, c and nga, c and fra … and other borrowed words
Exception words: c s gan on c s kidneys approached s film and c s yelled: "ts s c".
In suffixes and endings - c s - s
Lisitsyn, kuritsyn; streets
1) w and, w and - and
h a, sch a - a
h at, sch at - at
F and know, h a shcha, h at before …
2) After hissing - yo:
H yo rny, w yo light, w yo lx, h yo mouth ...
Exception words: about w about h, w about roch, capyush about n, krush about n, kryzh about penetrated, sh about ce, sh about colade, w about kay, obj about ra, live about rliv, w about ngler, h about porn, crack about weaving, weaving about ba, sh about mouths, sh about rnik, sh about mpol, sh about vinism, sh about k, w about ra, thicket about ba, h about whipped, h about roll, h about x, h about hom, w about m, f about r, f about x, vech about p, mazh about p, mazh about rny.
Alternating e - and, o - a at the root of the word1) b e r - b and ra-
t e r - t and ra-
d e r - d and ra-
P e r - p and ra-
m e r - m and ra-
st e l - st and la-
bl e st - bl and become
well e mrs. and ha-
d e ret - sd and breaks
st e pour - zast and layet
mind e p - mind and army
bl e stit - bl and becomes
Exception words: Op. e tânie, op e lingering, word e tânie
2) K about from - to a câ-
l about w - l a ha-
to about sleep - to a sit down
izl about zhenie - izl a goat
Exception word: floor about G
3) R about with - about
R a st - r a sch - a
exp about s, ex a sti, vyr a whelping
Exception words: Raboutstock, Raboutstislav, Raboutstov, raboutseamstress, otrasl
4) M about to - m a to
you m about kick in the rain
m a pour into liquid
5) P about vn - r a ext
R about out - r a clear
(smooth - same)
exp about heed - ur a opinion
Exception word: R a vnina
6) g about r - g a R
zag a r, g about rit
7) h about r - h a R
h a rya, s about ri, s a revo.
Spelling of consonants at the root of words
Deaf and unpronounceable consonants, which can be checked by changing the word or choosing a single-root, in which after the checked consonant there is a vowel or c, l, m, n, p, d1. Table b- table b s
jelly d b - zhelu d and.
2. Gla h ki-gla h threads
ska h ka - ska h points.
3. Zdra in stuy - hello in ie
months t ness - month t about.
Yo and O after sizzling
- Always ё: (n.) bees, bangs, rosaries, acorns, brushes; (adj.) yellow, black, crisp, silky; (vb) walked.
- Exception words: (n.) seam, rustle, hood, gooseberry, shock, shorts, chauvinism, slum, saddler, chokh, pulp, zhor, glutton, burn, ramrod, hood, ratchet, thicket, major; (adj.) gluttonous, prudish, crazy, major; (vb) clink glasses; (adv.) chohom, evening.
In suffix:
- Usually it is written o under stress, without stress - e: (n.) galch onok, hare onok, mouse onok, bear onok, circle OK, wolch OK and bell ek; (adj.) hedgehog ov oh, brocade ov th, canvas ov th and beige ev th; (adv.) hot about, fresh about, good about and smelly e.
- However: (verb) demarcation yov vyvat; (adj.) burn yonn oh, bewitch yonn th.
- Exception word: yet yo.
At the end:
- Usually under stress is written o, without stress - e: (n.) knife ohm, candle oh, doctor ohm and watchman eat, cottages her; (adj.) big wow and good his.
- However: (vb) guard et, live et, oven et.
Difficulties
Among the difficulties of mastering Russian spelling:
- The continuous or separate spelling of nouns with a prefix that turns into adverbs is not regulated by strict rules, but is determined by the dictionary ( satiety, but to death; in half, but thirds; in addition, but Finally, on dry land, but by sea).
- Writing about or yo after hissing and c inconsistently: arson(noun) at set fire to(verb), pot at potter.
- The rule of writing "not" with verbs has many exceptions: to hate, to hate, to dislike, to dislike, to miss and etc.
- Writing forms of the word "go" (root - and-) is only defined by the dictionary: go, but come and I will come. The same with the forms of the root - them-/-eat-/-I-: understand, but I will accept, I'll take and take out.
- Unpronounceable, but verifiable consonants are sometimes written, sometimes not, without a special system: “sun”, “hello”, but “pull”, “led”, “potter”.
- The double consonant at the junction of the prefix and the root is sometimes reflected in the letter, sometimes not, without a special system: “pull”, “ring”, “anticipation”, but “open”, “open”.
- A number of exceptions in the spelling "ci" / "qi" ( number, but chick), conjugation of verbs with alternation a/about fundamentally ( grow, but increased; gallop, but burn down; bow, but to worship), writing double n in full adjectives and participles, etc.
Features of spelling compound words
Some compound words violate the rules of Russian graphics:
- words like "Hitler Youth" and "Inyaz" (read "Hitler Youth" and "Inyaz");
- words like "telavivets", "costutil" and "mezzanine" (it reads "telyavivets", "costutil" and "beletage").
Criticism
The spelling of the Russian language has been repeatedly criticized by various writers and scholars. A number of opinions were collected by J. K. Grot in the book “Controversial Issues of Russian Spelling from Peter the Great to the Present” (1873). Y. K. Grot himself defended the letter yat, considering it important for distinguishing words, despite the fact that such words were not distinguished in the capital dialects of the oral Russian language. The changes in the standard of writing that have been proposed in this book have been very modest, without affecting commonly used cases with already established spellings. However, for relatively rare words (for example, “ham”, “wedding”, “cuttlefish”), a violation of the morphological nature of their spelling was noted (instead of “vyadchina”, “marriage”, “cuttlefish”).
V. V. Lopatin suggested writing in words like laden, dyed, fried, sheared, wounded always the same n regardless of whether they have syntactically subordinate words or not.
see also
Notes
Literature
- Panov M.V. And yet she's good! : A story about Russian spelling, its advantages and disadvantages / USSR Academy of Sciences .. - M .: Nauka, 1964. - 168 p. - (Popular science series). - 35,000 copies.(reg.)
- Grigoryeva T. M. Three centuries of Russian orthography (XVIII - XX centuries). - M .: Elpis, 2004. - 456 p. - 1,000 copies. - ISBN 5-902872-03-0(in trans.)
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1. How much can you doubt "come" or "come"? Remember once and for all, correctly - "come".
2. Ordered "expresso"? To cook faster? The coffee is called espresso!
3. Which is correct: "go" or "go" or "go"? No way! The imperative form of the verbs "to go" and "to go" will only be "go" or "call in", "come", etc. The use of the word "go" without a prefix is considered acceptable, but undesirable in colloquial speech.
4. Which is correct: "I will win" or "I will win"? No way! The verb "to win" does not have a form of the 1st person singular. numbers in the future tense. “I will win”, “I will be able to win” completely replace this form.
5. Repeat! There are no words "in general" and "in general"! There are words "in general" and "generally". And point.
6. The documents have a "signature", but in the Sistine Chapel on the altar wall - "painting". Do not confuse, friends, do not confuse!
7. From the point of view of lexical compatibility, the expression "the best" sounds as ridiculous as "more beautiful." A big hello to the directors of "The Best Movie".
8. "To borrow" is to borrow! "Loan me money" is not true. You can't borrow from someone, you can only borrow from someone. "Lend me money", "Can I borrow from you?" - right.
9. "During" (for some time, in continuation), but "during" (for example, rivers, flow as a direction in art). Please note, always separate!
10. Hadron Collider! Not "Andronny", who is this "Andron"? Hadrons are elementary particles, and the collider was named after them. "Collider", by the way, with two "l".
11. Win! Don't win! We sincerely do not understand what motivates people who put "Y" there. The key word is play.
12. Everyone who still says "theirs" will burn in hell!
13. For writing "sorry" instead of "sorry" it's time to introduce fines.
Learn your native language!
(c) not found
1. Unstressed vowel at the root.
To check an unstressed vowel in the root, you need to change the form of the word or choose a single-root word so that it is stressed.
G about ra - g about ry
B about rolled - b about retsya
Not accepted and rimy - m and R
2. Vowel alternation at the root.
in the roots mountains - gar the letter A is written under stress, without stress - O (zag a r - zag about relay)
Fundamentally zor - zar, the vowel that is heard is written under stress, without stress - A (z a revo, s a rnitsa, oz a ryat, s about rka)
Fundamentally clone - clan the vowel that is heard is written under stress, without stress - O (skl about thread, class a snuggle, snuggle about n, on about thread)
in the roots kos - kas the letter A is written, if there is a suffix A after the root, if this suffix is not present, then the letter O is written. (k a sled, prik about fell asleep)
in the roots lag - lies A is written before G, O is written before F (proposition a say, offer about live)
in the roots grow - grew before ST, U, the letter A is written. If there is no ST, U, the letter O is written (r a stet, por about sl) Exceptions: sprout, industry, Rostov, Rostislav.
in the roots Ber - bir, der - dir, mer - peace, per - fir, tertir, shine - blist, burn - burn, stel - steel the letter A is written if after the root there is a suffix A. (I will collect - collect, lay - lay)
3.Vowels O - E (Yo) after hissing and C in different parts of the word.
1.Fundamentally words after hissing under stress, the letter E (Yo) is written. (in related words and forms of this word, the letter E is written without stress (evening - evening, cheap - cheaper) Exceptions: seam, rustle, saddler, hood, gooseberry, glutton, thicket, major
It should be distinguished:
A) noun - burn, arson, verbs - burn, set fire
B) in words of foreign origin:
jockey, juggler, shock, highway, driver.
C) in proper names: Pechora, Pechorin, Shostakovich
2. After C, the letter o is written under stress in the root. unstressed
the vowel after C must be checked with an accent. (basement, whole -
whole)
3.In endings, suffixes nouns and
adjectives after hissing and C under stress, the letter O is written, without stress - E (chest, hut, big, red, jackdaw, wrestler, crimson)
4 .At the end of adverbs, the letter O is written under stress, without
accents - E (hot, ebullient)
5 .Under the stress, the letter Yo is written
a) in the endings of verbs (we save, bake),
b) in the verbal suffix -yovyva (shade)
c) in the suffix –ёr of nouns (conductor, trainee)
d) in suffixes -yonn, -yon of passive participles,
verbal adjectives, if they are formed from
verb on -it (completed - complete, stewed - stew)
e) in pronouns (about anything, nothing)
4. Vowels ы, and after Ц in different parts of the word.
1. At the root of the word after C, the letter I is written (number, circus) Exceptions:
gypsy, chick, chick, chick, chick)
2. In words ending on - tion letter i is written
(acacia, lecture, delegation)
3.In suffixes and endings the letter Y is written (birds, pages,
Sinitsyn)
5. Voiced and voiceless consonants.
To check the spelling of paired consonants b-p, v-f, g-k, d-t, w-sh, you need to change the word so that after this consonant there is a vowel. (tooth - teeth, light - light)
6. Unpronounceable consonants at the root of the word. (combinations of vstv, ndsk, stl, stn, etc.)
The word must be changed or a single-root word chosen so that this consonant is heard clearly. (joyful - joy, whistle - whistle)
But: sn- miraculous - miracles.
7. Separating b and b
Kommersant
b
1. Before the letters E, Yo, Yu, I
after prefixes
into a consonant
(bypass, disengage)
1. Before the letters E, Yo, Yu, I, And
in roots, suffixes, endings.
(barrier, blizzard, fox, nightingale)
In compound words
(three-tier, inter-tier)
In foreign words:
adjutant, object, subject, etc. broth, battalion, signor, etc.
8. Soft sign after hissing.
b is spelled
b is not written
1. In feminine nouns
kinda (night, rye)
1. In masculine nouns (knife, rook)
2. In all forms of the verb
(write, ignite, smile)
2. In nouns, plural. numbers
(many clouds, near puddles)
3. In adverbs for Zh, Sh, Ch (jump,
entirely) Exceptions: already, married,
unbearable
3. In short adjectives (hot,
good, strong)
4. In particles (only, ish, bish)
9. Vowels Y-I after prefixes.
After consonant prefix a letter is written S, if the word from which it is formed begins with the letter I (unprincipled - an idea, sum up - a result, play out - a game)
After prefixes over-, sub-, trans-, inter- letter is written AND ( inter-institutional, superinteresting, sub-inspector).
10. Continuous and hyphenated spelling of complex adjectives.
Slitno:
1. Formed from a subordinating phrase (ancient Greek - Ancient Greece, wagon repair - repair of wagons)
2. Used as terms or expressions in bookish language (the above, the undersigned)
Through a hyphen:
1. Designate a shade of color (light pink, red-brown)
2. Formed from a hyphenated noun (southwest - southwest)
3. Between parts of the adjective, you can insert the union "and" (Russian-German - Russian and German, convex-concave - convex and concave).
4. Formed from a combination of a noun and an adjective, but with a rearrangement of these elements (literary and artistic - fiction)
5. Having at the end of the first base a combination -iko (chemical-pharmaceutical).
Apart:
Phrases are written separately, consisting of an adverb and an adjective. The adverb acts as a member of the sentence, indicating the degree of the sign expressed by the adjective (genuinely friendly, sharply hostile) or in what respect the sign is considered (socially dangerous, i.e. dangerous to society). Adverbs in -ski in the meaning of "similarity" (damn cunning).
11. Not with different parts of speech.
Slitno
Apart
Not used without NOT ( all parts of speech)
can't, hate, unseen
There is a contrast with the union "A" or it is implied (noun, adjective, adverb on O, E)
not true but false
Can be replaced by a synonym or a close expression ( noun, adjective, adverb in o,e)
untruth - a lie, unknown - someone else's)
There are words “not far”, “not at all”, “not at all”, “not at all”, etc.
(adjective, adverb in O, E)
Not at all interesting, not at all beautiful
No dependent words and opposition with the union "A"
(participle)
unglued, unspoken
There are dependent words or opposition with the union "A" (participle)
not spoken in time
With verbs, adverbs
(didn't find it, didn't find out)
With adverbs not in -O, E (not comradely)
With negative and indefinite adverbs and pronouns (no one, a few, nowhere)
With negative pronouns, if there is a pretext (no one, no one)
12. One and two letters H in suffixes.
Parts of speech
HH
Nouns
Living room, worker, herbalist
At the junction of morphemes
Fifty dollars, window sill
adjectives
In suffixes -in, -an, -yan
Gus in th, leather en th
Excl.: pewter, wood, glass
1) in adjectives formed with the suffix -n- from nouns with a stem on H (fog n th)
2) in adjectives formed from nouns with the help of suffixes -onn, -enn (arts enn th, aviation he N th)
Excl.: windy
Participles and verbal adjectives
1) in short passive participles (error corrected en a)
2) in full participles and verbal adjectives formed from imperfective verbs (crash en yy - no prefix and dependent word)
excl.: slow, desired, sacred, unexpected, unseen, unheard, unexpected)
1) if the word has a prefix other than non- (dried)
2) if they include dependent words (sown through a sieve)
3) if the word has a suffix -ova, -eva (zinc ovann th)
4) if the word is formed from a perfective verb yonn th - deprive)
Adverb
In adverbs, the same number of N is written as in the adjectives from which they are formed
(tuma nn o - fog nn oh, excited nn o - excited nn th)
23. Letters E, I in case endings of nouns.
1. nouns have 1 declension in the dative and prepositional cases (in the grass - 1 cl., p.p., on the road - 1 skl., d.p.)
1. nouns have 1 declension in the genitive case (near the river - 1 declension, R.p.)
2. nouns have 2 declensions in the prepositional case (in the house - 2 cl, P.p.)
2. nouns have 3 declensions (at mother, at night)
3. for nouns in -th, -th, -th, -me in the genitive, dative and prepositional cases
(attach to a stirrup (on - me)), pluck from an acacia (on - ia))
24. Conjugation of verbs, spelling of personal endings of verbs.
Put the verb in the indefinite form (what to do? what to do?)
II conjugation I conjugation
on -it on -et, -at, -ut, -yt, -ty, -who
except for: shaving, laying (1 ref.) except for:
drive, hold, hear, breathe
endure, twirl, offend, depend,
hate, see, look (2 sp.)
At the end, the letter is written And at the end, the letter E is written
beautiful it– red it count em - count ot, rut it–gn at(excl.)
when finding an indefinite form, take a verb of the same form (decorate - decorate)
Spelling prefixes.
1. Letters З-С at the end of prefixes.
In prefixes voz-vos, bez-bes, from -is, bottom -nis, once - races, through - through before voiced letters are written in consonants W, before deaf consonants - letter WITH.
(Ra h give - ra with bite, be h sonorous - be with cordial)
There are no prefixes Z: knock down, cut down, run away
In the words here, building, health there is no prefix.
In the prefix times (races) - roses (grew), the letter A is written without stress, the letter O is under stress. (break up - sledge, scatter - placer)
2. Prefixes pre-, pre-
Pre-
at-
1. It is possible to replace the prefix with the word very, very.
(very large - very large)
1. Spatial proximity
(about) - school, seaside
2. Approximation, joining,
addition (arrive, screw,
join)
2. Close to the meaning of "re"
(transform, block)
3. Incomplete action (slightly open)
4. Bringing the action to the end
(come up with)
Spelling of suffixes
1. Suffixes -EK, -IK of nouns
To correctly write a suffix, you need to decline the word (put it in the genitive case form). If the vowel drops out, then the suffix -EK is written, if it does not drop out, then the suffix -IK should be written (lock - lock, finger - finger)
2. Verb suffixes -ova (-eva), -yva (iva)
If in the present or future tense the verb ends in -yva, -ivay, then you need to write the suffixes -yva, -iva.
If it ends in -th, -th, then you need to write the suffixes -ova, -eva.
(conversations ova l, conversations ova t - conversations wow, story ywa l - story I am)
3. Suffixes of participles -usch, -yushch, -ashch, -yashch.
If the participle is formed from the verb of the 1st conjugation, then the suffixes -usch, -yushch should be written.
If the participle is formed from the verb of the 2nd conjugation, then you need to write the suffixes -ash, -ash.
(stabbing - stabbing (1 ref.), coloring - dyeing (2 ref.))
4. Participle suffixes -EM, -OM, -IM
If the participle is formed from the verb of the 1st conjugation, then we write the suffix -EM, -OM, if from the verb of the 2nd conjugation, then the suffix -IM
(visible - see (2 ref.), burned - burn (1 ref.))
5. The letters O, A at the end of adverbs with prefixes -FROM, -TO, -C
If adverbs are formed from adjectives that do not have these prefixes, then we write the letter A.
If adverbs are formed from adjectives that have these prefixes, then we write the letter O.
(before dry - dry, before urgently - before urgent)
On the muffled , in left (no prefixes -from, -to, -s)
6. Suffixes -K-, -SK- adjectives.
The suffix -K- is written:
1) in adjectives that have a short form (col to iy - kolok, elm to ii - knit)
2) in adjectives formed from some nouns with a base on k, h, c (German to ij - German, weaver to ii - weaver)
In other cases, the suffix -SK- is written (French sk y - French h)
7. Suffixes -CHIK-, -SHIK-
After the letters d - t, z - s, w, the letter Ch is written. In other cases, u is written. (cover tchik, stone box- no letters d, t, s, s, g)
8. Vowels before -Н, -НН in participle suffixes, before the past tense verb suffix -Л-.
If the participle or verbal adjective is formed from the verb in -at, -yat, then the letter A, Z is written before H, HH (upsh a ny - vesh at).
If the participle or verbal adjective is formed from verbs ending not in -at, -yat, then the letter E is written before H, HH
(zasuch e nny - zauch it, crush e ny - red it).
A hyphen between parts of words.
Hyphenated adverbs.
With a hyphen between the parts of the word, adverbs are written that have in their composition:
1) prefix in - and suffixes -om, -him, -and (in a new way, in a comradely way)
2) the prefix in-, in- and suffixes -s, -them (secondly, thirdly)
3) prefix something (somehow)
4) suffixes -something, -either, -something (colda-either, somewhere)
5) complex adverbs, which have the same roots (little by little)
Indefinite pronouns with a prefix something and suffixes something-, something are written with a hyphen (someone, some)
Compound words with half- are written with a hyphen if the second root begins with L, with a capital letter, with a vowel. In other cases, the floor in complex words is written together. (half moon, half watermelon, half Volga, half house,)
interjection, formed by repeating the basics (ooh-ooh)
Particles - something are attached to other words with a hyphen. (became something, take it)
Consolidated and separate spelling of homonymous independent and functional words.
Prepositions with other words are written separately. (on the river, on me, by five)
Derived prepositions, formed on the basis of adverbs, are written together (to go towards the delegates).
Derived prepositions are written together: in view of (= due to), like (= similar), about (= about), instead of, like, due to ( due to)
Talk about exams but to put money in the account (n.)
Derivative prepositions are written separately during, in continuation, according to
reason, for the purpose, on the part).
Unions also, too, to are written fluently. They should be distinguished from combinations in the same way, the same as. In these combinations, the particles, however, could be omitted or rearranged to another place.
Mother studied at the institute. My father also studied there.
The same word, but not so to say.
Morphology(parts of speech).
Grammatical signs of independent parts of speech.
Part of speech
Gram. meaning
Question to the beginning form
Permanent signs
Non-permanent signs
Syntax
role in the proposal
Noun
Thing
Who? what?
Odush.-indush., own. or common noun, gender, declension
Case, number
Subject
Addition
Adjective
sign
Which? Whose?
Qualitative, relative possessive; full - short, degrees of comparison
gender, number, case
Definition, predicate
(short adj.)
Numeral
Quantity, order when counting
How much? Which?
Simple-composite, quantitative, ordinal, collective
Case, number, gender (for ordinals)
As part of any member of the sentence, definition (ordinal)
Pronoun
Meaning of the part of speech instead of which it is used
Who? What? Which? How much? Which?
Rank, person (for personal)
Case (for some), number, gender
Any member of the proposal
Verb
action, state
What to do? what to do?
View, transitivity, conjugation, recurrence
Mood, tense, number, person or gender
Personal forms - predicate, n.f. - any part of the proposal
Participle
Sign of an object by action
Which?
Doing what? What has done? and etc.
Real or passive, time, type
Case, number, gender, full or short
Definition
gerund
Additional action
What do you do? Having done what?
How?
Type, recurrence
Not
circumstance
Adverb
Sign of action or other sign
How? Where? Where? When? What for? and etc.
Degrees of comparison
Not
circumstance
Classes of adjectives.
Discharge
signs
Examples
quality
1. Answer the questions Which one? Which? Which?
2. denote various qualities of objects: color, internal qualities of a person, state of mind, age, size of an object; qualities perceived by the senses, etc.
3. may have diminutive suffixes –ist, -ovat, -enk, etc.
4. may have a short form and degrees of comparison
5. compound adjectives and adjectives are formed. With prefix not-
6. combined with adverbs very, extremely, etc.
nicer
sick
Too light light - light
difficult
relative
1.answer questions what? Which? Which?
2. designate the material from which the object is made; time, place, purpose of the object, etc.
3. have suffixes –an, -yan, -sk-, -ov-,
4. do not have a short form, do not form degrees of comparison
5. do not combine with adverbs very, too.
Wooden
Nautical
Possessive
Whose? Whose? Whose? Whose?
2. denote belonging to a person or animal
3. have suffixes –ov, -ev, -in, -yn, -й
Foxy, fathers, wolf
Classes of pronouns.
Discharge
Pronouns
personal
1st person: I, we
2nd person: you
3rd person: he, she, it, they
returnable
Myself
Possessive
Mine, yours, ours, yours, yours
Interrogative-relative
Who, what, which, what, whose, which, how much
Undefined
Someone, something, some, several, some, something, etc.
Negative
Nobody, nothing, none, no one, not at all, no one, nothing
pointing
That, this, such, such, such, so much
Determinants
Himself, most, everyone, all, each, any, other, other
Discharges of names of numerals.
By appointment
By structure
quantitative
Ordinal
Simple
Complex
composite
whole
Fractional
Collecting
Three,
Twenty five
One third,
one and a half
Two
Three
seven
third, thirty-fifth
fourteen, thirtieth
Five hundred, one hundred thousandth
One hundred seventy-three, three point eight
Mood and tense of the verb.
indicative
Conditional
imperative
Denotes an action that is happening, has happened or will actually happen.
Denotes an action that is possible under some condition (would read, would read)
Denotes an action to which the speaker encourages someone (advises, asks, orders)
present tense
Past tense
Future tense
What is he doing?
What have you been doing?
What did you do?
What will do? (future complex)
What will he do? (future simple)
Is reading
read, told
will read
Participle formation
From the stem of the present tense verb
From the stem of the infinitive
Present participles
Past participles
Valid
Passive
Valid
passive
1 ref.
2 ref.
1 ref.
2 ref.
Vsh
Enn
Hn
Usch, - yusch
Ash
crate
Eat
Ohm
Them
Ym
Bole Yusch uy
Creech ash uy
Ozar eat th
Storage them th
Skaka vsh uy
nes w uy
Pulled out enn th
crowning nn th
vymy t th
Formation of gerunds
Imperfect participles
Perfect participles
Suffixes -a, -i
Suffixes
Vsh
Lice
lie down - lie down a
We sit - sit I
think - think in, thought lice
Get carried away - carried away shea camping
Classes of adverbs by meaning.
Class of adverbs
Questions answered by adverbs
Examples
Mode of action and degree
How?
How?
Fast, fun, new, often, great
Measures and degrees
How much? How many times?
In what degree?
To what extent? How much?
A little, a little, a little, five times, too much, completely, completely, twice
Places
Where?
Where?
Where?
Far, near, around, from within, from afar, everywhere
time
When?
How long?
Since when?
How long?
Now, soon, long ago, now, the day before, in the afternoon, at night, in the summer, early
Causes
Why?
From what?
For what reason?
Hastily, blindly, reluctantly
Goals
What for?
For what?
For what purpose?
On purpose, out of spite, on purpose
A special group is made up of pronominal adverbs:
Demonstrative adverbs - here, there, there, from there, then
Indefinite adverbs - somewhere, somewhere, somewhere, somewhere
Negative adverbs - nowhere, never, nowhere, nowhere
Interrogative-relative adverbs - where, where, when, why, why.
Lilac blossoms (when?) spring. (adverb)
beyond the spring(When? For what?) Summer will come. (noun)
Adverbs with prefixes must be distinguished from consonant combinations of nouns, adjectives and pronouns with prepositions.
At first it was difficult. (when? - circumstance - adverb)
At first year (noun with a preposition, because there is a dependent word).
got sick, That's why and didn't come. (adverb why?)
So the bridge is closed to traffic. (adj., over the bridge (what?) - definition)
In the distance blue spinning sand. (in what? where?)
away the shepherd played importunately. (adverb where?)
Condition Category Words - denote the state of nature, the environment, living beings, humans (damp, cloudy, offensive, funny, joyful). They are used in one-part impersonal sentences and are predicates.
Formation of degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs .
Parts of speech
comparative
Superlatives
Simple
Composite
Simple
Composite
Adjective
Her(s)
She
Stronger
Before
less often
more…
less…
More strong
Less strict
Ash(y)
Yeish (yy)
the strictest
strongest
all (everyone)..
most…
least…
Deepest, highest quality
Adverb
Her(s)
She
Stronger, earlier, less
more…
less…
More strongly
Less strict
Aisha
eishe
Strictly
all (everyone)..
most…
least…
deeper than all
the highest quality
To distinguish the comparative degree of an adjective from the comparative degree of an adverb, you need to look at which word in the sentence the form of the comparative degree depends on. If it depends on the noun, then this is the comparative degree of the adjective (it is a predicate in the sentence) - person thinner, Class friendlier.
If it depends on the verb, then this is an adverb (it is a circumstance in a sentence) - cut thinner, sing friendlier.
Service parts of speech.
Pretext - serves to connect words in a phrase and sentence. There are simple and composite, derivatives and non-derivatives.
non-derivative
Derivatives from
Adverbs
noun
Participles
B, k, s, y, o, on, with, for, from, through, etc.
Along, opposite, ahead, according to, around
Due to, like, in continuation, during, in relation to, in contrast to, towards, in view of, in conclusion, over, in connection with, due to
thankfully, later, in spite of, in spite of, on the basis of
Union - serves to connect homogeneous members and parts of a complex sentence. There are simple and compound, coordinating and subordinating.
Ranks of unions by value.
writing
Subordinating
1. Connecting (both this and that): and, yes, also, also, not only…but also, like…and
1. Explanatory: what, as if to
2. Opposite (not that, but this): but, but, yes, but, however,
2. Circumstantial:
Time: when, just, while, barely , as soon as, after, before, only
Target: in order to, in order to, in order to, in order to
Comparison: as, as if, as if, exactly
Cause: because, since, since, for
Condition: if (if), if
Consequence: so
Concession: though, despite the fact that, let, let
3. Dividing (either this or that): or, either, neither ... neither, then ... that, either ... either, not that ... not that
Particle - conveys shades of meaning and serves to form certain forms of independent words. By meaning, there are formative, semantic. By category - simple, complex, compound.
(even, just, after all, just, hardly, no matter how, etc.)
Discharges of particles by value and function.
Semantic (express different meanings)
Form-building
(form word forms)
1. Negative: not, not
1. form of the conditional mood of the verb: would, b
2. Statement: yes, so, exactly, how, aha, uh-huh, definitely
2. form of the imperative mood of the verb: let, let, yes, let's, let's
3. Reinforcement: even, even and, already, and, already, yet, still, after all, well
3. form of comparative and superlative adjective: more, less, most
4. Question: is it really, is it, or something, but, what, how, well, how, and what if
Exclamation: what the, how, well
Doubt: hardly, hardly, maybe
7. Clarification: exactly, exactly, exactly, directly, a little, just, at least, at least, almost
8. Isolation, restriction: only, only, only only, almost, exclusively
9. Indication: here, here, out, and out, this
10. Relaxation of the requirement: -ka
Distinguishing He and Ni Particles
Particle NOT
Particle NI
Not - the meaning of negation
Misha not went to the rink.
Not Misha went to the skating rink, and Yura.
Ni is a negative particle with an amplifying value:
A) strengthening denial
In the sky not It was neither one lumen.
Not neither wind, neither sun, neither noise.
In the sky neither cloud.
Two particles NOT - the meaning of the statement
Not can not talk about this trip. - I must tell.
B) assertion strengthening
Where neither I look around, thick rye everywhere. (I'll look everywhere)
There may be words: no matter where, no one, no matter and etc.
Interjection - does not apply to either independent or official parts of speech. Interjections are used to express:
Feelings, emotions (fear, joy, doubt, surprise, sadness, delight, sadness, etc.): oh, yes, bravo, my God, wow, God is with you.
Speech etiquette (greetings, farewells, wishes, thanks, requests, etc.): thank you, thank you, goodbye, goodbye, sorry, please, all the best, hello.
Commands, orders, requests: on, face, shh, hello, bye-bye, stop, chick-chick.
Syntax.
phrase – several words related in meaning and grammatically.
According to the main word, phrases are nominal (the main word is an adjective, noun, pronoun), verbal (the main word is a verb, participle, participle), adverbial (the main word is an adverb).
Types of connection of words in phrases (by dependent word).
Coordination
Control
adjoining
The dependent word is used in the same gender, number and case (adj., participle, pronoun = adj., ordinal number)
The dependent word is put in the case required by the main (noun, pronoun = noun)
The dependent word is related to the main word only in meaning.
(adverb, adverb)
prepositional
(with a suggestion)
Unprepositional (no preposition)
For an experienced teacher
Growing up on the road
Land development
Work passionately
Types of offers.
Offer types
Examples
By the nature of the expressed relationship to reality
Affirmative(Affirm the connection between the subject of speech and what is said about it).
Negative(the connection between the subject of speech and what is said about it is denied).
Sad long evening in October. (I. Bunin)
No, I don't treasure rebellious pleasure. (A. Pushkin)
By the number of grammatical bases
Simple (consist of one grammatical basis)
Complex (consist of two or more grammatical bases)
A breeze rushes along the narrow, clean street. (N.Rubtsov)
Dawn says goodbye to the earth, steam falls at the bottom of the valley. (A. Fet)
According to the nature of the grammatical basis
Bipartite(the grammatical basis consists of a subject and a predicate)
One-piece(the grammatical basis consists either only of the subject, or only of the predicate)
I loved late autumn in Russia. (I. Bunin)
It's already quite light. (K. Fedin)
By the presence of secondary members
Common(have in their composition a grammatical basis and secondary members of the sentence)
Uncommon(have only grammatical basis)
Two drops splashed into the glass. (A. Fet)
The lake was white. (I. Bunin)
According to the context and speech situation
Full(all necessary members of the proposal are present)
Incomplete(one or more sentence members omitted)
The whole city lay in darkness. (A. Fadeev)
Everything is obedient to me, but I am nothing. (A. Pushkin)
Types of predicate.
simple verb expressed in one verb form
composite
verb auxiliary be able, wish, want, start, continue, finish or short adj. Glad, ready, able, must, intend+ infinitive
Nominal
linking verb to be, to become, to become, to appear, to become, to appear, to be called+ nominal part: noun, adj., numeral, place, short adverb, adverb
Changed in childhood rainbow rain. (S. Marshak)
The monkey decided to work. (I. Krylov)
The gold of the cross became white. (S. Marshak)
Secondary members of the sentence.
Definition
(what? what? what? what? whose? whose? whose? whose? whose?) is underlined by a wavy line
Addition
(whom? What? To whom? What? Whom? What? By whom? What? About whom? About what?) is underlined with a dotted line
Circumstance
(where? When? Where? Where? Why? Why? How?)
underlined with dotted line
Agreed
(adjective, participle, pronoun = adj., ordinal)
Direct (vin. case without preposition)
Mode of action (how? In what way?)
inconsistent
(noun)
Indirect (indirect cases or wine case with a preposition)
Places (where? Where? From?)
Time (when? Since when? Until when? How long?)
Reasons (why? For what reason?)
Measures and degrees (To what extent? To what extent?)
Goals (why? For what purpose?)
Conditions (under what condition?)
Concessions (against what?)
Types of one-part sentences and ways of expressing the main member of the sentence.
Nominal
Verbs
denominative sentence (the main member of the sentence is the subject, the noun in I.p.)
Midnight. Mist and wind.
Definitely personal(verb 1,2 person, singular, plural; indicative, imperative mood)
I'm going. Will you go for a walk? Come with me.
Indefinite-personal(verb 3rd person, plural, present, weekday; plural past tense)
Vitya was given a player.
Impersonal(impersonal verb, personal verb in the meaning of the impersonal, infinitive, words of the category of state, short participle, word No)
It's getting dark. It's cold outside.
generalized-personal(verb 2 persons, singular; 3 persons plural present or bud.; 2 persons led inclinations)
Do not count your chickens before they are hatched.
Types of definitions.
Homogeneous
Heterogeneous
Characterize the object on the one hand (between them you can put the union And)
They characterize an object from different sides, for example, by color and size (a big red ball), you cannot put a union between them And)
Depend on one word and answer the same question
They explain each other, that is, one of the definitions depends on the phrase, which includes the defined noun. and another definition (red ball which? large)
They are interconnected by a compositional connection, i.e. do not depend on each other
Lacking enumerative intonation
Pronounced with enumerative intonation
Separate members of the proposal.
I. Separate definitions .
Any definitions in the form of a phrase (adjective turnover, adjectival phrase) or individual words are separated by commas on one side or on two (inside a sentence) if:
Relate to personal pronoun
Exhausted, dirty, wet we have reached the shore.
They come after the noun they define.
Forest, finally shaking off the remnants of the darkness of the night stood up in all its glory. (B. Polevoy)
Before the noun being defined, if they express the reason.
Driven by spring rays, from the surrounding mountains the snow had already fled in muddy streams to the flooded meadows. (A. Pushkin)
II. Standalone Applications .
Applications in a letter are separated by a comma or two commas within a sentence if:
They refer to the personal pronoun
Us, doctors, this truly boundless patience is amazing. (N. Ostrovsky)
Common applications after the noun being defined.
A pineapple,wonderful gift of the nature of the tropics , looks like a large cedar cone weighing two to three kilograms.
Applications before the noun being defined, if it has a causal meaning.
native sailor, Voropaev first saw the sea as an adult. (P.Pavlenko)
ІІІ Separate circumstances.
1. Circumstances expressed by gerunds and participles are always separated by commas in writing.
Suddenly she ran past me singing something else.
The waves are rushing thundering and sparkling, alien stars look from above.
2. Circumstances expressed by a noun with a preposition in spite ofIn houses,despite the early hour , lamps lit.
Note:
do not separate
Germs with the meaning of adverbs. Yazykov covered his face with his palm and satnot moving . (not moving = still)
Set combinations and phraseological units, which include gerunds. He workedtirelessly .
IV. Separate clarifying members of the sentence.
An additional question can be posed to the clarifying isolated member of the sentence Where exactly? How exactly? Who exactly? When exactly?
1. Circumstances of place and time: Left,at the dam , knocked axes.
2. Definitions: It was dominated by brown,almost red , the color of the soil and the unbearably blue hue of the sea.
3 . Separate clarifying members of a sentence can be joined using conjunctionsthat is, or, as well as words especially, especially, even, mainly, in particular, for example .
He's pretty good even with some special pronunciation , spoke Russian .
Additions with prepositions except for, in addition to, instead of, excluding, except for, along with, beyond, etc..
Everyone has , with the exception of the Commissioner, things were going well.
Introductory words and sentences.
Groups of introductory words by meaning
example
Different degrees of certainty:
a) a high degree of certainty (of course, of course, indisputably, undoubtedly, indeed, etc.)
b) a lesser degree of certainty (seems, probably, obviously, perhaps, perhaps)
Mountain air, without any doubts, has a beneficial effect on human health.
Seems, your story there made a lot of noise.
Various feelings (fortunately, to the general joy, unfortunately, to surprise)
Fortunately, our horses were not exhausted.
Source of the message (according to someone, according to someone, in someone's opinion)
According to the doctor The patient will be discharged from the hospital in a week.
The order of thoughts and their connection (firstly, secondly, finally, therefore, therefore, so, vice versa, for example, etc.)
First of all you have to learn the rule.
So, one desire for good made me print this passage. (M. Lermontov)
Remarks on the ways of shaping thoughts (in a word, in other words, it is better to say, etc.)
In a word, this person had a desire to create a case for himself. (A. Chekhov)
Introductory words and sentences should be distinguished from other members of the sentence (introductory words are not a member of the sentence, they are not grammatically related to other words, they can be removed from the sentence).
Printout pages:
13,14 15,12
11,16 17,10
9,18 19,8
7,20 21,6
5,22 23,4
3,24 25,2
1,26
COLLECTION
RULES
IN RUSSIAN
There are a lot of articles about errors that piss everyone off. Therefore, I did not write about mistakes, but about rules - they sometimes enrage even more.
1. “On arrival” and “on arrival”, and not “on arrival” and “on arrival”
In the meaning of “after something”, the preposition “by” is used with the prepositional case: upon arrival, upon arrival, upon return.
The preposition "by" is used with the dative case if it indicates:
- on the surface or space (crawls on the table, travels around Europe);
- on the object on which the action is directed (to hit the face);
- to a person or object that they think about or miss (missing you);
- on the reason (for their stupidity);
- on the subject to which the action applies (something needs to be decided on the amendments).
And it is also used with the accusative case, when it points to an object to which the action is limited (to the very tonsils). But if we say that something will happen only after a certain event, then we need to use the prepositional case.
2. "Coffee to go" not "coffee to go"
We use adverbs when we need to describe an object. Take-away coffee is closer to the question “what?”, and not “where?” or "for what?".
In this situation, you need to use an adverb. And the adverb "take away" according to the dictionary is written together.
3. "5.5 rubles", not "5.5 rubles"
Here the proof is easy to find, for example, in Rosenthal or Milchin: with a mixed number, the fraction controls the noun. Therefore: 8.5 meters (eight point five tenths of a meter), 9½ weeks (nine point one second weeks).
Many objections: but when we see "9.5 weeks", we read "nine and a half" and not "nine point five". If you follow the rules, it turns out like this: if you need it to be read as "nine and a half," write "nine and a half."
4. “To how many”, not “to how much”
The word "how much" does not have the form "how much":
5. "Economy class", not "economy class"
The word "economy class", unlike "business class", is complexly abbreviated, not complex: the first stem is abbreviated ("economy" from "economical").
And compound words are written together: dance class (dance class), drama circle (drama circle), economy class (economy class).
6. Illogical hyphen in anglicisms
According to the dictionary, there is no hyphen in the “deadline”, but there is a hyphen in the “food court” and “checklist”.
There are many such examples - it seems that there is no definite system and words fall into the dictionary at random. One gets the feeling that borrowed words must go this way: ordeal without being entered into the dictionary; entry with an inexplicable hyphen; changing the norm to a more logical spelling without a hyphen.
7. Relentless barista
Unlike previously borrowed from the Italian giornalista (“journalist”) and even fascista (“fascist”), “barista” has not yet been assimilated: it has retained the Italian ending and is not inclined. But I think that everything will change: the language lives and changes.
Where are the proofs, Lebowski?
What to do with this information
Here are some options:
- Constantly correct interlocutors and therefore enrage everyone.
- Be furious that these norms are stupid, put into editorial policy options that seem right, and live in peace.
- To twist and prove in the comments that real people don’t say that, so it’s time to redo the norms.
- Speak as usual.
I wrote this post not to expose someone for ignorance or to encourage everyone to write as the rules require. Some of this seems very strange to me. It remains to be hoped that over time the rules will become more logical.
