The formation of the Russian centralized state falls during the reign of Ivan III. Although the predecessors of Ivan III - his grandfather Vasily I and father Vasily II - managed in the 15th century. somewhat expand their possessions at the expense of the Novgorod Bezhetsky Verkh, some lands of the Yaroslavl principality and Rostov possessions in the Northern Dvina basin, the main increase in Moscow territory falls on the time of Ivan III.
In 1463, Ivan III annexed the Yaroslavl principality to his possessions. In 1474, he bought from the Rostov princes the Borisoglebsk half of the principality that remained in their hands. Thus, the entire Rostov Principality came under the rule of the Grand Duke of Moscow. In 1477, as a result of a military campaign, Ivan III eliminated the political independence of the Novgorod Republic and annexed its vast lands to the Moscow principality. After that, he took the title of Grand Duke of "All Russia" and refused to pay tribute to the Tatars. The place of the Moscow principality was occupied by the Russian state. Having strengthened his sovereignty in the confrontation with the Khan of the Great Horde (heir to the former Golden Horde) Akhmat on the banks of the river. Ugry in 1480, Ivan III subjugated the Tver principality in 1485. At the same time, the expansion of the possessions of the Moscow Grand Duke in the east took place. In 1472, Great Perm was conquered (lands along the middle reaches of the Kama). In 1478, the lands between the Pechora and the lower reaches of the Ob were annexed. In 1489, the independence of the Vyatches was broken by the armies of Ivan III, and all the lands from Vetluga to Kama were under the rule of the Grand Duke of Moscow. In 1499, a campaign was organized against the Yugra land, which lay between the upper reaches of the Pechora and Sosva. The Vogul and Ostyak princes who lived here recognized the power of Ivan III.
By the beginning of the XVI century. a united state arose, headed by the Russian people, which included a number of peoples of the North (, Komi,) and (,). Strengthening of the Russian state in the late XV-early XVI centuries. made possible the reunification with him of the Russian lands, which were under the rule of the Grand Duchy. In 1500, a war began with and for the western Russian lands. The result was a peace treaty of 1503, according to which part of the lands of the former Smolensk principality, conquered by Lithuania back in 1404, passed to the Russian state: Toropets and Dorogobuzh, the lands of the ancient Chernigov principality, as well as lands on the left bank of the Dnieper north of Kyiv, but Kyiv itself remained with the Polish king.
The power of Ivan III turned out to be so extensive that in an appeal in 1493 to the Austrian Archduke Sigismund, Ivan III especially emphasized that he belonged to the distant lands of “our state, which is to the east on the great river Ob”.
Appearance in the last quarter of the XV century. a large and strong Russian state had a significant impact on the development of the peoples and states of Eastern and Central Europe in subsequent times.
Travel and geographical discoveries
Pomors constantly visited Novaya Zemlya. Even at the beginning of the XIV century. navigation from the mouth of the Northern Dvina to Novaya Zemlya was supported by the great Moscow princes. And not only to Novaya Zemlya: from the charter issued to the Dvina governor, it is known that Prince Ivan Danilovich Kalita annually sent a gang of industrialists from the Dvina to the Pechora by sea, entrusting them with “falconry”.
At the end of the XIV-_mid of the XVI centuries. there was an intensive development of the eastern lands. The so-called lowland colonization, which went from the southern Russian lands to the north-east of Europe and especially to Western Siberia, acquired the main significance. At the end of the XV century. movement to the Urals and beyond the Urals has become systematic.
In 1379, the famous missionary-educator Stefan of Perm for many years conducted missionary activities in the lands of the Zyryans (Komi) in the basins of the Pechora and Vychegda rivers and studied the nature and life of the Zyryans. In 1364-_1365. Alexander Obakunovich made a trip through the Urals to the Ob River and to the coast. Under Ivan III (1483), the Russians, led by Kurbsky, Chernoy and Saltykov-Travnin, made a big trip through the Stone () to the Yugra land and sailed along the Irtysh and Ob.
By 1471-_1474. Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin visited and left his notes about this journey under the title “Journey beyond three seas”.
Territory mapping
The earliest documentary mention of cartographic work in Russia refers to the drawing up of a drawing for disputed tracts. In 1483, “before the lord of Pskov ... and before the posadnik hegumen and the elders of the Snetogorsk monastery, a complaint was made that they were being deprived of their legally belonging sixth part in the Pererva River and were not being given passage. To clarify the case, they sent the boyar Mikhailo Chet and the Sotsky toe of the water in the Pererva River to inspect. The princess boyar and the sotsky toe looked at the water, and they wrote it out on the bast [that is, they drew it on birch bark] and put it in front of the Lord and fought [argued] on the bast.
Princely destinies were described by scribes already at the beginning of the 15th century, in 1490-_1498. grandiose work was undertaken on the census of villages and cities from the Baltic to the Middle Volga and the Oka, and by the middle of the 16th century. the primary description of the Volga region and the North was completed. Special descriptions were created for the frontier lands of the state. The scribe, reviewed, sentinel and other books and descriptions that appeared as a result of these works testify to the desire of the Moscow government to form an accurate picture of their state. The third type of geographical materials (except for tax-fiscal and foreign descriptions) were road builders, or itineraries, lists of cities on the most important routes, indicating the distances between them in versts or days of travel, created in Russia since ancient times.
The need for long-distance travels and military campaigns led to the creation of route descriptions, and subsequently drawings of the main rivers, land routes and coasts, along which coastal voyages of Pomors were carried out. Descriptions of the rivers and sea coasts of Northern Russia, compiled by Russian Pomors, were distinguished by exceptional detail. The Pomors used the compass as early as the 15th century, calling it a uterus or matka. So in domestic practice, angular measurements appeared and were widely used.
There are testimonies of foreign authors of the 16th century. on the drawing up by Pomors, in addition to descriptions, drawings of significant sections of the coasts of the northern seas. So, in 1594, the Dutch, asking Russians about the island about the local places, received from the helmsman-Pomor a drawing of the coast from to the river. Pechory. The famous Dutch cartographer Gerard Mercator, in a letter to the English geographer Richard Hakluyt, reports that in compiling the data on the north he received from one of the Russians.
Test topic
Russian state in the second half of the XVI century. Ivan the Terrible
St. Petersburg
Introduction
The initial period of the reign of Ivan the Terrible
Reforms of the Elected Rada: the path to the centralization of state power
Oprichnina: causes, essence, consequences
The main directions of the foreign policy of Ivan IV
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
In the centuries-old history of feudal Russia, it is difficult to find a time more controversial than the 16th century, especially its second half, or, as it is still called in historical literature, the time of Ivan the Terrible. The boyar strife that shook the state gave way to a short period of rallying the entire class of feudal lords around the young monarch, who, in turn, was followed by the turbulent years of the oprichnina. Military victories at that time side by side with defeats. The economic upsurge of the first half of the century was replaced by an economic crisis with the decline of crafts, the agrarianization of cities and the mass exodus of peasants from the central districts of the country to the southern and eastern outskirts. The rapid development of trade was combined with the further development of serfdom, and the flourishing of Russian culture and social thought was accompanied by cruel persecution of freethinkers - heretics.
Historians of the past have puzzled over the reasons for the drama of this era and its contrasts. They were seen in the struggle between good and bad historical figures, they were looked for in the character of Ivan the Terrible himself, they were taken out of the struggle between the state principle and the remnants of tribal relations. We have to admit that, despite the contradictory nature of assessments and concepts of the history of Russia in the 16th century, all of them, in the general sense that is inherent in all of them, lead us to the problem of power and its significance in Russian history. This is an indisputable historiographical fact.
. The initial period of the reign of Ivan the Terrible
In December 1533, Vasily III died unexpectedly. Under the young heir to the throne, the three-year-old Ivan, a council of trustees (Regency Council) was created according to the will. The creation of this state body was necessary not only for management, but also for maintaining power in the hands of their descendants. After some time, the second wife of Vasily III, Elena Vasilievna Glinskaya, a representative of the princely family of the Western Russian lands, becomes the actual ruler. However, she met resistance along the way. The first to try to seize power was Yuri Ivanovich Dmitrovsky, brother of Vasily III, but was arrested. An attempt by Elena's uncle, Mikhail Glinsky, was also thwarted. But these were not the last attempts to seize the throne.
After the death of Elena, the period of boyar rule began (1538 - 1547), where several boyar groups existed: Glinsky, Belsky, Shuisky, Vorontsov. All of them pursued different policies, but the fact was only one thing - either one group or another group came to power.
John in his childhood had to endure terrible trials that left their mark on his character. Having lost his father at the age of three, and at the age of seven and a half he remained an orphan, a feeling of abandonment and loneliness deeply cut into the soul of the child. The ugly scenes of boyar self-will and violence turned his timidity into nervous fearfulness. From the moment of the coronation, the boy had to sit for hours at long ceremonies, perform rituals, refusing childish amusements. He retained an unkind feeling for his guardians for the rest of his life.
Freed from the guardianship of the boyars, the Grand Duke indulged in wild fun and games. At the age of 12, he climbed onto the pointed towers and pushed cats and dogs out of there. He rode through the streets of the city, trampled the people with his horses, beat and robbed.
In other words, while the state languished under the unbearable yoke of boyar tyranny, the future sovereign received a sad lesson from those around him. Thanks to the actions of the boyars, the spirit of violence in various forms took possession of the imagination and feelings of the young man, penetrated into his flesh and blood. In the atmosphere of the struggle for power, the future despot was ripening - vindictive, extremely nervous, quick-tempered and cruel. He was not only not prevented from indulging in cruel and bloody amusements, but even encouraged.
However, the speeches of 1547 did not disturb the objective course of events in recent decades. They only emphasized the need for further changes. After a series of new beginnings at the turn of the XV - XVI centuries. and their continuation in the 30s - 40s of the 16th century, the country was prepared for more ambitious reforms.
. Reforms of the Elected Rada: the path to the centralization of state power
Around 1549, a new government was formed from people close to the young John, later called the Chosen Rada by Prince A. Kurbsky. It included: Alexei Adashev, a representative of the humble but large landowners, who headed the Chosen Rada, Prince Andrei Kurbsky, Priest Sylvester, Metropolitan Macarius, and clerk Ivan Viskovaty.
The Rada was not an official state body, but in fact it was the government for 13 years and ruled the state on behalf of the tsar.
Reforms of the Chosen Rada.The new level of political organization of the country, which had developed by the middle of the 16th century, had to correspond to new state institutions - class and representative institutions that defended the interests of large regions. The Zemsky Sobor became such a body. The Council of 1549 was the first Zemsky Sobor, that is, a meeting of class representatives with legislative functions. Its convocation reflected the establishment of a class-representative monarchy in Russia. However, the first Council did not yet have an elective character, and representatives of the urban trade and craft population and peasants were not present there. However, both of these categories of the population did not play a big role at the cathedrals in the future either. From 1550 to 1653, 16 councils were convened, and after the closing of the last of them, neither living memory nor regret remained. Adoption of a new judge.Undoubtedly, the largest undertaking of the government of Ivan the Terrible was the drafting of a new legislative code in June 1550, which replaced the obsolete code of law of 1497. Of the 99 articles of the code of law, 37 were completely new, while the rest were subjected to radical processing. The social legislation included in the Code of Laws of 1550 deals with two most important issues - land ownership and the dependent population (peasants and serfs). For the first time in the code book there was a chapter about the king, which stipulated the king's rights, title, form of government. A clause on high treason was also introduced. The new Sudebnik fully met the needs of the time. It was the first time that punishment for bribery was introduced, there are rules of law that still exist. Local government reforms.The zemstvo reform was destined to take on special significance - the introduction of zemstvo institutions and the transition to the abolition of feeding. Lands not assigned to the princely palace were included in the circle of local government. This administration was carried out by governors and volosts. The position of manager was called feeding, since he was fed at the expense of the governed. Viceroys were given not for government work, but for court service. The reform was supposed to lead to the final elimination of the power of the governors by replacing it with local governments selected from the prosperous black-haired peasantry and townspeople. Zemstvo reform, conceived as a nationwide reform, was fully implemented only in the black-moss territories of the Russian North. As a result of the elimination of the feeding system and the creation of class-representative institutions on the ground, the Russian government was able to achieve the solution of the most important tasks in strengthening the centralized apparatus of power. As a result of the reform, the bulk of the nobles were freed from fed functions, which increased the combat capability and increased the personnel of the Russian army; the nobility strengthened its position - for the proper performance of military service, it received regular remuneration. Army reforms.The reform of the army, which began in 1556, was also connected with the Kazan war. As a result of several unsuccessful campaigns, it became clear that the old way of organizing the army was no longer suitable for such a state, that is, the army needed to be reformed. The army was already completed not only from Russian soldiers. In the second half of the 16th century, the Cossacks who lived on the Don joined the army. Cossacks were used to carry out border service. Having created such a recruiting system, Ivan receives a solid base for further changes in the structure of the army. The equestrian noble militia becomes the core of the army. A permanent type of troops appears - archers. They were formed as permanent contingents of infantry (partly cavalry) armed with firearms. They were provided collectively with land, city yards (tax-free), a small monetary award, while retaining the right to small trade and craft. Modernization and good living conditions for archers in the second half of the 16th century made the permanent archery army the most powerful fighting force of the Russian state. Thanks to the changes carried out in the army, its weapons have acquired some uniformity. Each warrior had an iron helmet, armor or chain mail, a sword, a bow and arrows. The appearance of artillery is added to the changes in the army. The artillery park serving guns and squeakers is being enlarged. The military reform also included the prohibition of local disputes between governors, now they were all subordinate to one commander in chief. Appointment to the highest voivodship posts on the principle breeds and nobility led to disastrous consequences on the battlefield. New laws made it possible to appoint less noble, but more brave and experienced commanders, as comrades to the commander-in-chief. As a result of the reforms, a powerful combat-ready army was created, capable of withstanding a strong and large enemy. Carrying out the church reform was also aimed at educating "competent" ministers of the church, changing the service itself, its unification, because. within the church organization itself, there were differences in the composition of the "saints" and there was no strict order in the performance of church rites, there was no strict system of internal regulations. Change in the tax system.The reform period of the 1950s coincides with the Kazan War. As you know, war and reforms required huge funds and therefore various financial transformations are being carried out. In addition, Russia inherited the tax system from the time of the fragmentation of the state into principalities, which is morally outdated and did not meet the requirements of the time. Tax reform took several directions. The first reform hit the monasteries the hardest. In 1548-1549, it began, and in 1550-1551, the abolition of financial withdrawals for the payment of basic taxes and various travel and trade duties - the main source of income for the monasteries - was carried out. A single measure for determining profitability was established - "plow" - a land unit. Not only are new taxes being introduced (“food money”, “polony”), but the old ones are also being increased. For example, there is an increase in the rates of one of the main land taxes (“pit money”). According to tax changes, we can conclude that they were aimed at increasing state revenues. There is a sharp and noticeable increase in the monetary tax pressure. These transformations were complete and constructive. As a result of the reforms, the authorities achieved uniformity in the tax sphere. The results of the reform.These were the reforms of Ivan the Terrible, worked out together with the members of the Chosen Rada. The main feature of the reforms during the reign of the Chosen Rada was the disorder of their implementation and at the same time their complexity. The reforms cannot be called unsuccessful, since the main institutions and institutions, the main regulatory norms, survived both the oprichnina and Ivan IV himself, which means they achieved their goal. As a result of the reforms, Russia received a new code of laws - the Sudebnik of 1550, a new system of government in the localities and in the center. The military service system acquired its final form and became the foundation of the Russian monarchy. The reforms were reinforced by the development of trade and diplomatic relations with the West. Science and art are developing, the state is flourishing, and if the reforms had not run into opposition from the aristocracy, whose rights were infringed, they would have led to even greater results. But the hostility of the boyars leads to the oprichnina. . Oprichnina: causes, essence, consequences reign formidable reform The public administration reforms of the 1950s strengthened the central government and undermined the political strength of the boyars. The supreme power was held by the tsar, who was assisted by the Boyar Duma and the Zemsky Sobor, which limited the autocracy. In 1560, Ivan got rid of the Chosen One. But long and difficult wars, as well as new taxes, ruined the country, there were many dissatisfied among the nobles, priests, townspeople. Heretics called for the destruction of icons, the church itself, preached the equality of all people, the community of property. Ivan Vasilievich himself saw only lackeys in all his subjects. Their duty, according to the king, was unquestioning obedience to his will. In 1553, Ivan IV fell seriously ill and made a will in favor of the infant Dmitry. However, close boyars and many specific princes did not want to support his heir. Ivan IV recovered, but his mental balance was broken. The king everywhere looked for treason, subjected boyars to executions. A very tense situation has developed in the country. Companions advised to establish a dictatorship and crush the opposition with the help of terror and violence. But such a major political decision could not be made without approval in the Boyar Duma. Then, in order to wrest consent from the Duma, Ivan undertakes a major political maneuver: he decided to voluntarily leave the throne and leave Moscow. At the beginning of December 1564, the tsar and his family, under guard and accompanied by a huge convoy, left Moscow for Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda. In January of the following year, he sent 2 letters, one of which was intended for Metropolitan Athanasius, and the second for the boyars and the people. He accused the boyars of betraying the tsar, and the metropolitan of aiding the boyars, and assured the people that he was not angry with them. The boyars found themselves between two fires - the tsar and the people. The people unanimously supported the sovereign, and the boyars were forced to ask the king to return to the throne. The tsar, in turn, demanded that he be granted emergency powers, to which the boyars responded with submissive consent. On February 2, 1565, Ivan Vasilievich solemnly entered the capital, and the next day he announced to the clergy, boyars and noble officials about the establishment of the oprichnina. What is the oprichnina of Ivan the Terrible? Term oprichnina comes from Old Church Slavonic besides - except, therefore, the guardsmen were also called Kromshniks. In ancient Russia, the oprichnina was called that part of the principality, which, after the death of the prince, was allocated to his widow besides all destinies. The tsarist reform included three groups of measures: In the system of a centralized state, John Vasilyevich singled out besides all over the land, significant territories in the west, north and south of the country, which made up his special personal possession - the sovereign's inheritance or oprichnina. The supreme administration and court in the sovereign's inheritance was carried out by the oprichnina Boyar Duma. The oprichnina included the cities of Mozhaisk, Vyazma, Kozelsk, Przemysl, Suzdal, Shuya, Galich, Yuryevets, Vologda, Ustyug, Staraya Russa and a number of highly profitable volosts. From all cities, counties, volosts and from the streets that passed into the state inheritance, it was necessary to forcibly evict all princes, boyars, nobles and clerks, if they were not voluntarily recorded as guardsmen. For his protection, the sovereign created a guard of bodyguards from the princes, boyars, nobles and children of the boyars. Initially, the oprichnina corps did not exceed 1,000 people, but soon a special army was brought to 5,000 people. The selection of guardsmen was made by Ivan Vasilyevich himself. Each oprichnik was obliged to serve only the king. For all this, the sovereign granted all those selected with estates and land in those cities and volosts from where princes, boyars, nobles and clerks who did not want to join the oprichnina were evicted. The guardsmen wore black clothes. They attached a dog's head and a broom to the saddle. These were signs of their position, which consisted in tracking down, sniffing out and sweeping out treason and gnaw at the sovereign's villains - seditious. That part of the state that remained outside the sovereign's inheritance - the oprichnina, became known as the zemshchina. The Zemstvo Boyar Duma and orders were still engaged in current state affairs here. The highest authority in court cases, and in the field of international relations, as before, was the king. February 1565, that is, on the second day after the establishment of the oprichnina, a new period of cruel reprisals began against those who still regularly served the sovereign. Some boyars and princes were executed, others were tonsured monks and exiled to remote monasteries, and so on. The property of all the disgraced was confiscated. The guardsmen smashed the boyar houses, stole property, and stole the peasants. So, the main goal of introducing the oprichnina is to combat the remnants of political decentralization. The oprichnina terror dealt ruthless blows not only to the boyar and princely nobility, but also to the entire population of those possessions where the oprichniki broke in, where they committed atrocities and robbed indiscriminately. The oprichnina was in the hands of the tsar a powerful military punitive organization. Naturally, the oprichnina very soon aroused discontent not only among the feudal elites, but also among the masses of the common people. The whole era of bloody executions, which Russian society was subjected to during the period of the oprichnina, is an inappropriately heavy punishment. Grozny's unbridled striving to strengthen personal power and his barbaric methods of dealing with political opponents left a terrifying imprint of despotism on all the events of the oprichny years. . The main directions of the foreign policy of Ivan IV
The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the middle and second half of the sixteenth century. were the following: in the east and southeast - the fight against the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates and advance to Siberia, in the south - protection from the raids of the Crimeans, in the west - an attempt to access the Baltic Sea. The Mongolian kingdom fell apart. Russian feudal lords hoped to get new lands, merchants - a trade route along the Volga, the tsarist government counted on income from tribute from the peoples of the Volga region. In Kazan, Astrakhan, and the Crimean steppes, independent khanates still existed, sometimes assuming a threatening character. Khan Saip-Tirey was able to unite several khanates and gain a foothold in Kazan in 1539. Turkey supplied the khan with weapons and cannons. From 1539 - 1552 there was a struggle with the Tatars. In 1548 and 1549, Ivan IV made attempts to capture Kazan, but to no avail. By this time, a new archery army was taking shape, many weapons and cannons were brought from abroad, which helped to take Kazan by storm on October 2, 1552. In the same year, Bashkiria joined. Astrakhan joined in 1556. Khan Derbysh-Ali fled when he saw the approaching Russian troops. Another khanate, the Nogai Horde, recognized its vassal dependence on Russia. The final development of these lands ended by 1559. Around 1581 - 1582 Ataman Yermak organized campaigns in Siberia. Khan Kuchum fled after the battle. The population of Siberia agreed to pay tribute. In the mid-1980s, Siberia became part of Russia. In the second half of the 1550s. Western direction became the main one in Russian foreign policy. After the capture of Astrakhan and Kazan, the army tried its hand in a short war with the Swedes (1554 - 1557). Under the influence of the first successes, Ivan IV put forward plans for the conquest of Livonia and assertion in the Baltic states. The feudal lords were interested in the war, hoping for new lands and peasants. Merchants counted on the expansion of trade relations through the ports of the Baltic. Communication with European countries, development of diplomatic relations. The reason for the start of the war was the question of the "Yuryev tribute", which the Livonian Order had to pay to Russia. The order did not pay tribute for a long time and was not going to repay the penalty. In addition, he entered into a military alliance with the king of Poland and the prince of Lithuania, Sigismund II August. In January 1558, the Livonian War began. The main results of 1558-1559 were the destruction of the Livonian Order. The new master Ketler gave Livonia to Sigismund. Northern Estonia came under Swedish rule. Now the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (united with Poland), Sweden and Denmark were opposed to Livonia being under Russian rule. Instead of one enemy, Russia turned out to have three of them. Meanwhile, two parties were formed in the Moscow government. Adashev is a supporter of the policy of the East and the Crimea and Basmanov, who advocated the continuation of the war with Livonia. The course of the war was aggravated by the Oprichnina and in 1569 the unification of Poland and the Principality of Lithuania into a single Commonwealth. After the death of the childless Sigismund (1572), turmoil began. During the years of kinglessness, Ivan the Terrible won several victories, and in 1577 Russian troops occupied almost all of Livonia, where Magnus, married to the niece of Ivan IV, was the prince, but in 1579 he went over to the side of Sweden. In 1581, the siege of Pskov took place, the Swedes captured Narva. The heroic defense of Pskov thwarted the further plans of the Commonwealth. In 1583, a truce was concluded with the Commonwealth in Yama-Zapolsky, and with Sweden in Plus. According to their terms, Russia lost all the territories acquired in Livonia and Belarus. Part of the coast of the Gulf of Finland went to Sweden. The long Livonian War (1558 - 1583) ended in the complete defeat of the Russian side. Thus, Russia realized its plans only in the eastern direction, annexing Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberia. The exit to the Baltic Sea remained closed. Conclusion
The half-century reign of Ivan the Terrible left a deep and gloomy mark on the history of Russia. The reign of Ivan IV showed that the first attempt at reform in Russia ended in failure. In Russia in the 16th century it was impossible to build a state either on the basis of local, communal pre-state values, or on the basis of the tsar's unlimited power. It was necessary to look for compromises between society and government. The life full of dramatic events of the first holder of the title of the Russian Tsar interested many historians and writers. As a person and as a statesman, Ivan IV was a complex and controversial personality. A highly educated patron of printing and a writer himself, a sovereign who did much to strengthen and expand the Russian state, he destroyed with his own hands what he had created, and at the same time severely persecuted those to whom he owed successes in domestic policy and foreign policy victories. The personality of Ivan IV the Terrible, no doubt, is complex and contradictory, but precisely because of its originality, it will again and again attract the views of researchers seeking to understand the essence of historical processes. Many aspects of Grozny's activities still remain unexplored, however, an entire era in the development of the Russian state is associated with his name, an era that had a huge impact on the entire subsequent course of the history of our state and led to the infamous Time of Troubles. Bibliography
In the 2nd half of the 15th - 1st third of the 16th centuries. most of the Russian lands were included in the Moscow Grand Duchy. Moscow became the capital of the unified Russian state.
The Grand Duke of All Russia Ivan III Vasilyevich (reigned in 1462-1505) annexed the Principality of Yaroslavl (1463), Rostov (1474), the Novgorod Republic (1477), the Grand Duchy of Tver (1485) to the Grand Duchy of Moscow .), Vyatka land (1489). "Standing on the Ugra" of the troops of the Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat and Ivan III in 1480 ended with the retreat of Akhmat, which led to the final liberation of Russia from the Mongol-Tatar yoke. As a result of the Russian-Lithuanian wars of 1487-94. and 1500-03. Verkhovsky Principalities, Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky, Starodub, Gomel, Bryansk, Toropets, and others went to Moscow. In 1487, the Kazan Khanate became a vassal of the Russian state (until 1521). From the end of the XV century. developed a landownership system. The estate, the owner of which was a serving nobleman, and the supreme owner of the Grand Duke, could not be inherited, sold, etc. The nobility formed the basis of the armed forces of the state. The growing need of the state and the feudal lords for money forced them to increase the profitability of estates and estates by transferring duties to cash taxes, increasing quitrents, introducing their own plowing, and transferring peasants to corvée. The Sudebnik of 1497 legalized a single term for the transition of peasants to other owners, usually in the fall, a week before St. George's Day (November 26) and a week after it. Under Ivan III, the process of folding the central state apparatus was going on. The Boyar Duma became a permanent deliberative body under the supreme authority. It included duma ranks: boyars, roundabouts, from the beginning of the XIV century. - duma nobles, later duma clerks. The unification of the courts of the principalities attached to Moscow as part of the Sovereign's court continued. The relationship between the princely-boyar aristocracy of Moscow and the region was regulated by localism. At the same time, a number of special territorial courtyards were still preserved (Tver land until the 40s of the XIV century, Novgorod land until the 1st quarter of the XVII century). There were central executive bodies (Treasury, palaces). Local administrative, financial and judicial functions were performed by the institute of governors and volostels that had developed in Russia, supported by feeding, the 2nd marriage (1472) of Ivan III with the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Zoya (Sophia) Palaiologos served to increase the international authority of Moscow. Diplomatic and trade relations were established with the papal throne, the Holy Roman Empire, Hungary, the Principality of Moldavia, the Ottoman Empire, Iran, the Crimean Khanate, etc. Ivan III attracted the Italian architects Aleviz Fryazin (Milanets), Aleviz Fryazin (New), Aristotle Fioravanti and others to the construction of church and secular buildings in Moscow.
Under Ivan III, the struggle between two currents in the Russian Orthodox Church intensified: the Josephites (the founder and spiritual leader Joseph Volotsky) and non-possessors (Nil Sorsky, Paisiy Yaroslavov, Vassian Patrikeev, etc.). The attempt of the nonpossessors to put into practice at the church council of 1503 the idea of the monasteries giving up land ownership caused active opposition from Joseph Volotsky and his supporters. Ivan III, who hoped to replenish the land fund of the state through secularization, was forced to recognize the program of the Josephites: "Church acquisition is God's acquisition." He also changed his attitude towards the circle of freethinkers (F. V. Kuritsyn, Ivan Cherny, etc.), which formed at the court of his son and co-ruler (since 1471), Grand Duke Ivan Ivanovich Molodoy (1458-93) and his wife (since 1483) Elena Stefanovna (died in disgrace in 1505), and yielded to the Archbishop of Novgorod Gennady and other hierarchs who demanded cruel punishments of representatives of the so-called. Novgorod-Moscow heresy.
The Grand Duke of All Russia Vasily III Ivanovich (ruled in 1505-33) annexed the Pskov Republic (1510), the Ryazan Grand Duchy (1521) to Moscow. He conquered Smolensk from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1514). The size of the territory of the state increased from 430 thousand km 2 (the beginning of the 60s of the XV century) to 2800 thousand km 2 (the beginning of the 30s of the XIV century). Vasily III, following the policy of his father, strictly regulated his relations with the specific princes, a number of appanages were liquidated. He began construction beyond the Oka of the Great Zasechnaya Line and, in the interests of medium and small feudal lords, supported the development of lands south of Moscow. He, like Ivan III, invited foreigners to Moscow: the doctor and translator N. Bulev, Maxim Grek, etc. To justify the divine origin of the grand duke's power, he used the ideas of Joseph Volotsky, "Tales of the Princes of Vladimir", the theory "Moscow - the third Rome". Divorce from Solomonia Saburova (1525) and marriage to Elena Vasilievna Glinskaya aggravated relations between Vasily III and part of the Moscow boyars.
During the years of the regency of Grand Duchess Elena Glinskaya (1533-38) and after her death under the juvenile Grand Duke of All Russia (since 1533) Ivan IV Vasilyevich (1530-84), the struggle between court factions intensified. It was attended by Elena's favorite - Prince I.F. Ovchina-Telepnev-Obolensky (died in custody), the princes Belsky, Shuisky, the boyars Vorontsov, the princes Glinsky. During this period, the inheritances of the brothers Vasily III, princes Yuri Dmitrovsky and Andrei Staritsky, were liquidated (both died in prison). A monetary reform was carried out (1535-38), a description of the lands (1536-44), a lip reform was launched (1539-41), etc.
In the 1st half of the XVI century. landownership in the central districts covered more than a third of the land, but the patrimony remained the dominant form of land ownership. There was an increase in trade and handicraft production. Novgorod, the Serpukhov-Tula region, Ustyuzhna-Zhelezopolskaya became large iron-making centers; they were engaged in salt-making in Salt-Galitskaya, Una and Nenoksa (on the coast of the White Sea), Solvychegodsk; leather processing - in Yaroslavl, etc. The trade and craft elite of a number of cities included guests and merchants of the living room and cloth hundreds. Furs came from the North, where bread was delivered from the center. Trade with Eastern countries (Ottoman Empire, Iran, Central Asian states) was more developed than with Western countries. Moscow has become the largest market in the country. In the middle of the XVI century. in the country there were already up to 160 cities, most of which were military-administrative centers-fortresses.
On January 16, 1547, Ivan IV Vasilyevich was married to the kingdom, the royal title was considered equal to the imperial one. The closest adviser to the king was Metropolitan Macarius. In the late 40s - 50s. 16th century Ivan IV together with the so-called. The elected council (A.F. Adashev, Sylvester, etc.) participated in the compilation of the Sudebnik of 1550, completed the labial and carried out zemstvo reforms (during the latter, feeding was canceled), began to convene Zemsky sobors, central nationwide class-representative institutions with legislative functions . There was a formation of a class-representative monarchy. The tsar ruled jointly with the Boyar Duma, relying on the decisions of the Zemsky Sobors. The sovereign's court included the upper strata of the ruling class (including the princely and old boyar aristocracy) and was divided into ranks: duma, as well as close to them, including representatives of the highest court positions, Moscow ranks and nobles from county corporations. The main categories of service people "according to the fatherland" and "according to the instrument" were formed. Localism regulated the system of tribal and service relations of noble families. At the same time, Ivan IV, by decree of 1550, limited the application of the norms of parochialism in military service to military merit. In the middle of the XVI century. a system of central executive institutions-orders was formed (Ambassadorial, Local, Discharge, etc.). In 1550, 6 archery regiments were established, divided into hundreds. The local system of manning the army was formalized by the "Service Code" (1555-60).
The most important result of foreign policy in the 1550s. was the capture of Kazan, the annexation of the territories of the Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan (1556) khanates to Russia and the inclusion of the peoples of the Middle Volga and Western Urals in the emerging multinational state. In the 2nd half of the XVI century. in Russia, in addition to Russians, lived Tatars, Bashkirs, Udmurts, Maris, Chuvashs, Mordovians, Komi, Karelians, Saami, Veps, Nenets and other peoples.
In order to prevent the raids of the Crimean khans on the southern and central regions of the country in 1556-59. campaigns of Russian and Ukrainian troops were undertaken on the territory subject to the Crimean Khanate. In 1559, voivode D.F. Adashev landed on the Crimean coast, captured a number of towns and villages, and safely returned to Russia.
In 1558, Ivan IV began the Livonian War, with the aim of capturing the Baltic states and establishing himself on the coast of the Baltic Sea. Under the blows of the Russian troops, the Livonian Order disintegrated. Russia was opposed by Sweden, Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (since 1569 - the Commonwealth).
Around 1560, the government of the Chosen Rada fell, some members of which opposed the conduct of the Livonian War, and also considered it necessary to continue the struggle against the Crimean Khanate. Ivan IV also suspected his former associates of sympathy for his cousin, the specific prince Vladimir Staritsky. After the defeat of the Russian troops from the Polish-Lithuanian side on the river. Ula near Polotsk (1564), the tsar placed in disgrace and executed the princes M. P. Repnin, Yu. I. Kashin, the governor N. P. Sheremetev, and others.
Trying to break the hidden opposition of some part of the aristocracy and achieve unlimited autocratic power, in December 1564 Ivan IV set about organizing the oprichnina. Having retired to Alexandrov Sloboda, on January 3, 1565, he announced his abdication, placing the blame on the clergy, boyars, children of boyars and clerks. A deputation from the Boyar Duma and the clergy arrived in the settlement, expressing their consent to granting emergency powers to the tsar. The king established a "special" court with his army, finances and administration. The state was divided into oprichnina and zemstvo territories. In the oprichnina, the oprichnina thought, financial orders (Cheti) operated. Zemshchina continued to be controlled by the Boyar Duma. There were evictions of feudal lords who were not enrolled in the oprichnina, with the transfer of their lands to the guardsmen. From February 1565, the oprichnina terror began. In 1568, the boyar I.P. Fedorov and his alleged “supporters” were executed, in 1569 the Staritskys, Metropolitan Philip and others were exterminated. defeat of Novgorod. In the same year, many supporters of Ivan IV were executed (guardsmen A. D. and F. A. Basmanov, clerk I. M. Viskovaty, etc.). In 1571, the tsar and the oprichnina army failed to defend Moscow from the raid of the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray. At the same time, the zemstvo governors, princes M. I. Vorotynsky, D. I. Khvorostinin and others, inflicted a crushing defeat on the khan in the Battle of Molodin in 1572. In the same year, Ivan IV abolished the oprichnina, and in 1575 appointed the Kasimov Khan Grand Duke of All Russia Simeon Bekbulatvich, he himself was called Prince Ivan Vasilievich of Moscow, retaining full power. In 1576 he regained the royal throne.
Temporary successes during the Livonian War (the capture of Marienhausen, Lucin, Zesswegen, Schwanenburg, etc. in 1577) were replaced by a series of defeats from the troops of the Polish King Stefan Batory and the Swedish King Johan III. In 1581-82. the garrison of Pskov, headed by Prince I. P. Shuisky, withstood the siege of the Polish-Lithuanian troops.
The internal policy of Ivan IV and a protracted war led the country in the 70-80s. 16th century to a severe economic crisis, the ruin of the population with taxes, oprichnina pogroms, and the desolation of large areas of Russia. In 1581, Ivan IV introduced a temporary ban on the peasant exit on St. George's Day. Continuing the policy of expanding the territory of the state, the tsar supported the campaign of Yermak Timofeevich against the Siberian Khanate (circa 1581), initiating the annexation of Siberia to the Russian state. The Livonian War ended (1583) with the loss of a number of Russian lands (the Treaty of Yam-Zapolsky in 1582, the Truce of Plus in 1583). The reign of Ivan IV, nicknamed "The Terrible", ended in the collapse of many undertakings and the personal tragedy of the tsar, connected with the murder of his son - Tsarevich Ivan Ivanovich. Historians have not been able to unambiguously explain the reasons for his actions. The combination of talent, outstanding education and the sadistic inclinations of the king is sometimes associated with his severe heredity, mental trauma during his childhood, persecution mania, etc.
Russian culture of the late XV-XVI centuries. It is represented by outstanding achievements in the field of printing (printing houses of Ivan Fedorov, P. T. Mstislavets), architecture (the ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin, the Pokrovsky Cathedral on Red Square, the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye), church painting (frescoes and icons of Dionysius), applied art. In the XVI century. compiled Voskresenskaya, Nikonovskaya and other chronicles, the Front chronicle code. The problems of power, the relationship between church and state, the socio-political and economic structure were considered in the works of Philotheus, Joseph Volotsky, Maxim the Greek, Yermolai-Erasmus, I. S. Peresvetov, Ivan IV the Terrible, Prince A. M. Kurbsky and others.
In the 2nd half of the 15th-1st third of the 16th centuries. most of the Russian lands were included in the Moscow Grand Duchy. Moscow became the capital of the unified Russian state.
The Grand Duke of All Russia Ivan III Vasilyevich (ruled in 1462-1505) annexed the principalities of Yaroslavl (1463), Rostov (1474), the Novgorod Republic (1477), the Grand Duchy of Tver (1485), Vyatka land (1489) to the Grand Duchy of Moscow.
The "standing on the Ugra" of the troops of the Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat and Ivan III in 1480 ended with the retreat of Akhmat, which led to the final liberation of Russia from the Mongol-Tatar yoke. As a result of the Russo-Lithuanian wars of 1487–94 and 1500–03, the Verkhovsky principalities, Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky, Starodub, Gomel, Bryansk, Toropets, and others, ceded to Moscow. In 1487, the Kazan Khanate became a vassal of the Russian state (until 1521). From the end of the 15th century developed a landownership system. The estate, the owner of which was a serving nobleman, and the supreme owner of the Grand Duke, could not be inherited, sold, etc. The nobility formed the basis of the armed forces of the state. The growing need of the state and the feudal lords for money forced them to increase the profitability of estates and estates by transferring duties to cash taxes, increasing quitrents, introducing their own plowing, and transferring peasants to corvée. Sudebnik 1497 legalized a single term for the transition of peasants to other owners, usually in the fall, a week before St. George's Day (November 26) and a week after it. Under Ivan III, the process of folding the central state apparatus was going on. The Boyar Duma became a permanent deliberative body under the supreme authority. It included duma ranks: boyars, roundabouts, from the beginning of the 16th century. - duma nobles, later duma clerks. The unification of the courts of the principalities attached to Moscow as part of the Sovereign's court continued. The relationship between the princely-boyar aristocracy of Moscow and the region was regulated by localism. At the same time, a number of special territorial courts were still preserved (Tver land until the 40s of the 16th century, Novgorod land until the first quarter of the 17th century). There were central executive bodies (Treasury, palaces). Local administrative, financial and judicial functions were performed by the institute of governors and volostels that had developed in Russia, supported by feeding, the 2nd marriage (1472) of Ivan III with the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Zoya (Sophia) Palaiologos served to increase the international authority of Moscow. Diplomatic and trade relations were established with the papal throne, the Holy Roman Empire, Hungary, the Principality of Moldavia, the Ottoman Empire, Iran, the Crimean Khanate, etc. Ivan III attracted Italian architects Aleviz Fryazin (Milants), Aleviz Fryazin to the construction of church and secular buildings in Moscow (New), Aristotle Fioravanti and others.
Under Ivan III, the struggle between two currents in the Russian Orthodox Church intensified: the Josephites (the founder and spiritual leader Joseph Volotsky) and non-possessors (Nil Sorsky, Paisiy Yaroslavov, Vassian Patrikeev, etc.). At the church council of 1503, the attempt by the nonpossessors to put into practice the idea of the monasteries renouncing land ownership provoked active opposition from Joseph Volotsky and his supporters. Ivan III, who hoped to replenish the land fund of the state through secularization, was forced to recognize the program of the Josephites: "Church acquisition is God's acquisition." He also changed his attitude towards the circle of freethinkers (F. V. Kuritsyn, Ivan Cherny, etc.), which had developed at the court of his son and co-ruler (since 1471), Grand Duke Ivan Ivanovich Molodoy (1458-93) and his wife (since 1483) Helena Stefanovna (died in disgrace in 1505), and yielded to the Archbishop of Novgorod Gennady and other hierarchs who demanded cruel punishments of representatives of the so-called. Novgorod-Moscow heresy.
The Grand Duke of All Russia Vasily III Ivanovich (reigned in 1505-33) annexed the Pskov Republic (1510), the Ryazan Grand Duchy (1521) to Moscow. He conquered Smolensk from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1514). The size of the territory of the state increased from 430,000 km2 (early 60s of the 15th century) to 2,800,000 km2 (early 30s of the 16th century). Vasily III, following the policy of his father, strictly regulated his relations with the specific princes, a number of appanages were liquidated. He began construction beyond the Oka of the Great Zasechnaya Line and, in the interests of medium and small feudal lords, supported the development of lands south of Moscow. He, like Ivan III, invited foreigners to Moscow: the doctor and translator N. Bulev, Maxim Grek, etc. To justify the divine origin of the grand duke's power, he used the ideas of Joseph Volotsky, "Tales of the Princes of Vladimir", the theory "Moscow - the third Rome". Divorce from Solomonia Saburova (1525) and marriage to Elena Vasilievna Glinskaya aggravated relations between Vasily III and part of the Moscow boyars.
During the years of the regency of Grand Duchess Elena Glinskaya (1533-38) and after her death, under the juvenile Grand Duke of All Russia (since 1533) Ivan IV Vasilyevich (1530-84), the struggle between court factions intensified. It was attended by Elena's favorite - Prince I. F. Ovchina -
Telepnev-Obolensky (died in prison), princes Belsky, Shuisky, boyars Vorontsov, princes Glinsky. During this period, the inheritances of the brothers Vasily III, princes Yuri Dmitrovsky and Andrei Staritsky, were liquidated (both died in prison). A monetary reform was carried out (1535-38), a description of the lands (1536-44), a lip reform was launched (1539-41), etc.
In the 1st half of the 16th century. landownership in the central districts covered more than a third of the land, but the patrimony remained the dominant form of land ownership. There was an increase in trade and handicraft production. Novgorod, the Serpukhov-Tula region, Ustyuzhna-Zhelezopolskaya became large iron-making centers; they were engaged in salt-making in Salt-Galitskaya, Una and Nenoksa (on the coast of the White Sea), Solvychegodsk; leather processing - in Yaroslavl, etc. The trade and craft elite of a number of cities included guests and merchants of the living room and cloth hundreds. Furs came from the North, where bread was delivered from the center. Trade with Eastern countries (Ottoman Empire, Iran, Central Asian states) was more developed than with Western countries. Moscow has become the largest market in the country. In the middle of the 16th century in the country there were already up to 160 cities, most of which were military-administrative centers-fortresses.
On January 16, 1547, Ivan IV Vasilyevich was married to the kingdom, the royal title was considered equal to the imperial one. The closest adviser to the king was Metropolitan Macarius. In the late 40s - 50s. 16th century Ivan IV together with t.
N. Chosen Rada (A.F. Adashev, Sylvester, etc.) participated in the compilation of the Sudebnik of 1550, completed the labial and carried out zemstvo reforms (during the latter, feeding was canceled), began to convene Zemsky sobors, central nationwide class-representative institutions with legislative functions . There was a formation of a class-representative monarchy. The tsar ruled jointly with the Boyar Duma, relying on the decisions of the Zemsky Sobors. The sovereign's court included the upper strata of the ruling class (including the princely and old boyar aristocracy) and was divided into ranks: duma, as well as close to them, including representatives of the highest court positions, Moscow ranks and nobles from county corporations. The main categories of service people "according to the fatherland" and "according to the instrument" were formed. Localism regulated the system of tribal and service relations of noble families. At the same time, Ivan IV, by decree of 1550, limited the application of the norms of parochialism in military service to military merit. In the middle of the 16th century a system of central executive institutions-orders was formed (Ambassadorial, Local, Discharge, etc.). In 1550, 6 archery regiments were established, divided into hundreds. The local system of manning the army was formalized by the "Code of Service" (1555-60).
The most important result of foreign policy in the 1550s. was the capture of Kazan, the annexation of the territories of the Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan (1556) khanates to Russia and the inclusion of the peoples of the Middle Volga and Western Urals in the emerging multinational state. In the 2nd half of the 16th century. in Russia, in addition to Russians, lived Tatars, Bashkirs, Udmurts, Maris, Chuvashs, Mordovians, Komi, Karelians, Saami, Veps, Nenets and other peoples.
In order to prevent the raids of the Crimean khans on the southern and central regions of the country in 1556-59, campaigns of Russian and Ukrainian troops were undertaken on the territory subject to the Crimean Khanate. In 1559, voivode D. F. Adashev landed on the Crimean coast, captured a number of towns and villages, and safely returned to Russia.
In 1558, Ivan IV began the Livonian War, with the aim of seizing the Baltic states and establishing himself on the coast of the Baltic Sea. Under the blows of the Russian troops, the Livonian Order disintegrated. Russia was opposed by Sweden, Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (from 1569 - the Commonwealth).
Around 1560, the government of the Chosen Rada fell, some members of which opposed the conduct of the Livonian War, and also considered it necessary to continue the struggle against the Crimean Khanate. Ivan IV also suspected his former associates of sympathy for his cousin, the specific prince Vladimir Staritsky. After the defeat of the Russian troops from the Polish-Lithuanian side on the river. Ula near Polotsk (1564) the tsar put into disgrace and executed the princes M. P. Repnin, Yu. I. Kashin, the governor
N. P. Sheremeteva and others. In December 1564, Ivan IV, trying to break the hidden opposition of some part of the aristocracy and achieve unlimited autocratic power, set about organizing the oprichnina. On January 3, 1565, having retired to Alexandrov's settlement, he announced his abdication, placing the blame on the clergy, boyars, children of boyars and clerks. A deputation from the Boyar Duma and the clergy arrived in the settlement, expressing their consent to granting emergency powers to the tsar. The king established a "special" court with his army, finances and administration. The state was divided into oprichnina and zemstvo territories. In the oprichnina, the oprichnina thought, financial orders (Cheti) operated. Zemshchina continued to be controlled by the Boyar Duma. There were evictions of feudal lords who were not enrolled in the oprichnina, with the transfer of their lands to the guardsmen. From February 1565, the oprichnina terror began. In 1568, the boyar I. P. Fedorov and his alleged “supporters” were executed; in 1569, the Staritskys, Metropolitan Philip, and others were exterminated. defeat of Novgorod. In the same year, many supporters of Ivan IV were executed (guardsmen A. D. and F. A. Basmanov, clerk I. M. Viskovaty, etc.). In 1571, the tsar and the oprichnina army failed to defend Moscow from the raid of the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray. At the same time, the zemstvo governors, princes M. I. Vorotynsky, D. I. Khvorostinin and others, inflicted a crushing defeat on the khan in the Battle of Molodin in 1572. In the same year, Ivan IV abolished the oprichnina, and in 1575 appointed Simeon Bekbulatvich, the Kasimov Khan, Grand Duke of All Russia, he himself was called Prince Ivan Vasilyevich of Moscow, retaining full power. In 1576 he regained the royal throne.
Temporary successes during the Livonian War (the capture of Marienhausen, Lutsin, Zesswegen, Schwanenburg, and others in 1577) gave way to a series of defeats from the troops of the Polish King Stefan Batory and the Swedish King Johan III. In 1581-82, the Pskov garrison, headed by Prince I.P. Shuisky, withstood the siege of the Polish-Lithuanian troops.
The internal policy of Ivan IV and a protracted war led the country in the 70-80s. 16th century to a severe economic crisis, the ruin of the population with taxes, oprichnina pogroms, and the desolation of large areas of Russia. In 1581, Ivan IV introduced a temporary ban on the peasant exit on St. George's Day. Continuing the policy of expanding the territory of the state, the tsar supported the campaign of Yermak Timofeevich against the Siberian Khanate (about 1581), initiating the annexation of Siberia to the Russian state. The Livonian War ended (1583) with the loss of a number of Russian lands (the Treaty of Yam-Zapolsky in 1582, the Truce of Plus in 1583). The reign of Ivan IV, nicknamed "The Terrible", ended in the collapse of many undertakings and the personal tragedy of the tsar, connected with the murder of his son - Tsarevich Ivan Ivanovich. Historians have not been able to unambiguously explain the reasons for his actions. The combination of talent, outstanding education and the sadistic inclinations of the king is sometimes associated with his severe heredity, mental trauma during his childhood, persecution mania, etc.
Russian culture of the late 15th-16th centuries. It is represented by outstanding achievements in the field of printing (printing houses of Ivan Fedorov, P. T. Mstislavets), architecture (the ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin, the Pokrovsky Cathedral on Red Square, the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye), church painting (frescoes and icons of Dionysius), applied art. In the 16th century compiled Voskresenskaya, Nikonovskaya and other chronicles, the Front chronicle code. The problems of power, the relationship between church and state, the socio-political and economic structure were considered in the works of Philotheus, Joseph Volotsky, Maxim the Greek, Yermolai-Erasmus, I. S. Peresvetov, Ivan IV the Terrible, Prince A. M. Kurbsky and others.
To the question what territories were annexed in the second half of the 16th-17th centuries? given by the author flush the best answer is In the XIV-XVI centuries, after the conquest of the Novgorod Republic, the Moscow centralized state formed around Moscow, which included all the northern lands and the lands of the North-Eastern principalities, previously subordinate to Russia.
1503 - according to the truce, the Livonian Confederation undertakes to resume the annual payment to the Moscow kingdom for the city of Derpt.
At the beginning of the 16th century, a local system was formed, primarily in the southern regions of the country. The state aims to collect all the Russian lands lost as a result of the Tatar-Mongol yoke and the Polish-Lithuanian expansion, as well as to protect its southern borders from the raids of the steppe nomads. Service people who receive plots of land (estates) from the sovereign are obliged for them by military service. The local system becomes the basis for the noble cavalry. 1514 - annexation of Smolensk to the Russian state. 1533 - 1584 - reign (since 1547 - reign) of Ivan IV the Terrible. 1552 - the final conquest of the Kazan Khanate. The Middle and Lower Volga regions, and the entire region of the Kama River are part of the Muscovite state.
1554 - a truce was concluded with the Livonian Confederation. The inclusion of the Astrakhan Khanate in Russia. The beginning of the war with Sweden (1554 - 1557).
1555 - An English trading company "Moscow Company" was formed in London, which received the right to duty-free trade. To protect himself from Bukhara, the Siberian Khan, the leader of the Siberian Khanate, accepted vassalage from Moscow.
1557 - The Kabardian embassy arrives in Moscow and concludes an agreement on subordination to Moscow. Agricultural Crisis Across the Nation (The Great Famine).
1558-1583 years. Livonian War, Russia's war with the Livonian Confederation, Sweden, Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania for the Baltic States and access to the Baltic Sea.
1566 - the city of Orel was founded to protect against the raids of the Crimean Tatars.
To protect against the raids of the Nogai Horde, wandering between the Volga and the Irtysh, the Volga cities of Samara in 1586, Tsaritsyn in 1589 and Saratov in 1590 were built.
1589 - Metropolitan Job of Moscow becomes the first Patriarch of All Russia. The Council of Constantinople (1590) approves the institution of the patriarchate in Russia.
At the end of the 16th century, Russian settlers founded the cities of Tobolsk, Berezov, Surgut, Tara, Obdorsk (Salekhard), and Narym in Western Siberia.
By the middle of the 17th century, Russian settlements appeared in the Amur region, on the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk, in Chukotka.
In 1645, the Cossack Vasily Poyarkov discovered the northern coast of Sakhalin.
In 1648, the Cossack Semyon Dezhnev passes from the mouth of the Kolyma River to the mouth of the Anadyr River and opens the strait between Asia and America.
During the 17th century, South Russian lands were raided by steppe nomads and Crimean Tatars, who sold their captured captives in slave markets.
In 1654 Left-Bank Ukraine joined Russia. In 1668 the unity of the metropolis was restored. The lands of the Right-bank Ukraine and Belarus became part of the Russian Empire as a result of the second partition of Poland in 1793.
