state border- a line and a vertical surface passing along this line, defining the limits of the state territory (land, water, subsoil and airspace) of the country, that is, the spatial limit of the state sovereignty.

Types of natural boundaries:

1. The lines separating the land territory of one State from the adjacent territory of another State are state border on land. Land borders are preferred to be drawn along characteristic points, relief lines or clearly visible landmarks. They can be rivers, mountains, etc. Such boundaries are clearly distinguishable and cause less misunderstanding.

2. The lines separating territorial waters from the waters of the high seas, that is, the lines of the outer limit of territorial waters, as well as the lines delimiting territorial waters between two neighboring states, are maritime state borders. Maritime boundaries coincide with the outer boundaries of territorial waters. In accordance with international law, Russia has established a 12-mile width for these waters. In Russia, the length of maritime borders is over 40,000 km.

3. An imaginary surface passing along the line of the state border perpendicular to the earth's surface serves border of the airspace of the respective state.

Types of borders by the way they are defined:

Orographic boundary- a line drawn along natural boundaries, taking into account the terrain, mainly along a mountain watershed and riverbed.

geometric border crosses the terrain without taking into account its relief (bypassing settlements).

geographic line passes through certain geographical coordinates (may coincide with a parallel or meridian). Geographical boundaries drawn along parallels and meridians are found in Africa and America, where they were established by the metropolitan states for the colonies.

Economic boundaries.

The most important role among them is contact boundaries, which connect Russia with neighboring countries by transport routes. They are subdivided into connecting, which have a large role in Russia's foreign trade (western borders of Russia), and integration.

An example of an integration border is the border with Belarus, with which ties are being strengthened, goods are freely transported, and people move.

Many borders with former republics of the USSR "transparent", i.e., unguarded, poorly provided with customs institutions, are the former administrative borders with Ukraine and Kazakhstan.

At the same time, allocate barrier borders through which economic ties are hindered either due to natural obstacles (high mountains), or due to regimes (obstacles) established by the state. Barrier borders are alienating and filtering.

Geopolitical boundaries take into account relations between countries. At the end of the 30s. 20th century the western border of the USSR was confrontational. Troops were concentrated on both sides. Today, due to a number of conflicts, the border in the south can be called a conflict one.

From a legal point of view borders can be legitimate(legal, determined by state contracts) and conditional which still need to be clarified by concluding relevant agreements. Many borders of Russia are still conditional.

Historical borders- the borders within which the country was once located.

Based on the origin and duration of state boundaries, they can be divided into two categories: antecedent and subsequential. Borders precede the final settlement and development of the regions they surround. An example of this type of border is the border between Canada and the United States, which was drawn along the 49th parallel in the period 1782-1846. and which separated very sparsely populated areas. Subsequential boundaries are the opposite of antecedent boundaries in the sense that they are drawn after an area has been settled. An example here is the borders between European countries.

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One of the most developed areas of political geography is the study of boundaries, which is also called limology(from Latin limes - border). Borders are a necessary attribute of a territorial state, without which its existence is simply impossible. Such features of political borders as length, age, origin, history, stability, permeability, disputability have long been the object of political and geographical research (Foucher, 1988). Above, we spoke about the tendency in Western political geography to abandon limological studies, since, as some authors believe, things are moving towards the “erasing” of state borders. However, it is clearly premature to talk about the disappearance of borders. Moreover, state borders perform an important function, they are needed as filters, membranes that regulate relations between neighbors, since deep political and cultural differences between the countries of the world do not allow abandoning borders due to the risks of losing national identity, economic decline, increased crime and etc. The world is too heterogeneous to refuse such filters. Therefore, political boundaries retain their significance, which means that limology remains one of the most important political and geographical disciplines. The subject of her research is not only state borders, but also administrative borders within states.

The political border is created using two operations - delimitations and demarcation. Delimitation is an agreement on the passage of the border, a description of the border in documents. Then, on the spot, boundary markers are installed, i.e. demarcation. Areal borders, which were elongated transition zones without certain demarcation and delimitation (which was typical for Asian states), are receding into the past. All modern borders are linear, although there are still borders that are practically not demarcated on the ground (for example, the border between Saudi Arabia and Yemen in the Rub al-Khali desert).

The morphology of state borders includes their main properties and geometric configuration. The main properties of borders are related to their natural and ethno-cultural features. Any state border, as a rule, is a combination, firstly, of lines drawn along natural objects, and secondly, of straight lines connecting any objects easily identifiable on the ground, usually also natural ones.

Several properties of boundaries are known. This is, firstly, natural properties(many boundaries coincide with natural objects). Secondly, this geometric properties. Borders can be drawn in a straight line or be curvy. Thirdly, this ethnic properties, expressed at the borders that divide the areas of residence of various ethnic groups. Fourth, this historical properties. Borders from a historical point of view can be more or less mature, have different ages.

There are many classifications of political boundaries. First of all, the boundaries should be divided into two large groups - maritime and land. This section focuses on land boundaries, maritime boundaries, and maritime political geography, with a dedicated section towards the end of this chapter. The main classification of borders divides them into three types - natural, ethnographic (ethnocultural) and geometric.

Natural boundaries, by definition, coincide with physical-geographical objects. They are divided into hydrographic passing through the rivers, and orographic passing through watersheds, mountain ranges. Some natural boundaries are also tied to natural objects, but unlike those described above, they do not follow their length, but cut them (on land, these are lake boundaries). The most pronounced hydrographic boundaries run along such rivers as the Rhine (French-German border), Danube (Romanian-Bulgarian, Romanian-Yugoslav, Yugoslav-Croatian, Hungarian-Slovak borders), Mekong (Thailand-Laos border), Rio Grande (border of the USA and Mexico), Uruguay (border of Argentina and Uruguay), Senegal (border of Mauritania and Senegal). In Russia, one of the most pronounced river borders is the border with China along the Amur, Ussuri and Argun rivers. As for the mountain ranges, the most pronounced boundaries are along the Pyrenees (Franco-Spanish) and the Andes (Chile-Argentina border).

In the past, natural boundaries were considered the most convenient and recognized as “natural”. Many states sought to achieve natural boundaries (France). A well-defined border on the ground, as it were, emphasized the power and stability of the state and, moreover, played a defensive role. Physical and geographical barriers - mountains, seas (England), forests (remember the example of Russia), deserts saved states from outside aggression and turned them into natural fortresses. Some fortress states have survived to this day, for example, San Marino, which arose on Mount Titano. In ancient times, they even tried to supplement natural boundaries with artificial fortifications. Thus, China built the Great Wall of China on an open section of its border, and the “clearance” between the Kopetdag and the Caspian Sea was closed by the Alexander Wall along the Gorgan River (Iranian territory). States that did not have natural barriers on their borders were more likely to suffer from conquerors, such as Poland, open to all winds.

There are special rules for the delimitation and demarcation of hydrographic boundaries. Drawing a border along the river is not as easy as it seems. The river channel has a width, which, moreover, is not the same throughout the river, the river can change its course, meander and dry up. Therefore, the river boundary is not necessarily well defined on the ground and “reliable”. There are different options for drawing the border along the river. First, the border can be drawn along one of the banks, but this option is unpopular, since the entire riverbed is on one side, which monopolizes shipping and fishing. Most often, the border is drawn along median(center line between two banks) or thalweg (fairway)- a line that connects the deepest places of the river channel. Difficult situations and even conflicts arise if there are many islands in the riverbed (as on the Amur). In such cases, the parties try to resolve the issue of ownership of each island.

Ethnographic (ethno-cultural, ethnic) boundaries share the areas of residence of various ethnic and cultural groups. On the wave of nationalism, Europe in the 19th and 20th centuries. actively built precisely ethnic boundaries. It should be noted that it is very difficult to draw an ethnic boundary, unlike a natural one, since there are vast areas of mixing of two or even several ethnic groups. However, the logic of creating nation-states pushed countries and peoples to implement them. Often the problem of multinational regions was solved by eviction and even expulsion of representatives of a “foreign” ethnic group. A more civilized way is a referendum (plebiscite), when the population itself decides in which state to live. In modern Europe, the main part of the borders belongs to the category of ethnic, although there are few purely ethnic borders even here (Norwegian-Swedish, German-Dutch, Spanish-Portuguese). Pronounced ethnic properties are more characteristic of historically mature, “old” borders, so there are more of them in Western Europe than in Central and Eastern. On the contrary, some European states arose at the junction of ethnic areas and belong to the category of multinational (Belgium, Switzerland). The category of ethno-cultural includes many sections of the Russian border, for example, the borders with Finland, Poland, and China.

geometric borders are carried out in a straight line. Such kind of boundaries are common in sparsely populated areas with a monotonous nature, where it is difficult to draw a natural or ethnic boundary. Geometrical borders are often found in northern Africa (Egypt and Sudan, Libya and Chad, the border of Algeria with Mauritania, Mali and Niger), in America (the border of the USA and Canada, which separates Alaska from the Canadian province of Yukon), etc. Borders drawn along the meridian or parallels are called astronomical. A well-known example is the border between the United States and Canada west of Lake Lesnoye, drawn along a parallel. The meridian coincides with the border of Botswana and Namibia. Geometric borders are also common in post-Soviet Central Asia (the border between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan in the western section).

There is also genetic, or historical, classification of boundaries. According to this classification, the boundaries are divided into antecedent and superimposed. The first type of border is rare. These are the boundaries drawn before the settlement of the territory under an agreement between the parties. This is how the western part of the border between the USA and Canada, the Russian-Chinese border in the Far East were carried out. The imposed borders are drawn along already populated areas, sometimes they cut through the areas of residence of ethnic groups, disrupt communications, etc.

Another variant of the genetic classification of boundaries is also possible, when it is determined who and in what historical situation drew a given boundary. For example, the border might be post-war, i.e. carried out as a result of the war (the new borders of Poland after the Second World War). Either the parties agree on the border, avoiding hostilities ( contractual boundaries). Some borders are established by international arbitration if two countries that border each other are not able to resolve the border issue on their own ( arbitration boundaries). The border can be drawn based on the results of a plebiscite, when the population of a certain territory votes for joining one of the states ( plebiscitary borders, such as German-Belgian and German-Danish). common post-colonial the borders drawn by the colonialists as the boundaries of their possessions (most of the borders in Africa). State borders appear on the site of the administrative borders of the collapsed state (Yugoslavia, USSR). Such boundaries can be called post-administrative.

It makes sense to explore not only the current boundaries, but also relic, i.e. borders that no longer exist. Studies in cultural or economic geography often reveal these boundaries, which still exist on the ground as invisible dividing lines. In Ukraine, such a border is the Zbruch River, which separates the Khmelnytsky region from the Ivano-Frankivsk region. Previously, the border between Russia and Austria-Hungary passed here, and the difference between Podolia and the nationalist-minded, Greek Catholic Galicia is still felt. In some countries, relict borders are used to put forward territorial claims, formalized as a demand for a return to one or another historical border.

Classification of boundaries is possible according to their actual legal status. Borders stand out contractual(about which there is a generally recognized international treaty), controversial(the validity of which is disputed by one of the parties) and power(established by military force and not confirmed by a generally recognized treaty).

Functional classification Borders divides borders into several types according to their main functions. In domestic literature, it is customary to consider three main functions of boundaries - barrier, contact and filtering(Geographical boundaries, 1982). The first function separates one country from another using a border. The second serves to bring the two countries closer together in the area of ​​the border through which these countries maintain ties. With the help of the third function, the country selects goods, people, cultural values, etc., regulating their flows to its territory and to the outside world. Different boundaries can be more or less focused on certain functions. In some cases, the border is seen as a barrier and is closed, in others it contributes to the integration of the two countries and is more of a contact. The filter border is a cross between the other two types.

Associated with functional classification is border classification by them regime. alienating the border rigidly separates the two countries, cross-border communication is minimal (i.e. the barrier function is the only one). Semipermeable the border is also not transparent, but interaction is nevertheless carried out through it, the two sides are trying to establish cooperation, although they see their borders primarily as filters to minimize undesirable external influence. Cross-border cooperation is more successful in the case of connecting borders. Finally, integration borders arise where two countries consciously seek to remove border barriers and even completely abandon border controls (as was the case in the Benelux countries even before the Schengen agreements). In limological studies, it is determined transparency, or permeability, state borders, which can be assessed using quantitative indicators, for example, in points.

A special feature of the border is its development. There are "deaf" borders, near which there are practically no traces of human activity. And there are borders that literally cut through a densely populated territory. As indicators for assessing the development of borders, one can use the number of settlements in the border strip per 1 km of the border or the population in the border strip per 1 km of the border. Another thing is also important: whether the border cuts through the existing socio-economic complexes, or whether cross-border ties are historically weak. It is possible to analyze the density of the transport network crossing the border, the number of roads and railways of various ranks passing through the border. In some cases, the border separates “merged” settlements: the presence of cross-border agglomerations is also an indicator of the development of the border (a situation typical of the Russian-Ukrainian border). It is possible to study the intensity of the work of the border through the analysis of the number of checkpoints, customs, cargo and passenger flows.

In general, the type of border largely depends on the type of political culture. Alienating borders with a pronounced barrier function are also called frontal and are one of the hallmarks of a totalitarian regime. Countries with a liberal political culture are striving for integration borders.

Associated with the main properties of boundaries types of their legitimation. natural legitimation is a very common type. In many conceptions of state building, natural boundaries were considered "natural", reaching which was the main goal of external expansion. At the macro level, as a rule, we are talking about large natural objects - significant rivers and mountain ranges, but there are few such boundaries. At the micro level, the natural properties of state borders are revealed much better, since the boundaries, when demarcated on the ground, are usually tied to small natural objects - small rivers, streams, watersheds, heights, depressions, etc.

One of the main parameters used in the analysis of the boundary is the natural properties of the boundaries, the totality of which can also be denoted as natural contrast. State borders, from the point of view of their natural properties, can be more or less contrasting, depending on how the border is expressed on the ground, i.e. whether it coincides with a natural object such as a river, a lake (in this case, there are different ways of dividing the water surface, as in the case of large rivers) or a watershed, and how pronounced this object is (whether we are talking about a powerful river or a small stream, etc.) P.). Borders with less natural contrast are more often the subject of border disputes, so the assessment of the natural contrast of state borders is of great practical importance.

Another important type of legitimation of state borders is ethnocultural. Many concepts of state building, especially if we take into account the huge state-forming role of nationalism, involve reaching ethnic boundaries and maintaining them. Let us make a reservation right away that drawing ethnic boundaries on the ground is a very difficult matter, and ideally it is completely impossible. At the same time, it is possible to bring the state border as close as possible to the ethnic one by identifying territories with a relative numerical predominance of one and the other ethnic group. Note that this problem can be solved at the macro level (the level of provinces), the meso level (the level of districts into which provinces are divided), and the micro level (the level of settlements). Hence the different ways of drawing ethnic boundaries, their different accuracy. It is no exaggeration to say that any ethnic boundary can be challenged.

In this regard, it is necessary to study such a boundary parameter as ethnic contrast. This parameter can be determined, for example, by comparing the shares of representatives of one or another ethnic group in the population on both sides of the border. Moreover, this can be done at several geographical levels. Thus, in the case of Russian borders, one can compare the ethnic composition of the population at the level of regions (macro level), at the level of administrative regions (meso level) and at the level of border settlements (micro level). The ethnic contrast of the border can change as a result of cultural and historical processes. The approach of state borders to the level of the greatest ethnic contrast is one of the conflictogenic factors in world politics.

When studying boundaries, it is also important to take into account their geometric configuration. At the macro level, the boundaries usually appear to be quite jagged, but on closer inspection they turn out to be combinations of short straight lines drawn along a ruler and winding lines tied to natural features. The study of the boundary configuration includes an analysis of their tortuosity and the presence of exclaves. One can speak of the geometric properties of the boundaries as their third parameter. At the same time, winding borders often have less legitimacy, and one of the parties advocates their straightening: a border drawn in a straight line is sometimes considered more "correct". In general, carrying out geometric, i.e. direct borders are typical for desert areas, where there are few suitable natural objects.

We can talk about another important parameter of state borders - historical maturity. The time of the first manifestation of this border or its approximate historical analogues in the territory, the duration of the passage of the state border are analyzed. (age of border) and intrastate administrative boundaries. The historical type of legitimacy of state borders is extremely important: less mature borders are more often contested by neighbors.

There are four main types of legitimation of borders - natural, ethno-cultural, geometric and historical.. Borders can experience a crisis of legitimacy when a public opinion is formed that they are “wrong” and need to be “corrected”. In some cases, the border even becomes part of the national idea. For example, in Croatia, after the collapse of Yugoslavia, the idea of ​​​​the historical border of the state along the Drina River arose again (which meant the need for Bosnia and Herzegovina to join Croatia). In this regard, the popular slogan “Croatia defends on the Drina” (“Hrvatska se brani na Drini”) was used. The main type of legitimation of borders in the past was natural: borders were tried to be drawn along rivers and mountain ranges, and they were very well expressed on the ground, which emphasized their stability. In the modern world, the ethno-cultural type of legitimation of borders is more often used, and territorial claims are justified by ethnic and historical reasons.

One of the interesting objects of complex limological analysis is the so-called. “new frontier” - the borders of Russia with the former Soviet republics that have become independent states (Kolosov, Turovsky, 1997). These borders are the least studied, at the same time, many problems of Russia's state development are associated with them, many new borders have considerable conflict potential. Let's take these boundaries as an example. Orographic borders are the least common in the new Russian borderlands. They make up the bulk of the length of the Russian border in the Caucasus and Altai. At the same time, the Caucasian orographic section of the border is especially well expressed, where the border runs along the Main Caucasian Range. The orographic Caucasian border is divided into two sections - the western (Russian-Georgian border in the Krasnodar Territory, Karachay-Cherkessia, Kabardino-Balkaria, North Ossetia) and the eastern (Russian-Georgian and Russian-Azerbaijani borders in Dagestan). This border is marked by high mountain peaks, especially in the central part of the border (the height of the border passage is about 2500-3000 m, some peaks exceed 4000 m). The natural properties of this area are very well expressed.

Another orographic boundary is located in Altai. These are the borders of the Altai Territory and the Republic of Altai with the East Kazakhstan Region. True, this boundary only partially follows the watershed, passing along the Tigiretsky, Koksusky, Katunsky ridges and the Southern Altai ridge. There are three deviations from the watershed: in the area of ​​the Listvyaga ridge (the border is shifted in favor of Kazakhstan), to the south of the Katunsky ridge and to the north of the Southern Altai ridge (the border is shifted in favor of Russia). On the terrain in the western section, the Altai border is less pronounced than the Caucasian one, it is marked by peaks up to 2600 m high. The orographic border is better pronounced in the region of the Katunsky ridge and Southern Altai (peaks from 3000 to 4500 m). In the eastern section, the orographic Altai boundary is as pronounced as the Caucasian one, but its extent is small.

Much longer sections of the new Russian border are hydrographic, they pass along the river bed. However, there are few continuous, extended sections of hydrographic boundaries; rather, we are talking about a multitude of “scraps” of river boundaries, which together constitute a significant part of the Russian border. Only the Russian-Estonian border (along the Narva) and the Russian-Lithuanian one (along the Neman) were carried out specifically along the rivers.

River borders are more characteristic of the western sections of the new frontier. They occupy the largest part of the length of the border on the border of the Leningrad region with Estonia (Narva) and the Kaliningrad region with Lithuania (Neman, Sheshupe, Shirvinta, Lepona) sections. In addition, long sections of the borders of the Krasnodar Territory with Abkhazia (Psou) and Dagestan with Azerbaijan (Samur) belong to the category of hydrographic ones. There are well-defined hydrographic boundaries in other parts of the Russian border. For example, the Russian-Belarusian border runs along the Western Dvina and the Dnieper, the Russian-Kazakhstan border runs along the Urals and channels in the Volga delta, but the length of these sections is very small.

So, only a small part of the new Russian borders belongs to the category of pronounced natural ones. First of all, this is the border in the Caucasus, the main part of which is orographic or hydrographic, and only one section on the border of North Ossetia, Ingushetia, Chechnya and Dagestan with Georgia does not have natural properties. With some stretch, the Altai border can also be considered natural, but it is marked by less high mountain peaks, the rule of following the border to the watershed is not always followed. The natural factor is decisive on the border with Estonia in the section of the Leningrad region and on the border of the Kaliningrad region with Lithuania, which mainly follows rivers. There are no pronounced natural boundaries in other parts of the new Russian border.

The geometric principle is used on fairly long sections of the Russian-Kazakh border. First of all, this is the border of the Altai Territory with the Pavlodar and Semipalatinsk regions, which is a straight line. Another example is the border of the Astrakhan region with the West Kazakhstan region. On the rest of the border, small straight sections of the border are combined with small sections that run along rivers or cross lakes.

Thus, for the main part of the new Russian borders, natural contrast is not typical, and the principle of a straight line is also rarely used. Consider the ethnic properties of the border.

Ethnic properties can be analyzed using indicators of ethnic contrast, for example, the ratio of the shares of Russians in the population in the border areas on one side of the border and the other. Many sections of the border are characterized by high ethnic contrast. This is primarily the Russian-Lithuanian border in the Kaliningrad region, the Russian-Estonian border in the Pskov region, almost the entire Russian-Belarusian border, the Russian-Ukrainian border in the Bryansk, Kursk, Belgorod, Voronezh, partly Rostov regions, the main part of the Caucasian border (Russian- Georgian border in Karachay-Cherkessia, Kabardino-Balkaria, partly North Ossetia, Chechnya, Dagestan, the western part of the Russian-Azerbaijani border in Dagestan), separate sections of the Russian-Kazakhstan border - the border of the Astrakhan, Volgograd, Saratov regions with Urdinsky, Dzhanybeksky, Kaztalovsky and Furmanovsky districts of the West Kazakhstan region, the border of the Orenburg region with the Chingirlau district of the West Kazakhstan region, Khobdinsky, Karabutaksky, Komsomolsky districts of the Aktobe region, the border of the Altai Territory with the Lebyazhinsky district of the Pavlodar region, the border of the Altai Republic with the Katon-Karagay district of the East Kazakhstan region.

A lower level of ethnic contrast is noted on the eastern section of the Russian-Ukrainian border (Donbas region), on the border of the Krasnodar Territory with Abkhazia, and in a number of sections of the Russian-Kazakh border (the border of the Orenburg Region with the Burlinsky District of the West Kazakhstan Region, the Kurgan Region with the Dzhambulsky the region of the North Kazakhstan region, the border of the Omsk and Kokchetav regions, the Altai Territory and the Semipalatinsk region). In these sections of the border on both sides, the percentage of the Russian population is high, which reduces its ethnic contrast.

Finally, many sections of the border are almost impossible to classify as ethnic, they cut through the areas of settlement of one ethnic group. Such is the border of the Leningrad region with Estonia, on both sides of which the Russian population absolutely dominates (both in Ivangorod and in Narva). One ethnic group is divided by the Russian-Georgian border on the section of the border of North Ossetia with South and the Russian-Azerbaijani border on its eastern section (separates Lezgins and Tsakhurs). Finally, ethnic contrast is low over much of the Russian-Kazakh border. In the Orenburg section, such a situation is noted on the border with the Priuralny district of the West Kazakhstan region, Martuk and Leninsky districts of the Aktobe region. The longest section of the non-ethnic border separates the Kustanai and North Kazakhstan regions of Kazakhstan from the Chelyabinsk, Kurgan, Tyumen and Omsk regions. Here, in the border regions of Kazakhstan, the share of Kazakhs does not exceed 30-31% (hereinafter, the data of the All-Union Population Census of 1989 are given), and in many areas it is less than 20% (in the Sokolovsky district of the North Kazakhstan region, Kazakhs are only 9.5%, in the Fedorovsky district Kustanai region - 11.65%).

The next section of the Russian-Kazakh border with low ethnic contrast is located on the border of the Novosibirsk region and the Altai Territory with the Zhelezinsky, Uspensky and Shcherbaktinsky districts of the Pavlodar region. Finally, the ethnic properties of the Russian-Kazakh border are very weakly expressed in the section that separates the Altai Territory and the Republic of Altai from the East Kazakhstan Region (more precisely, from the Shemonaikha, Glubokovsky, Zyryanovsky districts and the administrative territory of Leninogorsk). Here, on the Kazakh side, there is a minimum proportion of Kazakhs in the population: in the Shemonaikha district, Kazakhs make up 7.4%, in Leninogorsk - 5.2%, in the Zyryanovsky district - 13.85%. Thus, a significant part of the new Russian border cuts through the areas of residence of the same ethnic group - the Russian, which provokes territorial claims.

The next important feature of the border is its historical maturity. It is obvious that all new Russian borders have existed for only five years, since the collapse of the USSR. However, for a significant extent they have already played the role of state borders in the past and, depending on this, can be considered more or less mature.

Among the historically most mature is the Russian-Lithuanian border, which has undergone an interesting metamorphosis. In the past, the Russian side of the border was located where Lithuania is now. After the annexation of East Prussia to Russia and the declaration of independence of Lithuania, the Russian side of the border ended up where its German side had been for many centuries. As the border of Prussia with Lithuania (Poland), this border functioned from the 13th century, after Lithuania became part of Russia in the 18th century. it became Prussian-Russian and remained in this capacity until 1945, when it lost its state status and became an administrative intra-Soviet border. Thus, the Russian-Lithuanian border existed for about seven hundred years, but only in a different capacity. The exception is its extreme western section in the Klaipeda region, where the state Lithuanian-German border existed only in 1924-45. Previously, there were German lands on both sides of the border, because. Memel (now Klaipeda) was part of Prussia.

Historically, the most mature are other new borders of Russia in their western section. The Russian-Estonian border dates back to the borders between the ancient Novgorod lands and the ethnic territory of the Estonians, it took shape in the middle of the 13th century. as the border of Novgorod with Denmark, then with the Livonian Order, in 1478, after the annexation of Novgorod to Moscow, it becomes Russian-Livonian. This border existed until 1721 (with a break in 1583-95), when Russia annexed Estonia. Thus, this border, approximately coinciding with the modern one, existed for almost five centuries, from the middle of the 13th century. until 1721. The history of the Russian-Latvian border is similar.

The Russian-Belarusian border is relatively mature, which for the most part in the past was the border of the Polotsk principality, then acted as the Russian-Polish border. The border between Russia and Belarus on the site of the Vitebsk region had a longer history. It goes back to the border of the Novgorod and Pskov lands with the Principality of Polotsk, which later turned into the Russian-Polish border, and lost its state status in 1772. Thus, this border has a historical analogue that has existed for at least five hundred years. From Orsha and to the south, in the section of the Smolensk region, the Russian-Belarusian border existed as a Russian-Polish border in 1514-1618 and 1667-1772, i.e. for a total of more than two hundred years. The Bryansk section of the Russian-Belarusian border was the Russian-Polish border in 1503-1618 and 1667-1772, i.e. also over two hundred years old.

The border of Russia in the Caucasus, which for centuries separated the Georgian and Turkic states from the semi-independent state formations of the North Caucasian highlanders, can be considered historical. This border finally lost its status in the 19th century, when the entire Caucasus finally became part of Russia. The border with Azerbaijan along the Samur has no stable historical roots, which was the state border of the Derbent and Quba khanates for less than a hundred years, in the second half of the 18th century. and until 1806, when both khanates became part of Russia.

Significant sections of the Russian-Kazakh border also have historical roots. But it must be noted that the historical analogues of this border only very approximately coincide with the current border. Fortified lines were built here on the borders with the Kazakh steppes, but at the same time, the Kazakh tribes soon accepted Russian citizenship. In the middle of the 18th century on the Orenburg and Chelyabinsk sections of the border, the Orenburg-Uiskaya line was created, on the Chelyabinsk, Kurgan, Tyumen and Omsk - Presnogorkovskaya. The latter passed quite close to the current Russian-Kazakh border, but it is not entirely correct to consider it a state border, since in the same years the nomadic Kazakh tribes accepted Russian citizenship.

Similarly, a significant part of the Russian-Ukrainian border dates back to the fortified lines at the borders of Russian colonization at the end of the 16th and 17th centuries. Here in the 30s and 40s. 17th century the Belgorod line was built, which roughly corresponded to the current Russian-Ukrainian border in the Kursk, Belgorod and Voronezh sections.

Thus, the historical maturity of Russia's borders with Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, as well as with Belarus in the Vitebsk region, is the highest. The main part of the new Russian border in the Caucasus can also be conditionally considered historical. The historical maturity of the Russian-Belarusian border is significantly less in the Smolensk and Bryansk sections. There are historical analogues, but far from being so significant at the Russian-Ukrainian and Russian-Kazakh borders.

After analyzing the natural, geometric, ethnic and historical properties of the borders, it is possible to draw up a typology of new Russian borders.

1. Natural ethno-historical type - boundaries with well-defined natural, ethnic and historical properties. These types of borders include:

a) the Russian border in the Caucasus, with the exception of the Ossetian and Lezgin sections;

b) the Russian-Lithuanian border for the most part, with the exception of the extremely western section, which is not historical, and some eastern sections, which are not natural.

2. Ethnohistorical type - boundaries that are poorly expressed in the natural landscape, but stand out on the ethnic map and are distinguished by high historical maturity:

a) the Russian-Georgian border in the eastern part of North Ossetia, Ingushetia, Chechnya and the western part of Dagestan, which does not coincide with the watershed, but separates the Georgian historical regions of Khevi, Tusheti and Khevsureti from the ethnic lands of the Ossetians, Ingush, Chechens and Avars;

b) the Russian-Estonian border in the Pskov region;

c) the Russian-Latvian border in the Pskov region;

d) the Russian-Belarusian border in the Pskov and partially Smolensk regions;

e) the Russian-Belarusian border on the Smolensk (southern part) and Bryansk sections, which is significantly less historically mature than the previous one;

f) the Russian-Ukrainian border on the Belgorod and Voronezh sections, which is characterized by low historical maturity and is approaching a purely ethnic type.

3. Ethnic type - only ethnic properties are expressed near the border, historical analogues are practically absent, natural properties are weakly expressed:

a) the Russian-Kazakh border on the Astrakhan (except for the Volga delta), Volgograd, Saratov sections;

b) Russian-Ukrainian border in Eastern Donbas.

4. Natural type - only natural properties are expressed at the border:

a) the eastern section of the Russian-Azerbaijani border along the Samur River, which has almost no historical analogues and cuts through the Lezgin settlement field;

b) the western section of the Russian-Kazakh border in Altai, which runs along the mountain ranges separating the territories with the absolute dominance of Russians (Tigirets, Koksui ranges).

4. Natural-ethnic type - boundaries that are both natural and ethnic:

a) the eastern section of the Russian-Kazakh border in Altai, which runs along the mountain ranges and separates the Altaians and Russians from the Kazakhs.

5. Natural-historical type - borders with pronounced natural properties, which are distinguished by high historical maturity, but cut through the territory of residence of one ethnic group:

a) the Russian-Estonian border on the Leningrad section;

b) Russia's border with South Ossetia.

The above typology deals with more contrasting sections of the new Russian borders. At the same time, in some areas of the border, the contrast is low in all respects. Such borders, as a rule, inherit only the former administrative borders, are almost not expressed on ethnic and physical-geographical maps, and have no stable historical analogues. These borders can be attributed to a special - post-administrative type. This is the Russian-Kazakh border on most of the Orenburg, Chelyabinsk, Kurgan, Tyumen, most of the Omsk, Novosibirsk, most of the Altai sections. This part of the new frontier contains the least contrasting Russian borders. This is, in particular, the border of the Altai Territory with the Shemonaikha district of the East Kazakhstan region and the border of the Tyumen region with the Sokolovsky district of the North Kazakhstan region. These borders are not expressed in any way in the natural landscape, they have no historical analogues, except for administrative intrastate borders that arose no earlier than the 19th century, and they divide territories with an absolute predominance of Russians.

In addition to the typology of new boundaries, the features under consideration can determine the degree of their contrast. The most contrasting should be recognized as the Russian border in the Caucasus in that part of it that runs along the Main Caucasian Range, with the exception of the South Ossetian section. These are two sections of the Russian border: the first runs from Mount Agepsta on the border of the Krasnodar Territory with Abkhazia to the border of South Ossetia, the second separates Dagestan from Georgia and Azerbaijan, with the exception of the extremely western (in the upper Andean Koisu) and extremely eastern (along the Samur River) sections. Slightly lower, but also high in contrast, is the Russian-Lithuanian border in that part of it that runs along the Neman (with the exception of the “non-historical” section in the Neman delta).

Other borders cannot be considered high contrast. The main part of the new Russian borders is characterized by medium contrast. This category primarily includes Russia's borders with Latvia and Lithuania, as well as the South Ossetian section of the Caucasian border. The contrast of the Russian-Belarusian border is somewhat less, and even less is the contrast of the western part of the Russian-Ukrainian border (Bryansk, Kursk, Belgorod, Voronezh sections).

A significant part of the new Russian border is characterized by low contrast. Such are the border with Azerbaijan, passing along Samur (Lezgin section of the Caucasian border), the Russian-Ukrainian border on the Rostov section, as well as sections of the Russian-Kazakh border, which are expressed in ethnic (most of the Astrakhan, Volgograd, Saratov, part of the Orenburg, Omsk, Altai plots) or physical-geographical (in Altai) map.

Finally, a significant part of the new Russian border has a weakly pronounced contrast. These are the boundaries that belong to the post-administrative type. The most non-contrasting are the Russian-Kazakh borders in the central and eastern sections.

An important research operation is the division of the new Russian border not according to the administrative principle, but on the basis of a group of features - natural, geometric, ethnic, historical.

The object of limological research can be not only the border itself, but also frontier- areas along the border, characterized by common problems (Kolosov, Galkina, Turovsky, Klesova, 1997). There is even a special concept denoting the inhabitants of the borderlands, - “ frontaliers". Comprehensive studies of the political and socio-economic situation in the border area and cross-border relations are being carried out. In some countries, border areas have a special political status and cooperate with each other. In our Pskov Region, an Association of Border Regions was created. In the post-Soviet period, organizations have emerged that unite the border regions of two or three countries. One of them unites the border regions of Russia and Kazakhstan, the other - Russia and Ukraine. There is a union of three border regions of Russia, Belarus and Ukraine - Bryansk, Gomel and Chernigov.

A rich experience of cross-border cooperation has been accumulated in Europe. Here we went on the path of creation “ euroregions", or transboundary areas uniting the border areas of two or even three countries. Euroregions had their own special status, a single labor market was formed within their borders, political ties were established, not to mention economic ones. The most famous were the Geneva and Basel euroregions, the first of which united the territories of Switzerland and France, the second - Switzerland, France and Germany. Euroregions were created at the junctions of the borders of the Netherlands, Belgium and Germany, the Netherlands and Germany, France, Luxembourg and Germany, Great Britain and Ireland, etc. Currently, two Euroregions are being formed with the participation of the Russian Kaliningrad region - “Yantar” and “Neman”, but their political status is still unclear.

In conclusion, some terminological features of Western limology should be mentioned. In English-language works, one can find a distinction between two concepts - boundary (“ordinary” border separating two sides) and frontier ( “frontier”). The second of these is often of particular importance. The “frontier” is most often understood as either the edge of a developed territory, the outer border of a large state, beyond which there is no statehood as such (for example, the western border of the United States, gradually shifting to the Pacific Ocean), or a clear border between large countries, for example, empires. If the “ordinary” border is a simple separator, then the “frontier” is, as it were, turned outward (Taylor, 1989). The concept of "frontier" goes back to the work of the American historian Frederick Turner, who described it as a special cultural phenomenon on the western frontier of the United States (Turner, 1920). The role of “frontiers” in world history was played by the Great Wall of China, the border of the Roman Empire, known as Limes, etc.

Lesson 7 Grade 8 Krasulina N.V.

Topic: Land and sea borders of Russia.

The purpose of the lesson:

To know the ratio of sea and land borders, the features and significance of land borders and sea borders of Russia.

Be able to work with a contour map, with text and illustrative materials of the textbook.

Means of education: textbook text, atlas maps, contour map.

During the classes:

I. Organization.

II. Repetition of the studied material.

Give examples of different types of borders: new, integration, connecting, transparent, barrier, conflict, safe.

What are the longest natural borders of Russia?

What is a state border?

Which border does Russia have more: sea or land?

III. Learning new material.

Before Russia recognized the existence of borders with 16 states: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and . After Russia recognized the states and Russia recognizes the presence of borders with 18 states . The length of the Russian border is 60,932 km.

Exercise:

Fill the table

Countries with only land borders

Countries with which only maritime borders

Countries with which land and sea borders

Teacher's word:

There are 54 seas on Earth. Our country is washed by 13, of which 12 belong to the MO basin, and the Caspian Sea belongs to the internal drainless basin. The largest and deepest sea washing the shores of Russia is the Bering Sea (the area is 2315 thousand sq. km, the average depth is more than 1500 m, the maximum depth is 5500 m). the smallest and shallowest is Azov (area - 39 thousand sq. km., average depth - about 8 m, maximum 15 m). The warmest sea is Black, the coldest is Chukchi, the most salty is Japanese.

All seas are very diverse both in terms of natural conditions, and in terms of natural resources, and in terms of the degree of their study and development.

Exercise:

Determine the belonging of the seas to the basins: BTO, BAO, BSLO, BVS

Teacher:

All seas are divided into 2 groups:

marginal sea - this is a sea adjacent to the mainland, and slightly separated from the ocean by peninsulas and islands.

Inland Sea - This is a sea that goes deep into the land and communicates with the ocean through straits.

General characteristics of the seas:

The position of the seas relative to the ocean (free communication with the oceans of the Arctic Ocean and TO, weak influence of the AR);

Different depths of the seas (the shallowest on the continental shelf, the deepest TO seas);

Insignificant ‰ of the seas of the Arctic Ocean in comparison with the seas of more southern latitudes.

Ecological problems of the seas.

Exercise:

On the contour map, sign all the seas washing the shores of Russia

According to the plan, give a description of 2 seas - the Kara and the Sea of ​​Okhotsk.

Plan Features:

FG position of the sea (belonging to the basin, internal or marginal).

Indented coastline, peninsula, island.

Depth (average, maximum).

Climate features, temperature regime.

Flora and fauna.

Significance in the life and economic activity of people.

Ecological problems.

III. Consolidation of the studied material.

Characteristics of the Kara Sea:

Arctic Ocean, marginal, protruding into the land.

Rugged, Gulf of Ob, Yamal settlement, Gdansk Peninsula, about. Novaya Zemlya, Severnaya Zemlya, Vilkitsky Ave., Karskie Vorota Ave., about. Vaigach, oh. White.

Depth 200-1000 m (continental shelf).

Harsh climate. Small evaporation, January temperature - 24, July temperature - 0 + 8.

Walrus, polar bear, eider, goose, pike, burbot, sturgeon, whitefish, halibut.

Fishery, northern sea route.

River pollution, radioactive contamination, soil degradation.

Characteristics of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk.

THAT, marginal, protruding into the land.

Weakly indented coastline, hall. Shelikhov, Fr. Sakhalin, Shantar Islands, Kamchatka Peninsula.

Depth 200-4000 m.

The increase in salinity is closer to the equator, the temperature in January is -8 -45, the temperature in July is + 8.

Sea otter, fur seal, pollock, salmon.

Fishery, northern sea route, protection of the territory.

Pollution of the rivers of the seas, deforestation, pollution between the mainland and about. Sakhalin, oil pollution.

V. Homework.

Ex 6, pp. 33-38.

Types	Kinds	Description
Natural type of borders	Land:	They include flat, mountain, river, lake.
Marine
Economic type of borders	Contact	connecting borders- borders with a developed transport network, which play an important role in foreign trade. Integration borders are the borders between the countries involved in the process of economic integration. For example, the border between Russia and Belarus.
Transparent	These are unguarded, poorly secured borders by customs agencies. For example, Russia's border with Ukraine and Kazakhstan.
Barrier	These are the boundaries across which economic ties are hindered due to natural obstacles or regimes (obstacles) established by the state.
Filtering	These are the borders on which restrictions are set for the transportation of any goods. For example, non-ferrous metals through the Russian-Estonian border.
Geopolitical type	friendly	Secure borders with friendly countries.
confrontational	For example, the western border of the USSR before the war, when troops were concentrated on both sides of it and the situation escalated.
Conflict and unstable	For example, the southern border of Russia in connection with the events in the Caucasus.

Land and maritime state borders between neighboring states are established by agreement. There are two types of state border establishment - delimitation and demarcation. Delimitation - determination by agreement between the governments of neighboring states of the general direction of the state border and drawing it on a geographical map. Demarcation - drawing the line of the state border on the ground and marking it with the appropriate border signs.

On border lakes, the line of the state border runs in the middle of the lake or along a straight line connecting the outlets of the land state border to its shores. Within the state territory allocate more boundaries of administrative-territorial units(for example, the borders of republics, regions, states, provinces, lands, etc.). These are internal boundaries.

The political map of the world has passed a long history of its formation reflecting the entire course of development of human society. The process of formation of the political map of the world covers several millennia. More than 2 thousand years ago, the first states arose: Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, as well as ancient China, India, Iran, etc. Since then, many large and small countries have appeared on the political map of the world. Some of them, albeit within different boundaries, still exist, others have disappeared from the face of the Earth as a result of the redistribution of the territories of the world.

In this lesson, everyone will be able to study the topic “State Territory of Russia. Types of Russian borders. We will write down the definition of the concept of "state border", find out what can be established with its help. We will also talk about the types of Russian borders that exist today.

Topic: Geographical position of Russia

Lesson: State territory of Russia. Types of Russian borders

In geography, there are many different boundaries. Along with natural ones, there are historically established ones - these are state borders. They are necessary for any state and ensure its territorial integrity, sovereignty and security.

The border line and the vertical surface passing through it, which extends into the atmosphere (up to 100 km) and the lithosphere, limit the borders of the country's territory.

After the collapse of the USSR, 13 thousand km of Russia's borders turned from internal to state. The new borders were not formalized in accordance with international law. They had to conduct surveys of the area, agree on the border line, draw up the relevant documents in order to transfer them to the UN. The process of coordinating the state borders of the country has not been completed. The borders with Estonia, Belarus, Azerbaijan are not formalized. The issues of drawing maritime borders with Ukraine and in the Caspian Sea have not been resolved. Not fixed, in accordance with international law, the border between Russia and Japan.

The country's borders require arrangement: outposts, checkpoints, customs, technical means of protection. The cost of arranging 1 km of the border is on average about 1 million rubles.

The Russian state territory includes: land (the mainland of the state, islands, enclaves), waters (internal waters of the land and internal waters of the seas (waters of ports, bays, bays) and territorial), air space lying above the land and waters; subsoil located under land and water.

The state territory is also considered to be embassies, sea, air and space ships abroad, bearing the flag or distinctive sign of the state, as well as cables and pipelines belonging to it.

Any actions of foreign states within the territorial waters of our country, for example, the entry of foreign military and merchant ships, is possible only in agreement with Russia.

In the ocean, Russia also owns spaces that are not part of its state territory, to which it has sovereign rights, enshrined in international agreements. These include:

200-mile zone (370.4 km) - an exclusive economic zone outside the territorial waters, which secures the right of the state to explore and develop mineral and biological resources (fish, seafood). The total area of ​​the economic zone of Russia is 4.1 million km. within the economic zone, navigation of foreign ships is allowed, but scientific research and development of natural resources is possible only in agreement with the Russian government. (see fig. 1)

Rice. 1. 200 mile zone

The continental shelf, within which the state has sovereign rights to explore and exploit its natural resources.

The length of the state borders of Russia is about 60 thousand km. Each section of the state border of such a huge country as Russia has its own characteristics. (see fig.2)

Rice. 2. Types of Russian borders

Natural boundaries include land and sea.

Land borders can pass through flat areas, mountains, rivers and lakes. The natural geographical position of Russia determines the great length of its borders on land (about 21 thousand km). The longest land borders:

• flat - with Kazakhstan (7.2 thousand km.)
• mountainous - with Mongolia (3 thousand km)
• river - with China (3.4 thousand km)
• lake - with Estonia (147.8 km.)

Natural objects, which are natural boundaries, change over time. Rivers are the most dynamic in this respect. This can lead to border conflict. So, in 1969, Damansky Island on the Ussuri River became the cause of the border conflict. The border between Russia and China, passing along the Amur and Ussuri rivers, was established in 1860 and was determined along the banks of the rivers. Neither the body of water nor the islands were officially demarcated. However, by the middle of the century, the island had grown significantly and began to be located on the Chinese side of the fairway of the river. The conflict was resolved only in 1991, when, under an agreement between the USSR and the PRC, this section of the border was drawn along the fairway of the Ussuri River and Damansky Island was ceded to China. (see fig. 3)

Rice. 3. Damansky conflict

The western border practically throughout its entire length does not have distinct natural boundaries. It starts on the coast of the Barents Sea from the Varanger Fjord and passes first along the hilly tundra, then along the Paz River valley. In this section, Russia borders on Norway. Russia's next neighbor is Finland. The border goes along the Manselkya upland, through a heavily swampy and lake-lake area, along the slope of the low Salpouselkya ridge, and 160 km southwest of Vyborg comes to the Gulf of Finland of the Baltic Sea. In the extreme west, on the shores of the Baltic Sea and its Gdansk Bay, is the Kaliningrad region of Russia, which borders Poland and Lithuania. Most of the region's border with Lithuania runs along the Neman (Nemunas) and its tributary, the Sheshupa River. From the Gulf of Finland, the border runs along the Narva River, Lake Peipus and Pskov, and further, mainly along low plains, crossing more or less significant uplands (Vitebsk, Smolensk-Moscow, southern spurs of the Central Russian, Donetsk Ridge) and rivers (the upper reaches of the Western Dvina, Dnieper, Desna and Seim, Seversky Donets and Oskol), sometimes along secondary river valleys and small lakes, through wooded hilly spaces, ravine-beam forest-steppe and steppe, mostly plowed, expanses to the Taganrog Bay of the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov. Here, Russia's neighbors for over 1000 km are the former fraternal republics of the Soviet Union: Estonia, Latvia, Belarus and Ukraine.

The southern border, like the western one, is predominantly land. It starts from the Kerch Strait, which connects the Sea of ​​Azov with the Black Sea, and passes through the territorial waters of the Black Sea to the mouth of the Psou River. Here begins the land border with Georgia and Azerbaijan. It passes along the Psou valley, and then, mainly, along the Main, or Dividing, ridge of the Greater Caucasus, passing to the Side ridge in the area between the Roki and Kodori passes, then again goes along the Dividing Range to Mount Bazardyuzyu, from where it turns north to the Samur River , along the valley of which it reaches the Caspian Sea. Thus, in the region of the Greater Caucasus, the border of Russia is clearly fixed by natural, natural boundaries. This is due to the fact that nature limited the possibilities for the settlement of the peoples of the Caucasus by its steep high mountain slopes. The length of the border in the Caucasus is more than 1000 km.

Further, the border of Russia passes through the waters of the Caspian Sea, from the coast of which, near the eastern margin of the Volga delta, the land border of Russia with Kazakhstan begins. It passes through the deserts and dry steppes of the Caspian lowland, in the junction of Mugodzhar with the Urals, through the southern steppe part of Western Siberia and through the Altai mountains. Russia's border with Kazakhstan is the longest (over 7,500 km), but almost not fixed by natural boundaries. On the territory of the Kulunda Plain, for example, at a distance of about 450 km, the border runs from northwest to southeast, practically in a straight line, parallel to the direction of the Irtysh. True, about 1500 km of the border runs along the rivers Maly Uzen (Caspian), Ural and its left tributary Ilek, along the Tobol and along its left tributary - the Uy River (the longest river border with Kazakhstan), as well as along a number of smaller tributaries of the Tobol.

The eastern part of the border - along Altai - is orographically distinct. It runs along the ridges separating the Katun basin from the Bukhtarma basin - the right tributary of the Irtysh (Koksusky, Kholzunsky, Listvyaga, in short stretches - Katunsky and Southern Altai).

Almost the entire border of Russia from Altai to the Pacific Ocean runs along the mountain belt. In the junction of the Southern Altai, Mongolian Altai and Sailyugem ridges, there is the Tabyn-Bogdo-Ula mountain junction (4082 m). The borders of three states converge here: China, Mongolia and Russia. The length of Russia's border with China and Mongolia is only 100 km longer than the Russian-Kazakh border. The border runs along the Sailyugem ridge, the northern outskirts of the Ubsunur basin, the mountain ranges of Tuva, the Eastern Sayan (Big Sayan) and Transbaikalia (Dzhidinsky, Erman, etc.). Then it goes along the rivers Argun, Amur, Ussuri and its left tributary - the Sungach River. More than 80% of the Russian-Chinese border runs along rivers. The state border crosses the northern part of the water area of ​​Lake Khanka, runs along the Pogranichny and Chernye Gory ridges. In the extreme south, Russia borders on North Korea along the Tumannaya River (Tumynjiang). The length of this border is only 17 km. Along the river valley, the Russian-Korean border goes to the coast of the Sea of ​​Japan to the south of Posyet Bay.

Maritime borders of Russia- the longest in the world (38.8 thousand km). Of these, 19.7 thousand km are in the Arctic Ocean. The longest maritime border - the border of the polar possessions of Russia (the Russian polar sector of the Arctic) - runs through the waters of the seas of the Arctic Ocean. Here Russia borders on the possessions of Norway and Denmark (Greenland), Canada and the USA.

Eastern border Russia - sea. It passes through the water expanses of the Pacific Ocean and its seas - the Sea of ​​Japan, the Sea of ​​Okhotsk and the Bering Sea. Here Russia borders on Japan and the United States. The border runs along more or less wide sea straits: with Japan - along the Laperouse, Kunashirsky, Treason and Sovetsky straits, separating the Russian islands of Sakhalin, Kunashir and Tanfilyev (Small Kuril Ridge) from the Japanese island of Hokkaido; with the United States of America in the Bering Strait, where the Diomede Islands group is located. It is here that the state border between Russia and the United States passes along the narrow (5 km) strait between the Russian island of Ratmanov and the American island of Krusenstern.

northern border, like the eastern, sea. It goes along the seas of the Arctic Ocean: Barents, Kara, Laptev, East Siberian, Chukchi. From the extreme eastern point on Ratmanov Island and from the extreme northern point of the Rybachy Peninsula (on the Kola Peninsula) to the North Pole, approximately along the meridians of these points, the borders of the “polar possessions” of Russia go.

Depending on the types of interstate cooperation, there are several species economic borders:

Contactborders connect Russia with its neighbors by transport routes. They are divided into several types:

• Connecting borders play the most important role in Russia's foreign trade (this type includes the country's western borders).
• Integration borders link countries that are involved in the process of economic integration. An example is the border with Belarus, through which people freely move, goods and cargo are transported.
• Transparent borders are unguarded borders that do not have defensive structures, poorly provided with customs institutions. This type includes borders with Kazakhstan, Ukraine.