It seems to us that in order to most fully reveal the topic of English morphemes in general and in English patents in particular, it is necessary to first find out what the English language is and how it was formed. Before English formed as we know it, it has been deeply and comprehensively influenced by other languages ​​and cultures. The beginning of the development of the language can be considered the 5th century AD, when the Germanic tribes, consisting of the tribes of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, conquered the lands of Great Britain. These tribes spoke Old Gaulish, Old British, Old Irish, Old Scots, and Manx (Isle of Man) languages. Later, the development of the language was influenced by such events as:

• * distribution of Christianity by Pope Gregory II in 597 AD (influence of the Latin language),
• * Conquest by the Scandinavians in 800. AD, (the influence of the Scandinavian language, in its structure the closest to Old English),
• * the conquest of England by the French-speaking Normans (the influence of the French language, which greatly enriched the English lexicon).
• * Wars of the Scarlet Rose and White, which lasted from 1455 to 1485. These wars marked the decline of English feudalism and the birth of a new social stratum with the political and economic center in London,
• * The Restoration of 1660 - the return of the Stuart dynasty to England in the person of King Charles II, who brought with him a new wave of influence of the French language in various areas of public life.
• * The Renaissance - the era of cultural and geographical discoveries, which led to a significant expansion of the vocabulary of the English language.

The mixture of languages ​​and cultures, which was briefly described above, undoubtedly led to the fact that the English language was the result of a fusion, struggle, unilateral or mutual penetration into each other of about twelve languages ​​(French, Russian, Latin, Scandinavian, Germanic, Greek, Indian , Scottish, Gaulish, Irish, Celtic, Germanic). In 1913, a society called the Society of Pure English was even founded, which advocated the anglicization of borrowed words, but it did not achieve tangible results in the language life of the country.

English, due to various historical roots, language groups and cultures, has striking differences from the Russian language. And for ease of understanding, we would like to consider the most striking differences.

The first, in our opinion, the most striking difference is that in English words do not have endings. But in English there is a strictly observed word order.

Unlike the Russian language, where words in a sentence are connected to each other by means of an ending, in English this link is the sequence of words in a sentence. For example, in Russian I can say “Tomorrow I will leave for London. I will leave for London tomorrow. I'm going to London tomorrow." In English, “Tomorrow I leave for London” cannot be replaced by “For London I tomorrow leave”. Word order also serves to determine parts of speech in an English sentence. Since there are no endings, the same words can often be nouns, adjectives, and even verbs. Compare, for example `it "s pure water”, “I'm going to water the flowers”, “In this picture I"m looking like a weird water plant!” where the word "water" is used both as a noun, and as a verb, and as an adjective.

However, do not forget, probably, the only existing ending in English (besides the plural) is the ending of the third person singular - “tomorrow she leave s for London".

The second difference is that in English no sentence can exist without the main members - the subject and the predicate. There are many such sentences in Russian. For example: " It's seven o'clock now", "We were given a book", "Lights up." When describing such situations in English, we will have to artificially introduce the main members into the sentence. So, the time message in English looks like this: “ It (subject) is (predicate) 7 o"clock"

The third difference I singled out is connected, rather, with the mentality and perception: the description of many life situations in English and in Russian is strikingly different. For example, if you understand English " What do you want the computer to do?” in Russian, you can decide that someone is able to dominate the machine, and literally make it fulfill its desires. However, this sentence only reflects the way of thinking of English-speaking citizens, as, for example, “ remember me to her”, “all about loving you”, or even the most banal “ I am thirsty”, which in Russian to an unprepared person will seem like “remind me to her”, “I am thirsty” and “everything is about loving you”.

There are articles in English that are not translated into Russian, although they carry a certain semantic load. Everyone knows that if you say " a man", then we will talk about someone incomprehensible, but quite possible, but if they say" the man”, pointing to the gentleman in the black hat, it is already clear that this will be gossip about someone specific. There are no such articles in Russian. Consequently, when talking about a certain man, you will most often encounter questions from the category “ What man? This? That? In Hat? Without?..". Therefore, if this does not follow from the context, when translating from English into Russian, it is necessary to specify which particular man is being referred to.

And, probably, the last most striking difference that we would like to note: in English there are no double negatives, while in Russian they like to say something like “ I can't help but be offended by such an assumption! I do not consider myself unprofessional, and according to my calculations, if we do not move slowly towards the goal, then we will not miss our chance.!”, but if such a sentence is translated into English verbatim, then you are unlikely to be understood. In English, negatives usually sound something like this: “ I don't think it's quite respectable to say such suggestions! I consider myself as a professional, and, according to my business-plan, we will certainly reach the target, if we work hard and avoid the gaps, of course…”

Thus, we examined a brief history of the emergence of the English language, and saw that its roots originate in a culture different from Russian, which undoubtedly affects the perception of the language, and the way of thinking, and the language itself. As a conclusion, it can be assumed that English, being different in spirit and perception from Russian, can create some difficulties when trying to translate and adapt texts from English into Russian. And this is due, first of all, to the syntactic differences between the Russian and English languages, which, in turn, most often does not leave the possibility of preserving the structure of the original, forcing translators to resort to transformations and transformations, trying to convey it in the target language as it will be. closer and more understandable to the reader.

Introduction The relevance of studying the structure of modern English is very high, since understanding the structure of a foreign language is one of the important aspects in its study, because all languages ​​are different in their lexical, morphological and syntactic structure. In the process of learning a foreign language, we encounter numerous mistakes in oral and written speech, as it is very difficult for us to wean ourselves from the rules of our native language. Therefore, we always compare the linguistic phenomena of the native and foreign languages, studying their grammatical system and vocabulary. The purpose of this work is to study the theoretical foundations of Russian and English grammar, compare them in order to try to understand the structure of the modern English language as accurately as possible, and also, based on this understanding, to make a comparative analysis of individual grammatical phenomena. To achieve these goals, the following tasks are solved in the work:  to give a comparative analysis of the spread of English and Russian languages ​​in the world;  give a structural classification of languages, determine belonging to one of these groups;  identify some features of the group in the morphological and syntactic structure of the English language;  identify differences and similarities in the grammatical structure of modern English and Russian languages. The main research methods were:  comparative analysis  descriptive analysis their diversity and respect the language as part of the culture of the people. The prospect of this work could be the study of the distinctive features of the lexical structure of the Russian and English languages. According to the French Academy of Sciences, modern humanity speaks almost 3,000 languages. According to American experts, in 2050 there will be about 508 million English speakers in the world. Today it is one of the most widely spoken languages ​​in the world, it ranks second in the world in terms of the number of speakers (341 million people), it is the official language in 10 countries, the second official language in 30 countries of the world. The Russian language also belongs to the languages ​​of international and interstate communication. It is in 4th place in the world in terms of the number of speakers (180 million people), is the state language of the Russian Federation, the second official language in 11 countries of the world. Both languages ​​are official languages ​​of the UN. It is interesting that today there is a certain mixed language (pidgin) - Runglish (a pseudo-dialect of the English language), in which Russians speak with English-speaking people, programmers, economists, and youth communicate with each other. Both languages ​​have a rich history. Modern English goes back to the London dialect in which Shakespeare worked, and the Moscow dialect formed the basis of the Russian literary language. Both languages ​​belong to the Indo-European family of languages, but to different groups. Russian to the Slavic group, and English to the Romano-Germanic. In the section of linguistics - the general typology of languages, the founder of which is the German linguist Wilhelm von Humboldt, several types of languages ​​are distinguished. Russian, along with German, is a synthetic language. These are languages ​​in which the grammatical meaning is expressed by the forms of the words themselves. Such languages ​​are characterized by a free word order, declension, conjugation, and a large length of words. Analytic languages, which include English, as well as French and Italian, are a type of languages ​​in which grammatical relations are expressed by word order, and not by inflection. According to another classification, English is non-inflectional, i.e. having no endings, unlike the Russian language, which has case endings for many parts of speech, i.e. it can be called inflectional. A comparative analysis of the grammatical system of the Russian and English languages ​​was carried out by us in the following sections. Phonetics In the phonetic structure of the English language, I would like to highlight the following features compared to the Russian language:  in Russian there are more letters (33), sounds 42, in English there are 26 letters 46  there are short and long sounds. (ship-sheep)  The length of the sound is differentiating in the meaning of words along with the breadth of the sound. (pen - pan)  there are no soft consonants  there is no deafening of the consonant sound at the end of the word  the stress is fixed, it does not change in the forms of the word, in comparison with the Russian language, where the stress is mobile  the intonation of the sentence distinguishes a positive sentence (descending) from an interrogative one (ascending ) Reading and spelling In Russian, reading is based on the rule “one letter - one sound”. There are reading rules in English, but they are not numerous (the rule of open and closed syllables). Renowned linguist Max Müller called English spelling a "national disaster". Difficulties in spelling (spelling) are due to historical reasons for the development of the language. The fact is that today words are written the way they were read and written 500-600 years ago. In reading, the difficulties are explained by the fact that there are only 26 letters to convey 46 sounds, and for the transmission, for example, 22 vowel sounds, there are only 6 vowels. Therefore, the truth of the saying “Manchester is written, but Liverpool should be read” is relevant for the English language. When creating their crazy rules for reading and writing words, the British follow Kurt Vonnegut’s quote “In nonsense is our strength” (“In nonsense is our strength”). In morphology, a comparative analysis was carried out for individual parts of speech. Noun The main difference between nouns in English is that they do not have declension, that is, they do not have case endings. In general, the fate of English endings is as follows. After the Norman Conquest, many suffixes lost their usefulness and disappeared. In the Middle English period, there was an alignment of endings. And, consequently, some grammatical categories of the noun disappeared. It only changes by numbers, not by cases. There is no grammatical expression for the gender category. It is hidden in him, since it is revealed in the meaning of the sentence. John Brown is a teacher. He is a good teacher. Unlike Russian, which has 6 cases, English has 2 (general and possessive). The category of the possessive case of a noun is atypical for the Russian language, in which the relation of belonging of an object to someone is expressed by possessive adjectives. The category of number is the same in both languages ​​- singular and plural. The plural form is represented by the morpheme -S (it is erroneously called the ending, in its grammatical essence it is a suffix). It seemed interesting to us that this particular morpheme is very active in the English language (in addition to the formation of the plural, it forms the grammatical form Present Simple he works and the possessive case the girl's.) There are exceptions to the rule of plural formation (man-men). There are such exceptions in the Russian language (person - people). Interestingly, some nouns in English have a number that is not typical for a Russian-speaking person (the words money, news, information are singular, although in Russian the words money, news, information are plural). The category of countability is connected with the category of number - the uncountability of the English noun. There is no such category in Russian. Article In English there is a special service part of speech article. It performs the morphological function of the determiner of the part of speech (defines the noun a book, the pen, the ordinal number the first, the superlative degree of the adjective the best). There is no such part of speech in Russian. Interestingly, 500-600 years ago, the article “the” was the word “se”, which meant “this”. Today, the connotation of this meaning is preserved in its meaning of certainty. Adjective name An English adjective has 3 degrees of comparison, like Russian, but it has no number (i.e. it does not have its grammatical expression), case and declension. It has no endings, degrees of comparison are formed using the suffixes big-bigger-the biggest. Interestingly, the exceptions to the rule for the formation of degrees of comparison in both Russian and English are the words bad - worse - the worst, bad - worse - the worst). Both languages ​​are characterized by the phenomenon of substantiation rich - the rich. There are no short adjectives in English. Pronouns The ranks of pronouns in English and Russian are the same, although some ranks are different. The possessive pronoun my has two forms my book - the book is mine. With the same translation, “my” form depends on the position of the word in the sentence, which is not typical for the Russian language. There is a special group of pronouns of quantity, the use of which depends on the category of countability - uncountability (much snow -many books). In this sense, not pronouns appear in the Russian language, but indefinite numerals (a lot, a little, a lot). The English pronoun, unlike the Russian one, does not change in cases, it has a nominative and an objective case, in which the pronoun expresses case relations and is used with prepositions. The category of number is in demonstrative pronouns (this -these). The numeral name The numeral name has more similarities in both languages, for the English numeral, as well as for other parts of speech, there is no change in cases, i.e. declensions, categories of number and gender. Preposition The analytical nature of the English language is manifested primarily in the absence of endings. In this regard, unlike the Russian language, in which the preposition expresses case relations, the preposition in English conveys them. This part of speech is very active in English. There are about 40 most frequent prepositions that are involved in establishing the grammatical connection of words in phrases and sentences. A characteristic feature of the English language is the presence of a large number of stable combinations with prepositions of other parts of speech, as well as a special group of phrasal verbs in which the meaning changes when the preposition changes. There is no such group of verbs in Russian. Verb The category of the verb in English is characterized by a branched system of tense forms of the verb. Their number (21) significantly exceeds the tense forms of the Russian verb. Although the tenses of the verb are the same (Present, Past, Future - present, past, future), there are also aspects of the verb (Continuous, Simple, Perfect, Perfect Continuous). The Russian verb does not have such a grammatical category. In the course of the study, we discovered an interesting fact that in Russian there was a complete analogue of the Perfect aspect - the pluperfect “ read was esm”, which denoted the pre-past action, denoted by the modern tense form Past Perfect. The category of voice (Active - Passive) of personal forms of the verb in English has its analogue in the category of active and passive participles. It is interesting that in English there is a group of auxiliary verbs (do, does, will, did, be), which is not typical for the Russian language, and whose function in the construction of verb forms is significant (all forms of negation and interrogative sentences are built with them). There is a separate group of modal verbs (can, may, must). It is important to divide English verbs into action and state verbs, which is not the case in Russian. There is a large group of irregular verbs, which also do not exist in Russian. There are no reflexive verbs in English, the category of reflexivity is expressed by reflexive pronouns (I washed myself - I washed myself.) Among the impersonal forms of the verb, along with the infinitive and participle common to both languages, there is a form of gerund (speaking) that is unique to English. An interesting, in our opinion, feature of the English language is the temporal consistency of the subject and the predicate. (It is impossible to have a temporary disagreement like “I'm going yesterday.”) Therefore, a distinctive feature is the rule of coordinating times when translating direct speech into indirect speech. Studying complex grammatical structures with a verb, in Russian we found a complete analogue (by structural construction) of the Complex Object construction “He wanted me to have lunch” - “He wants me to have lunch”. This is a compound verb predicate with the addition "He called me to dinner." Syntax In the syntactic structure of the English language, the main difference is the presence of a solid word order (direct in a declarative sentence and reverse in an interrogative one). In the English sentence, the presence of the subject is obligatory, in the Russian language there are nominative and impersonal sentences in which it is not. Characteristic of the English language is a fixed word order at the level of phrases and sentences. In Russian, the word order is free, because the connection of words in a sentence is carried out using case endings. Interesting, in our opinion, is the rule of one negation (if there is one negative word, all the others remain in the positive semantics of “I never went anywhere”). In the Russian translation, we see three negatives "I never went anywhere." Punctuation There are far fewer punctuation rules in English than in Russian. The function of the apostrophe is varied. It is an indicator of the possessive case (the boy’s book), the short form of the verb (doesn’t), which is similar to its function in Russian (replacing the missing letter in the word “announcement”). Conclusion Having carried out our research, we can conclude that in the presence of some similarities, there are the following distinctive features of the grammatical structure of the English language in comparison with Russian:  The presence of a strictly defined word order in a sentence, the violation of which is not allowed.  The presence of a developed system of aspectual tense forms of the English verb.  Lack of a developed case system.  English adjectives do not change by gender, case and number.  Lack of personal endings for verbs.  The presence of auxiliary verbs and verbs - connectives.  The presence of a significant number of irregular verbs, the forms of which must be memorized.  Definite and indefinite articles. We are convinced of the uniqueness of each language as part of the culture of the people. Studying English, we learned a lot about our native language, looking into it through the eyes of foreigners. The great German poet Johann Wolfgang Goethe said "He who does not know foreign languages ​​does not understand anything in his native language." In the course of our work, we were convinced that he was right.

After about a year of classes, having gone through the main basic topics and writing more than one notebook with grammar exercises, the authors of the site somehow began to formulate the main differences between the Russian and English languages ​​by themselves, having understood which it was possible to significantly advance in the study of this alien to us means of communication. In other words, the main topics emerged from these differences, from which, in fact, it is necessary to begin to deal with the English language, deal with them first so that a conscious, gradual understanding of the system of the English spoken language can come into the Russian-speaking brain. What are these differences? First of all, of course, this is their sophisticated phonetics.

In every language there is a relationship between spelling and phonetics. This connection is determined by the spelling system of the language, which is based on one of three main principles: phonetic principle - as we speak, so we write (Latin), morphological principle: the unity of the spelling of the meaningful parts of the word is preserved, while the sound of these parts in different words changes (Russian language), historical principle: the spelling of the word is explained by historical traditions and does not match the pronunciation (English). In English, spelling has not changed much over the past 400 - 500 years, and the sound side of the language has undergone serious changes. The English now write as they did in the 15th century, when there were no differences in spelling and pronunciation. The word a knight (e night) - a knight - sounded, most likely, clearly in German - “knight”, the word through (sru) - through, through, - also sounded in German - “through”, etc. etc. In modern English, the relationship between sounds and letters is much more diverse than in Russian. Every vowel and many consonants have multiple readings. All English vowels have for the most part far from the reading, which we are accustomed to associate in our minds with the letters of the Latin alphabet: each vowel can convey 4-5 sounds often quite different.

Phonetic skills of the English language strongly differ from Russian: this applies both to the sound composition of languages, and to the articulatory (sound production mechanism) means used by both languages. There are several similar consonants in English and Russian, however, this similarity is very approximate. Most of the sounds of modern English speech have practically nothing in common with the sounds of Russian speech, and for a non-English speaking person, their correct reproduction is very difficult.

You can understand thoroughly the phonetics of the English language and learn the rules for reading English words with the help of, for example, the phonetic spelling guide “My Favorite Sounds” by the authors O.M. Korchazhkina., Tikhonova R.M., - M.: Humanitarian publication of the VLADOS Center, 1996, or another similar publication, since there are now a great many of them. However, due to lack of time, not everyone does it. What is the way out from here? In my opinion, it is not necessary to know all the phonetic rules at all, because many English words still read incorrectly. In other words, the only salvation in this situation have the ability to correctly read the phonetic transcription of words from dictionaries. Without this for learning English can not even be taken. In fact, this is not at all difficult, since many English-Russian dictionaries on paper have a separate page containing, with explanations, a list of Russian words in which we hear the sounds of the English language, including diphthongs and triphthongs.

Unlike the Russian language, in which the gender of nouns is recognized either by their meaning, and more often by their endings, in English the gender of nouns is recognized only by their meaning. Nouns denoting animated objects are either masculine or feminine, depending on the gender they designate: a man is masculine (he), and woman is feminine (she). Nouns denoting inanimate objects belong to the middle gender (it): a chair - a chair, water - water, a window - a window. A number of nouns are both masculine and feminine: friend, cousin, wolf. When it is necessary to indicate to which gender a given person or animal belongs, then to a noun add a word indicating gender: a boy-friend, a he-cousin. We would not hesitate to attribute the word ship - a ship - to the masculine gender, but in English the word - refers to female gender and is replaced by the pronoun she.

She has a cargo of coal on board.
It (the ship) has a cargo of coal on board.

How can this phenomenon be explained? Such is the unique crucible of the evolution of the English language, nothing else.

Most names nouns in English are accompanied special words, which are called determinants. The most common determinants nouns are the indefinite and definite articles a, an, the, as well as the pronouns some and any. Articles Dont Have independent meaning, but only indicate whether it is a subject, not selected from a class of homogeneous objects not yet known to the interlocutor or reader, or about an object, dedicated from a class of homogeneous objects, a known object. In English, these determiners play vital role They are the most important indicator highlighter noun. For example, we encountered the word throw [ˈθrəʊ]. This word can either be: verb, and then it will be translated as “throw”, “throw”, “throw”; may be noun, and then it will be translated as "throw", "throw". In addition, the noun a throw [ˈθrəʊ] has at least 12 meanings (for example: throwing (nets), felling (forests)). If this word is not defined by an article, you have a chance to translate this word in a specific context both as a verb (the verb throw[ˈθrəʊ] has about 26 meanings) and as a noun. Combined with other words of the sentence, you get obvious nonsense. At best, this word refers to two parts of speech. Many words in English can be, in addition to a noun and a verb, also an adjective, an adverb. Their translation depends on which words in the sentence they refer to, so without an article in English, it’s just not enough. In Russian, such a grammatical phenomenon as the article missing, for us it is an annoying unusual part. We must force ourselves to use it.

In English there is special layer auxiliary verbs that are blood in English. Without them, English is simply not possible. What are these verbs? To be, to have, to do, shall (should), will (would). These verbs play the most important role in the conjugation of the English verb, with their help, various complex forms of the verb are formed, all verb tenses (in total - 12 tenses, unlike only three in Russian), with the exception of the affirmative form Present and Past Indefinite. Some of them have independent lexical meaning. (to be, to have, to will). In Russian there is no such grammatical phenomenon, in Russian the verb is conjugated according to completely different rules, very different from the rules for conjugation of the English verb. Without a good knowledge of these rules, you will not be able to put the English verb in the right tense. Sections 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 14, 15, 16, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, of a self-study reference and practice Raymond's Murphy book for intermediate students, as well as the exercises included in them, explain the rules of conjugation of the English verb in the best way, in a simple, understandable language, and the answers to the exercises on the last page of the textbook will show you how well you understand the material.

The next difference in the English language is the use in it, which is called through each step, of the verb to be (to be, to be, to be) as a linking verb in a compound predicate and not only. In Russian, the present tense from the verb "to be" as a copula is usually is absent. In the linguistic traditions of the Russian language, we do not say "This is a house." Thinking in Russian, and just picking up the English words - equivalents, we would say: this house, and the meaning would be different. In English, this does not mean "This is a house (not a car, not a dog)", but "this house", indicating a specific house. We need force self talk: This is a house - This is a house.

In Russian, unlike English, there is a specific category that characterizes the verb - aspect. This is a special category not found in many languages. Most Russian verbs are divided into pairs of verbs imperfective and perfective: read - read, write - write; buy - buy; action is ordinary, permanent - finished action. The English verbs of the Perfect group do not correspond to the Russian perfect form, although it is sometimes used in translation. In Russian, there are special forms of verbs with a particle - sya. The particle - Xia in these verbs can have the meaning of a passive voice, the meaning of the pronoun - himself, himself (himself, herself, etc.) of impersonality, etc., for example

Africa is washed by two oceans.
Africa is bordered by two oceans.

English prepositions. Prepositions play an extremely important role in English, due to the fact that there are almost no case endings in English. Prepositions express the relation of a noun (or pronoun) to other words in a sentence. Prepositions express a variety of relationships - spatial, temporal, causal, etc. In Russian, these relationships are expressed not by prepositions alone, but by prepositions and case endings, in English, these relations are expressed only pretexts, since the nouns in the common case with which they are combined do not have special endings. Some English prepositions perform a purely grammatical function, conveying in combination with nouns (or pronouns) the same relations that are transmitted in Russian indirect cases without prepositions. In this case, they lose their lexical meaning and are not translated into Russian in separate words. not translated. Each preposition is used with an independent lexical meaning, many prepositions have not one, but several meanings. In many cases, the use of one or another preposition depends solely on previous words - verb, adjective or noun. For example, the verb to depend - “depend” requires only the preposition on after itself. (Topics 120 - 135 English Grammar in use). The different meanings in which English prepositions are used, and the discrepancy in the use of prepositions in English and Russian, make their assimilation difficult for learners. In addition to the assimilation of individual prepositions, it is necessary memorize verbs, adjectives and nouns combined with the prepositions they require, as well as combinations and expressions with prepositions.

Further. To express the presence or existence in a certain place or period of time of a person or object, even UNKNOWN to the interlocutor used in English a special type of simple predicate, expressed by the turnover THERE IS (ARE) with the meaning there is, is, is, exists. In spoken English, this special simple predicate, due to its functional purpose, is used Often. The verb to be in there is can be used in different forms of tense (Topic 83 English Grammar in use):

There are very many French books in this library.
There are (are) a lot of French books in this library.

There was a lot of traffic.
There was a lot of traffic.

Will there be many people at the party?
Will there be many people at the party?

There has been a big rise in the cost of living.
There has been a big increase in the cost of living recently.

There must have been somebody at home.
There must have been someone at home.

In Russian, there is no such phenomenon as the above-described special type of a simple predicate, and we, again, need to train, accustom ourselves to using it.

Following the most important difference- analytical, unlike synthetic Russian, system English sentence, that is strict order words in a sentence - Subject - Predicate - Complement - Circumstance. Inversion (rearrangement of words in a sentence) is not possible in English, it leads to an absurd combination of words. In Russian, you can place words in a sentence in an almost free order. Thanks to the system of case endings for nouns, the meaning of what was said will not change. For the English, our cases of nouns are worse than death, their nouns have only two cases - common and possessive. They cannot grasp the system of case endings in their heads, we cannot grasp the system of the analytical structure. It should also be noted here that when two or more, especially actual adjectives, are used in a sentence in English, very often (but not always) (a typical exception to the rules in English), these adjectives also must be placed in a certain order.. (98 units English Grammar in use).

How big? How old? – What color? - Where from? – What is it made of?

How big? - How old? - What colour? - Where? - What is it made of?

For example: a small black plastic bag (1-3-5)
small black plastic bag.

The Russian language has a significant number of impersonal sentences. An English sentence without a subject is not possible. Often it is expressed by the formal subject It. For example: It is raining. (It's from rainin.) It's raining (now).

Word connections in a Russian sentence are carried out mainly the very forms of words. The endings of adjectives or pronouns indicate their connection and subordination to nouns, the endings of the verb depend on the person, gender or number of the subject of the sentence.

There are certain connections between words in a sentence: adjectives are related to nouns and are never connected with a verb. In English, the form of words is not so expressive and often the adjective and adverb have the same form.

In negative sentences in Russian, one should take into account double negatives, those. when, along with the negative particle NOT, the verb also uses negative pronouns, adverbs. In English, when the negative form of the verb is used uncertain forms of pronouns or adverbs, for example:

I don't want anything.
I don't want anything.

With a literal translation into English of the Russian sentence “I don’t want anything”, it turns out: I do not want nothing. - I don't want anything.

In Russian there is no such construction as a combination object case with an infinitive, typical of English. Offers such as:

I wanted him to come. We saw you enter the house.

translated into Russian in complex sentences:

I want, to he came. We saw, what how) you entered the house.

In complex sentences in Russian, it is very important the use of conjunctions and allied words, which connect parts of the offer. In English, the use of such conjunctions not necessary.

He said, what she will come tomorrow.
He said (that) she would come to-morrow.

The book (which) you gave me is very interesting.
Book, what you gave me a very interesting one.

In russian language No timing in complex subordinate sentence, as it is in English. In English both in the main and in the subordinate clause the verb is put in the form of the past tense.

I thought you worked at the factory.
I thought you worked in a factory.

In an English subordinate clause, the future tense is not at all used.

He will ring up when he comes.
He will call when he comes.

In Russian, subordinate clauses separated by commas which is not typical of the English language.

In Russian, questions can be expressed either using interrogative intonation, preserving the usual word order of a declarative sentence, or interrogative intonation, changing the usual order of the subject and predicate places and using the particle whether after the predicate: Do you speak English? Do you speak english?

In English, in addition to raising intonation, general questions have word order, different from narrative word order suggestions. This difference is that auxiliary or modal the verb that is part of the predicate is placed in early sentences before the subject. When there is no auxiliary verb in the predicate, i.e. when the predicate is expressed by the verb Simple Present Tense or Simple Past Tense, then the forms are placed before the subject, respectively do(does) or did; the semantic verb is placed in the form of an infinitive (without to) after the subject. The order of the remaining members of the sentence remains the same as in the declarative sentence.

Word formation: unlike English words, the form of a word in Russian plays a very important role. By suffixes and endings original form, you can determine whether the given word is noun or verb, adjective or adverb which is not always possible in English.

Live English uses GREAT AMOUNT Phrasal verbs like get start, get by, keep up, cut down, show off. As we already wrote, it is simply saturated with them through and through. Often the second word (bay, ap, ov) gives a special meaning to the verb. For example:

My French isn't very good but it's enough to get by.
My French is not very good, but it is sufficient to be managed.

I can't keep up with you.

Only knowing the meaning of the phrase to keep up with smb. - keep up with someone, we can translate the sentence - I can't keep up with you. (I can't keep up with you.) A few more similar examples:

I arranged to meet Jane after work last night but she turned up.
I arranged to meet Jane after work last night, but she didn't show up (didn't arrive).

There is no need to show off.
There is no need to show how smart you are.

I sat in an armchair and dosed off.
I sat down in a chair and fell asleep.

Sue was offered a job as a translator but she turned down.
Sue was offered a job as a translator, but turned it down.

In Russian there is no form for the corresponding English gerund. It is a semi-verb - semi-noun. Gerund can be used after prepositions, which is completely impossible in Russian (with verbal nouns for verb forms in Russian)

Spoken English abounds idiomatic expressions, some of which can be literally translated into Russian, others cannot. Nevertheless, for English-speaking people, these are already established speech clichés and have a stable circulation and a specific meaning. Here, for example, is an idiomatic sentence that lends itself to literal translation into Russian, and you can catch the whole meaning of what was said:

It is as plain as the nose on your face.
It is as clear as the nose on your face.
(It from ez plane ez ze neuz he yo face.)

And here, for example, an expression that cannot be literally translated into Russian:

Would to God it were a mistake!
Wood that year it ver e mistake!

and only by looking in dictionaries for examples of the use of this expression, we establish the translation: - God, how I wish this was a mistake!

In English context matters, in which this or that word is used, since it is the context that allows you to choose the correct meaning of the word from its 5-10 meanings that this or that word has. As already mentioned, in English the same word can be both a noun and an adjective, and a verb and an adverb, and context only allows you to correctly determine its value.

What and how can these differences be explained? How did it happen that the English language for us, Russian-speaking people, is an absolutely alien, different, incomprehensible set of sounds in which we do not understand a single word and cannot consciously respond to a live English phrase? Why are the rules of the English language quite complex, difficult to perceive by us, very specific, have almost nothing in common with the rules of the Russian language? Why is it necessary to study a fairly significant amount of English words, combinations, expressions for a good level of language proficiency? How can one explain this pronounced dissimilarity between the English and Russian languages, despite the fact that the Russian people are one of the peoples of the Slavic tribe, a tribe that, together with the Lithuanian tribes , Celtic, Germanic, Greco-Romance, Iranian, Indian belongs to one Indo-European language family?

In order to get answers to all these questions and understand WHY we do not understand anything in English, why we see the English language in the form in which it exists now, and also to develop the most effective approaches for us in learning English, it is necessary to turn to the main historical facts and events in its evolution. The authors of the site consider the mention of these historical facts compulsory, since every person who is seriously interested in the English language should know them, because. these historical events laid the foundations of the language, its roots and origins, and then modified it beyond recognition. Knowing the main milestones in its history will help explain grammatical and other phenomena that are completely absent in the Russian language, which is why they are difficult to perceive by Russian-speaking people, and will also help you quickly start to parse oral speech and speak English.

40 Common features of the Indo-European languages.

English grammar seems complicated and confusing to beginners. However, the first impression is deceptive. For example, the system of tenses is an example of a well-thought-out and logically built scheme that allows you to understand the time of events at the first glance at the verb. Desperate to grasp this logic and comprehend the essence of each aspect? Do not worry! The purpose of today's article is to explain in detail all tenses in English for dummies, beginners and all those who selflessly studied theory, but still do not know how to apply the memorized rules in practice.

Let's start with a general explanation of the English tense system.

In Russian speech, we use three types of time: present, past and future. In English, there are more than 12 types, as many believe. But this is not quite the right approach.

In fact, the British have exactly the same 3 types of time, but each of them is divided into 4 more subspecies:

• - just action
• - an action taking place at a particular moment in time.
• - completed action
• Perfect continuous - an action that has been going on for some time, brings certain results, but has not yet been completed.

If you can understand these semantic shades, then the use of tenses will not cause any problems. We will try to develop this skill and give accessible explanations for each of the aspects.

All the rules for tenses in English for dummies

Here we are waiting for examples of all possible time groups, an explanation of their use and detailed information about the construction of proposals.

Present (Present)

If for us the present is all that relates to this moment, then for the English the present plays with four different colors.

1) present Simple

Facts, everyday actions, skills, skills. This aspect carries the most generalized understanding of time.

• I write poems - I write poems(always, every day, never, often, rarely).
• He writes poems- in the 3rd person, -s is always added to the predicate.

For questions and negations, don't forget to use the auxiliary do.

3) Present Perfect

The result of the completed action. Such sentences are always translated into Russian by perfective verbs (what did you do?). In this case, the duration of the action is not specified specifically, but approximately.

• I have written poems- I wrote poetry(just now, already, not yet, sometime, by such and such a day, hour, month).

All types of statements are built using the auxiliary verb have (for the 3rd person has).

?	–
Have you written? Has she written?	I haven't written; she hasn't written

4) Present Perfect continuous

An action that has already brought some results, but is not yet completed. The length of events in time is emphasized.

• I have been writing poemssince2005 - I write poetry since 2005(from childhood, from such and such a time, from ... to, all day, during, recently).

2) Past continuous

Events took place at a specific moment in the past.

• She was writing this letter at 5 o'clock yesterday -She iswroteThisletteryesterdayat 5hours(at that moment).

4) Past Perfect continuous

An action that lasted a long time and was completed at a certain point in the past.

• She had been writing theletterforafewdaysbeforeshesentitShe wrote this letter for several days before sending it(before when).

2) Future Continuous

The action is planned to take place at a specific time in the future.

• I will be flying to Spain at this time tomorrow –TomorrowinThistimeII willflyinSpain.

4) Future Perfect continuous

The action will last until a certain point in the future. This aspect is rarely used in speech.

• April 15, I will have been living in Spain for 3 monthsBy 15AprilII willliveinSpainalready 3month.

?	–
Will you have been living?	I won't have been living.

We hope we coped with the task and explained the tenses in English even for dummies. To consolidate the studied theory, we recommend solving practical exercises on tenses of verbs in English.

Before you start teaching English, it is important to understand in general the main differences between the construction models of English and native languages. As children, we actively create our own experience, a model of the world that is around us, and at the same time develop ways of knowing and interacting with this world. One of the most important tools for interaction and knowledge of the world is language, which in itself is an integral separate model!

At a certain stage of our own development, we begin to proceed more from the models we have created than from external reality. Therefore, when learning the next language (foreign), the "struggle" of the created and created language structures begins! To avoid your own and unjustified "losses", it is important to build in a new model in a constant ratio (comparison) with what is available and already works well! In addition, many patterns of creating an existing model can be well adapted for the development of subsequent ones.

All that is stated here is also important for the development of linguistic intuition and a sense of language. Since approximate knowledge of how the model works, understanding the logic of its construction allows us to predict what is still unknown, based on general ideas.

Russian and English belong not only to different branches, but also to different language families. Therefore, one of the main mistakes of people studying this field is an attempt to translate literally from one language to another. This leads to incorrect construction of sentences, and, accordingly, to a distortion of the understanding of speech by the interlocutor. In this regard, before starting to learn a foreign language, we recommend, first of all, to get acquainted with the main differences between a foreign language and a native one. This will help you to consciously develop your language competence, develop a sense of language, master the key rules of sentence construction and word formation, thus creating the foundation for the further construction of the building.

We recommend that you periodically (once every two or three months) return to reading this section in order to compare the experience gained with the main patterns from time to time, paving the way for a combination of explicit and implicit learning methods, a deeper generalization of the developed skills, polishing the subtleties and nuances.

So, Russian and English belong to the Indo-European family of languages. Russian belongs to the East Slavic branch of languages, English belongs to the Germanic branch.

1. Russian language is synthetic, that is, the main part of the work in the proposal is performedgraduation, and each word has its own form.English - analytical, where the main role in the sentence belongs toverb(predicate). And the meaning of the sentence will depend on the form in which you use the verb, which, unlike the Russian language, showsasaction is taking place. For example:

Usually - He plays tennis.
Now - He is playing tennis.
What a time - Hehas been playing tennis.

He usually plays to tennis.
Now he plays to tennis.
He has been for some timeplays to tennis.

What in English can be expressed by a verb, in Russian, to express the same thought, more clarifying words are needed (usually, now, for some time already).

2. In English, there is a strict word order in a sentence.

At the beginning of a thought, the object in question is indicated, then there is an action, then an indication of this object (object) and after that follows a circumstance as an indication of the conditions of the ongoing action.

For example:

The cat caught the mouse in the yard.
A cat caught a mouse in the yard.

Since there are no endings in English, and if you change the order of words in a sentence, then its meaning will change.

Compare:

The mouse caught the cat in the yard.
A mouse caught a cat in the yard.

Those who studied English at school probably remember how teachers were asked to translate sentences from the end. The fact is that in Russian sentences, as a rule, begin with a circumstance, that is, with a description of the situation.

3. The third difference lies in the fact that in the English language both main members are necessarily present in the sentence - the subject and the predicate. In Russian, a sentence can be without a predicate or without a subject.

For example:

1. He actor.

In English, this sentence would sound like this:

He is an actor.
He is an actor.

2.Today weather hot.

In English we say:

The weather is hot today.
The weather is hot today.

3. It's getting dark.

English will be:

It's getting darker.
It is getting dark.

A predicate in English cannot exist without a subject, since only with it does it agree on its form.

4. The same meaning in Russian and English is conveyed in a different form, that is, in different language patterns.

If the Russians say: "It's raining." The English will say as follows: "It rains" (It rains).

We hear in Russian: "Help yourself!" In English, this phrase would sound like this: "Help yourself!" (Help yourself, please!)

In English, many sentences include the verb to have:

to have breakfast - have breakfast;
to have a smoke - smoke;
to have a break - go for a break;
to have smb "s hair cut - cut your hair;
to have a walk - walk, walk.

The English and Russians spell words differently. Officially, they are spelled by pronouncing the names of the letters. In everyday life, Americans use the names of words, for example: Time - tennis, ice, mouse, elf.

Spelling of an unfamiliar word in Russian will sound like this: Time - Vera, Raya, Elena, Maria, Yana.

5. In English, one part of speech can go into another without changing the form. The English say that any noun can be transformed into a verb, for example:

wave (wave) - to wave (wave);
shake (cocktail) - to shake (shake);
pocket (pocket) - to pocket (put something in your pocket);
deposit (contribution) - to deposit (give for storage);
arm (weapon) - to arm (arm);
shoe (shoe) - to shoe (shoe).

If in Russian we take a word out of context, we can easily determine which part of speech it belongs to. In English, due to the lack of endings, we will not always be able to do this.

6. One of the important differences is that in Russian the emotional state is transmitted mainly through intonation. In English, the main role belongs to the verb, therefore, emotional coloring is conveyed using the verb form of the Perfect group.

Compare: I found the dog. - I found a dog. (A simple description of the fact).

I have found the dog. - I found a dog! (A person is happy with the accomplished event).

I am waiting for you. - I'm waiting for you.

I have been waiting for you. - I've been waiting for you for a while. (The sentence is emotionally colored. The speaker wants to draw the attention of the interlocutor to the fact of waiting).

The English will always talk about some events using the perfect tense, for example, if they want to report that they have visited a city or country:

I was in Paris! - I have been to Paris.

She was in Scotland. - She has been to Scotland.

In this case, the grammatical form emphasizes the attitude to the trip as an event, and not as a secondary fact.

If someone says this using the simple past tense (I was in Paris.), then this can be interpreted as disrespectful to the interlocutor from this city or country.

In our book, we offer you a series of exercises that will help you not only navigate the difference between Russian and English, but also build in the main "filters" that allow you to overcome the barriers of language perception and optimize further learning.

From the book by A. Pligin, I. Maksimenko "Now Let" s Play English", St. Petersburg publishing house "Prime - EUROZNAK", Moscow, "OLMA-PRESS", 2005.