The birth and development of the German state. Germany in antiquity

Germany- state in Central Europe. In the course of history, it experienced periods of strong fragmentation and repeatedly changed its borders. Therefore, the history of Germany is inseparable from the history of its closest neighbors, primarily Austria, Switzerland, Poland, the Czech Republic, Italy and France.

Antiquity

[b] Antiquity

Germans in antiquity

Main article: Germany (ancient)

The Germanic tribes lived on the territory of Central Europe as early as the first millennium BC, a rather detailed description of their structure and way of life is given by Tacitus at the end of the 1st century. Linguistic studies suggest that the separation of the Germanic peoples from the Balto-Slavs occurred around the 8th-6th centuries BC. The Germans were divided into several groups - between the Rhine, Main and Weser lived Batavs, Brukters, Hamavs, Hatts and Ubii; on the coast of the North Sea - Hawks, Angles, Varins, Frisians; from the middle and upper Elbe to the Oder - Marcomanni, Quadi, Lombards and Semnons; between the Oder and the Vistula - the Vandals, Burgundians and Goths; in Scandinavia - sviony, gaut. From the 2nd century A.D. e. The Germans are increasingly invading the boundaries of the Roman Empire. To the Romans, however, they were simply barbarians. Gradually they formed tribal unions (Alemanni, Goths, Saxons, Franks).

Great Migration

At the end of the 4th century, the invasion of Asiatic nomadic peoples into Europe prompted the resettlement of the Germans. They populated the border lands of the Roman Empire, and soon began armed incursions into it. In the 5th century, the German tribes of the Goths, Vandals and others created their kingdoms on the territory of the crumbling Western Roman Empire. At the same time, on the territory of Germany itself, the primitive communal system was mainly preserved. In 476, the last Roman emperor was deposed by a German commander.

[b]Middle Ages

Frankish state

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Frankish tribes played the most significant role among the Germanic tribes. In 481, Clovis I became the first king of the Salic Franks. Under him and his descendants, Gaul was conquered, and from the Germans, the Alemanni and most of the tribes of the Franks entered the state. Later, Aquitaine, Provence, northern Italy, a small part of Spain were conquered, the Thuringians, Bavarians, Saxons and other tribes were subordinated. By 800, all of Germany was part of the vast Frankish state.

In 800, the Frankish king Charlemagne was crowned Roman emperor. This event was prepared in advance, but Charles did not think about the separation of Rome from Constantinople: until the year 800, Byzantium was the legitimate heir of the Roman Empire, the empire restored by Charles was a continuation of the ancient Roman Empire, and Charles was considered the 68th emperor, the successor of the eastern line immediately after deposed in 797 by Constantine VI, and not by the successor of Romulus Augustulus. In 843, the Frankish Empire collapsed, although various kings (more often the kings of Italy) formally held the title of emperor intermittently until 924.

[b] The beginning of German statehood

Main article: East Frankish kingdom

The origins of the German state are connected with the Treaty of Verdun, which was concluded between the grandchildren of Charlemagne in 843. This agreement divided the Frankish empire into three parts - the French (West-Frankish kingdom), inherited by Charles the Bald, Italian-Lorraine (Middle Kingdom), whose king was the eldest son of Charlemagne Lothar, and German, where the power went to Louis the German.

Traditionally, the first German state is considered to be the East Frankish state. During the 10th century, the unofficial name "Reich of the Germans (Regnum Teutonicorum)" appeared, which after several centuries became generally recognized (in the form "Reich der Deutschen").

In 870, most of the Lorraine kingdom was captured by the East Frankish king Louis the German. Thus, the East Frankish kingdom united almost all the lands inhabited by the Germans. During the IX-X centuries there were wars with the Slavs, which led to the annexation of a number of Slavic lands.

The next East Frankish king in 936 was the Duke of Saxony Otto I (in the Russian historical tradition he is called Otto).

[b]Holy Roman Empire

Main article: Holy Roman Empire

Early period of the Holy Roman Empire

On February 2, 962, Otto I was crowned in Rome as Holy Roman Emperor. It was believed that he revived the power of Charlemagne. But now the empire consisted mainly of Germany and parts of Italy.

The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation (lat. Sacrum Imperium Romanum Nationis Teutonicae) is a political institution that retained the same form, the same claims for ten centuries (until 1806). The external history of the empire is, in essence, the history of Germany from the ninth to the nineteenth century. and Italy in the Middle Ages. In its origin, the S. Roman Empire was ecclesiastical and Germanic; it was given form by the unfading tradition of the universal dominion of eternal Rome; Germanic and Roman elements, merging, determined the all-encompassing and abstract character of the empire as the center and head of Western Christendom.

Despite the attempts of the emperors to unite the "Holy Roman Empire", it turned out to be fragmented into numerous almost independent states and cities. Some North German cities merged into the Hansa, a military trade union that monopolized trade in the Baltic Sea.

Germany in the Renaissance

Humanism originated in Germany in the 1430s, a century later than in Italy, under the influence of its culture.

A special role belonged to printing - the great discovery of the middle of the 15th century, brewing in a number of countries, but made in Germany by John Gutenberg.

Germany - the birthplace of the reformation

The beginning of the Reformation was marked by a speech in Germany in 1517 with his positions, or as they were also called "theses for discussion", by the Augustinian monk Martin Luther. The ideologies of the Reformation put forward theses that actually denied the need for the Catholic Church with its hierarchy and the clergy in general. The Catholic Holy Tradition was rejected, the church's rights to land riches were denied, etc.

The Reformation gave impetus to the Peasants' War of 1524-1527, which engulfed many German principalities at once. In 1532, the all-German criminal-judicial code "Carolina" was published.

The Reformation marked the beginning of several religious wars in Germany, which ended in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia. As a result, the fragmentation of Germany was consolidated.

[b] Rise of Prussia

Main article: Prussia

The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 led to a significant expansion of the possessions of the Electorate of Brandenburg, which even earlier (in 1618) annexed the Duchy of Prussia. In 1701, the Brandenburg-Prussian state was given the name "Kingdom of Prussia". It was distinguished by a rigid bureaucratic system and militarism. In Prussia and other East German states, a second edition of serfdom was observed. On the other hand, it was in Prussia that Kant and Fichte laid the foundation for classical German philosophy.

The most famous was Frederick II (King of Prussia). He was considered a supporter of an enlightened monarchy, abolished torture, reorganized the army on the basis of drill. Under him, Prussia participated in the War of the Austrian Succession, in the Seven Years' War, in the division of the Commonwealth. Although the Austrian Habsburgs remained emperors of the Holy Roman Empire, their influence weakened, and Prussia took Silesia from Austria. East Prussia was not even considered an integral part of the empire. In a fragmented and weakened form, the Holy Roman Empire existed until 1806.

Creation of a single state

[b] Germany in the era of the Napoleonic wars

Main article: Confederation of the Rhine

By 1804, when Napoleon I became French emperor, Germany remained a politically backward country. Feudal fragmentation remained in the Holy Roman Empire, serfdom existed, and medieval legislation was in force everywhere. A number of German states had previously fought revolutionary France with varying degrees of success.

In the autumn of 1805, Napoleon's war began with the coalition, which included Austria. Austria was defeated. The German emperor Franz II, who just before that in 1804 also became emperor of the Austrian multinational state, left the German throne under pressure from Napoleon. In July 1806, the Holy Roman Empire was abolished and the Confederation of the Rhine was proclaimed instead. Under Napoleon, the number of German principalities was significantly reduced due to their unification. Lost their independence and many cities, the number of which during their heyday was over eighty. By 1808, the Confederation of the Rhine included all the states of Germany, except for Austria, Prussia, Swedish Pomerania and Danish Holstein. Half of the territory of Prussia was taken from her and partly entered the Confederation of the Rhine.

Serfdom was abolished in almost the entire Confederation of the Rhine. In most states of the Confederation of the Rhine, the Napoleonic Civil Code was introduced, which abolished feudal privileges and opened the way for the development of capitalism.

The Confederation of the Rhine participated in the Napoleonic Wars on the side of France. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1813, he actually ceased to exist.

[b] German Confederation

Main article: German Confederation

At the Congress of Vienna (October 1814 - June 9, 1815) on June 8, 1815, the German Confederation was formed from 38 German states under the leadership of Austria. The states of the union were completely independent. In 1848, a wave of liberal uprisings swept across Germany, including Austria (see Revolution of 1848-1849 in Germany), which were eventually suppressed.

Soon, after the revolution of 1848, a conflict began to brew between the growing influence of Prussia and Austria for a dominant position both in the German Confederation and in Europe as a whole. The Austro-Prussian-Italian War of 1866, which ended with the victory of Prussia, led to the dissolution of the German Confederation. Prussia annexed the territories of some North German states that participated in the war on the side of Austria - thus the number of German states also decreased.

[b]North German Confederation and German Unification

Main article: North German Confederation

On August 18, 1866, Prussia and 17 North German states (four more joined in the fall) united into the North German Confederation. In fact, it was a single state: it had one president (the Prussian king), chancellor, Reichstag and Bundesrat, a single army, a coin, a foreign policy department, a post office and a railway department.

The Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 led to the annexation of four South German states and the formation of the German Empire on January 18, 1871 (see Unification of Germany (1871)).

United Germany (1871-1945)

German Empire (1871-1918)

Map of the German Empire at the beginning of the 20th century from the Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron

The German Empire was a federal state that united 22 monarchies, 3 free cities and the land of Alsace-Lorraine. According to the constitution, the emperor of the German Empire was the Prussian king. He appointed the Chancellor. The Reichstag was elected by popular vote. The empire had a single budget, an imperial bank, an army, a coin, a foreign policy department, a post office and a railway department.

The absence of customs borders, progressive economic legislation and French indemnity led to the rapid growth of the economy. Thanks to a well-thought-out system of secondary education and universities, there was a flourishing of science and the progress of technology. Under the influence of the Social Democratic Party, strikes and legislative reforms led to higher wages and mitigation of social tensions.

French Tire-Bone. Triple Alliance. Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy smoke on a barrel of gunpowder

Germany began to seize the colonies late and was forced to look for ways to redistribute them. She entered into a Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy. Thanks to huge military spending (up to half of the entire budget), by 1914 Germany had an army with the best weapons in the world.

[b] World War I

Main article: World War I

On June 28, 1914, the assassination of the Austrian heir Franz Ferdinand in the city of Sarajevo triggered the start of the First World War.

Military success accompanied Germany on the Eastern Front in 1915: during this year, Germany managed to advance deep into Russia and capture such territories as Lithuania and Poland.

Germany failed to break the French army and the war in the west turned into a positional one, with heavy human and material losses. Germany gradually bled dry, and the entry of the United States into the war hastened the predetermined outcome, which could no longer be influenced by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in the east.

On September 26, 1918, the Entente offensive began on the western front. Germany's allies were defeated and one after another signed a truce with the Entente (September 29, 1918 - Bulgaria, October 30 - Turkey, November 3 - Austria-Hungary). On October 5, the German government asked for an armistice. It was concluded on November 11, 1918.

[b] Weimar Republic

Main article: Weimar Republic

The events of November 1918 are known as the November Revolution. On November 9, 1918, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated and fled the country. On November 10, 1918, a provisional government was established - the Council of People's Deputies. On November 11, a ceasefire was declared and hostilities ceased. On December 16, 1918, the so-called Imperial Congress of Soviets took place in Berlin.

Numerous reforms were carried out, women received voting rights, an eight-hour working day was introduced. The uprising of the Spartacists in January 1919 was crushed by the Freikorps, while the communist leaders Rosa Luxembourg and Karl Liebknecht were killed. Until the middle of 1919, all attempts to establish a socialist Soviet republic in Germany were thwarted with the use of the Reichswehr and Freikorps. The last was the Bavarian Soviet Republic, which fell on May 2, 1919.

On January 19, elections were held for the national assembly. The elected deputies gathered for the first meeting not in riot-ridden Berlin, but in Weimar. The National Assembly elected Friedrich Ebert as Reich President and Philipp Scheidemann as Reich Chancellor. In accordance with the adopted Weimar constitution, Germany received a parliamentary democracy. The constitution provided for a strong Reich President, who was actually a replacement for the Kaiser and was even called ironically "ersatz Kaiser", and a qualified majority was required to change it.

On June 28, in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles, Germany ceded large territories and transferred its colonies to the League of Nations. The unification of Germany and Austria was banned. All the blame for starting the war was laid on Germany and her allies. Germany was also forced to pay reparations. Saar came under the control of the League of Nations, and the Rhineland received the status of a demilitarized zone. Significant restrictions were imposed on the German army.

The absence of democratic reforms in the army, justice and administration, the Treaty of Versailles, which was perceived in the country as a “shameful dictate”, as well as a widespread conspiracy theory that blamed Jews and communists for the defeat in the war, laid a heavy burden on the shoulders of the young German state, critically named “ Republic without Republicans.

In 1920, the Kapp putsch and several political assassinations took place. In the elections to the Reichstag, the extremist parties managed to significantly improve their performance. The Treaty of Versailles stipulated that the decision on the nationality of some border regions would be made at referendums. After two referendums, Schleswig was divided between Germany and Denmark. Northern Schleswig returned to Denmark, and Southern remained with Germany. After the referendum on July 11, the districts of Allenstein and Marienwerder remained part of Prussia. On September 20, Eupen and Malmedy (near Aachen) withdrew to Belgium.

The Reichswehr was created in 1921. Upper Silesia after a referendum, accompanied by clashes with the use of force, was divided between Germany and Poland. In 1922, Germany and the Soviet Union concluded the Treaty of Rapallo to restore diplomatic relations.

In January 1923, French troops occupied the Ruhr region in response to delays in paying reparations, initiating the so-called Ruhr Conflict. The imperial government supported the resistance of local residents to the invaders. The following months were accompanied by galloping inflation, the end of which was put only by the November monetary reform.

Bavaria has become a haven for right-wing conservative political forces. In this environment, Hitler held his beer putsch, was arrested and sentenced to prison, but released after a few months.

In 1924, a period of relative stability began. Despite all the conflicts, democracy reaped the first fruits of its work. New money and the loans that appeared in the country under the Dawes plan marked the beginning of the "golden twenties".

Friedrich Ebert died in February 1925 and was succeeded by Paul von Hindenburg as Reich Chancellor.

The Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Weimar Republic Gustav Stresemann, together with his French counterpart Aristide Briand, moved along the path of rapprochement between the two countries and the revision of the Treaty of Versailles, which was reflected in the Locarno agreements concluded in 1925 and Germany's entry into the League of Nations in 1926.

The outbreak of the global economic crisis of 1929 was the beginning of the end of the Weimar Republic. In the summer of 1932, the number of unemployed in the country reached six million. Since 1930, the country has been led by cabinets of ministers appointed by the Reich President without taking into account the opinion of Parliament.

Economic problems were accompanied by a radicalization of the political situation, which resulted in street clashes between the NSDAP and the KPD. In 1931, the right-wing forces of Germany united in the Harzburg Front, the NSDAP, after the Reichstag elections on July 31, 1932, became the largest party in parliament. On January 28, 1933, Chancellor Kurt von Schleicher announced his resignation.

On January 30, 1933, Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of the Reich. This event marked the end of the Weimar Republic.

[b]Third Reich

Main article: Third Reich

The regime that existed in Germany under the Nazis is called the Third Reich. On February 1, 1933, the Reichstag was dissolved. The presidential decree of February 4, 1933 became the basis for the ban on opposition newspapers and public speeches. Using the Reichstag fire as a pretext, Hitler launched mass arrests. Due to the lack of places in prisons, concentration camps were created. Re-elections were called.

From the elections to the Reichstag (March 5, 1933), the NSDAP emerged victorious. The votes cast for the communists were annulled. The new Reichstag, at its first meeting on March 23, retroactively approved Hitler's emergency powers.

Part of the intelligentsia fled abroad. All parties, except for the Nazis, were liquidated. However, right-wing party activists not only were not arrested, but many of them joined the NSDAP. Trade unions were disbanded and new ones were created in their place, fully controlled by the government. Strikes were forbidden, entrepreneurs were declared the Fuhrers of enterprises. Compulsory labor service was soon introduced.

In 1934, Hitler physically eliminated some of the top of his party ("Night of the Long Knives"), and also, taking advantage of the opportunity, some objectionable people who had nothing to do with the NSDAP.

Thanks to the end of the Great Depression, the destruction of all opposition and criticism, the elimination of unemployment, propaganda that played on national feelings, and later territorial acquisitions, Hitler increased his popularity. In addition, he achieved major successes in the economy. In particular, under Hitler, Germany came out on top in the world in the production of steel and aluminum.

In 1936, the Anti-Comintern Pact was signed between Germany and Japan. Italy joined in 1937, followed by Hungary, Manchukuo and Spain in 1939.

On November 9, 1938, a pogrom of Jews was carried out, known as Kristallnacht. Since that time, mass arrests and extermination of Jews began.

In 1938, Austria was captured, in 1939 - part of the Czech Republic, and then the whole of the Czech Republic.

[b] World War II

Main article: World War II

On September 1, 1939, German troops invaded Poland. Britain and France declared war on Germany. During 1939-1941, Germany defeated Poland, Denmark, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Greece, Yugoslavia. In 1941, the Nazis invaded the territory of the Soviet Union and occupied a significant part of its European territory.

In Germany, there was a growing shortage of labor. In all the occupied territories, civilian migrant workers were recruited. In the Slavic territories, mass deportation into slavery in Germany was also carried out. In France, forced recruitment of workers was carried out, whose position in Germany was intermediate between the position of civilians and slaves.

A regime of intimidation was established in the occupied territories. Gradually, the mass extermination of Jews began, and in some areas, the partial destruction of the Slavic population (as a rule, under the pretext of retribution for the actions of the partisans). In Germany and some occupied territories, the number of concentration camps, death camps and prisoner-of-war camps grew. In the latter, the situation of Soviet, Polish and Yugoslav prisoners of war differed little from the situation of concentration camp prisoners.

Cruelty against the civilian population caused the growth of the partisan movement in Poland, Belarus and Serbia. Gradually, a guerrilla war also unfolded in other occupied territories of the USSR and Slavic countries, as well as in Greece and France. In Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, the regime was softer, but there was also anti-Nazi resistance. Separate underground organizations also operated in Germany and Austria.

On July 20, 1944, the military carried out an unsuccessful attempt at an anti-Nazi coup with an assassination attempt on Hitler.

In 1944, the lack of food began to be felt by the Germans. Aviation of the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition bombed the city. Hamburg and Dresden were almost completely destroyed. Due to the heavy losses of personnel in October 1944, a Volkssturm was created, in which old men and young men were mobilized. Werewolf detachments were prepared for future partisan and sabotage activities.

Germany after World War II

After World War II: The division of Germany (and Austria) into zones of occupation

[b] The occupation of Germany

Main article: Potsdam Agreement (1945)

Occupation zones

After the Second World War, the members of the anti-Hitler coalition, primarily the USA, the USSR, Great Britain, and later France, at first sought to promote a collective occupation policy. The tasks set in the development of this policy were demilitarization and the so-called "denazification". But already in the question of the interpretation of the concept of "democracy" the differences of opinion between the USSR on the one hand and the Western powers on the other became obvious.

The result was:

in the west - the Trizone of Germany or West Germany, since 1949 the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG),

in the east - the Soviet zone of Germany or East Germany, since 1949 the German Democratic Republic

[b] Federal Republic of Germany

Main article: Federal Republic of Germany (until 1990)

The Federal Republic of Germany was proclaimed in 1949 on the territory of the British, American and French occupation zones. The capital of Germany was the city of Bonn. Thanks to the help of the Americans under the Marshall Plan, rapid economic growth was achieved in the 1950s (the German economic miracle), which lasted until 1965. To meet the need for cheap labor, Germany supported the influx of guest workers, mainly from Turkey.

Until 1969, the country was ruled by the CDU party (usually in a bloc with the CSU and less often with the FDP). In the 1950s, a number of emergency laws were developed, many organizations were banned, including the Communist Party, and professions were banned. In 1955 Germany joined NATO.

In 1969, the Social Democrats came to power. They recognized the inviolability of post-war borders, weakened emergency legislation, and carried out a number of social reforms. In the future, the Social Democrats and Christian Democrats alternated in power.

West Berlin

Main article: West Berlin

Since 1945, Berlin has been divided between the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition into four occupation zones. The eastern zone, occupied by Soviet troops, later became the capital of the German Democratic Republic. In the three western zones, control was exercised, respectively, by the occupying authorities of the United States, Great Britain and France.

After the formation of the FRG and the GDR, both states declared their claims to sovereignty over West Berlin.

With the conclusion of the Quadripartite Agreement on September 3, 1971, the ratio of the FRG - West Berlin - GDR was put on a new legal basis. The occupation regime remained in West Berlin.

In 1990, West Berlin became part of a united Germany.

[b] German Democratic Republic

Main article: German Democratic Republic

The proclamation of the GDR took place five months later in response to the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany on the territory of the three western occupation zones; on October 7, 1949, the Constitution of the GDR was proclaimed.

The USSR removed machinery and equipment from the GDR and levied reparations from the GDR. Only by 1950 did industrial production in the GDR reach the level of 1936. The Berlin crisis of 1953 led to the fact that instead of reparations, the USSR began to provide economic assistance to the GDR.

As proclaimed, the citizens of the GDR had all democratic rights and freedoms. Although the Socialist Unity Party of Germany occupied a dominant position in the country (its leading role was enshrined in the Constitution), four other parties existed alongside it for decades.

The rates of economic development of the GDR were lower than in the FRG, and the lowest among the Warsaw Pact states. Nevertheless, the standard of living in the GDR remained the highest among the Eastern European states. By the 1980s, the GDR had become a highly developed industrial country with intensive agriculture. In terms of industrial output, the GDR occupied the 6th place in Europe.

Berlin Wall

Main article: Berlin Wall

The absence of a clear physical border in Berlin led to frequent conflicts and a massive drain of specialists from the GDR. East Germans preferred to receive education in the GDR, where it was free, and to work in West Berlin or the FRG. In August 1961, the GDR authorities began building a guarded wall that physically separated West Berlin from the GDR. The Berlin Wall was largely destroyed in 1990.

Modern history of Germany

Main article: Germany

Gorbachev's reforms in the USSR were perceived with caution by the authorities of the GDR and with enthusiasm in the FRG. In 1989, tensions in the GDR began to increase. In the fall, long-term leader of the country Erich Honecker left his post as top party leader, his place was taken by the former leader of the Union of Free German Youth Egon Krenz. However, he did not stay at the head of state for long, only a few weeks. In early November, a grandiose demonstration began in Berlin, ending with the destruction of the Berlin Wall. This was the first step towards the unification of the two German states. Soon, the German mark of the FRG came into circulation on the territory of the GDR, and in August 1990, the Treaty on the Establishment of Unity was signed between the two parties.

After the reunification of the FRG and the GDR on October 3, 1990: the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG). Since 1995, in the full name of the country in Russian, the word Germany has been in the nominative case.

der Tag der deutschen Vereinigung

Germany after World War II
Zones of occupation: Amer. + Brit. + owls. + French
Deportation of the Germans
Germany + GDR + Zap. Berlin
German unification 1990
Modern Germany

State in Central Europe. In the course of history, it experienced periods of strong fragmentation and repeatedly changed its borders. Therefore, the history of Germany is inseparable from the history of its closest neighbors Austria, Switzerland, Denmark, Poland, the Czech Republic, Italy and France.

Antiquity

prehistoric period

Even in the era of the Upper and Middle Paleolithic, Germany was a place of migrations of the most ancient hominids (Heidelberg man, Neanderthal man).

In the era of the Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic in Germany, there were several developed Paleolithic cultures (Hamburg, Ahrensburg, Federmesser).

In the Neolithic era, the territory of Germany was occupied mainly by representatives of the western branch of the linear-band ceramics culture (the Rössen culture and its descendant, the Michelsberg culture). During this period, dolmens were actively built in Germany. The Michelsberg culture is gradually being replaced by the funnel-beaker culture.

The Bronze Age is associated with the speakers of the most ancient Indo-European languages, although initially they were, apparently, the ancestors of not the Germanic, but the Celtic-Italic peoples (the culture of globular amphoras, the Baden culture, the culture of the fields of funerary urns, etc.). The ancestors of the Germans occupied mainly the northern part of Germany, however, starting from the Iron Age, they gradually displace the Celts from Germany, partially assimilating them, especially in the south of Germany.

Germans in antiquity

The Germans were divided into several groups - between the Rhine, Main and Weser lived Batavs, Brukters, Hamavs, Hatts and Ubii; on the coast of the North Sea - Hawks, Angles, Varins, Frisians; from the middle and upper Elbe to the Oder, the Marcomanni, Quadi, Lombards and Semnons; between the Oder and the Vistula - Vandals, Burgundians and Goths; in Scandinavia - sviony, gaut.

From the 2nd century A.D. e. The Germans are increasingly invading the boundaries of the Roman Empire. To the Romans, however, they were simply barbarians. Gradually they formed tribal unions (Alemanni, Goths, Saxons, Franks).

Great Migration

Middle Ages

Frankish state

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Frankish tribes played the most significant role among the Germanic tribes. Clovis I became the first king of the Salian Franks in 481. Under him and his descendants, Gaul was conquered, and from the Germans, the Alemanni and most of the Frankish tribes entered the state. Later, Aquitaine, Provence, northern Italy, a small part of Spain were conquered, the Thuringians, Bavarians, Saxons and other tribes were subordinated. By 800, all of Germany was part of the vast Frankish state.

The beginning of German statehood

The origins of the German state are connected with the Treaty of Verdun, which was concluded between the grandchildren of Charlemagne in the city. This treaty divided the Frankish Empire into three parts - the French (West Frankish Kingdom), inherited by Charles the Bald, the Italian-Lorraine (Middle Kingdom), whose king was the eldest son of Charlemagne Lothair, and the German, where power went to Louis the German.

Germany - the birthplace of the Reformation

The Reformation marked the beginning of several religious wars in Germany, which ended in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia. As a result, the fragmentation of Germany was consolidated.

Rise of Prussia

The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 led to a significant expansion of the possessions of the Electorate of Brandenburg, which even earlier (in 1618) annexed the Duchy of Prussia. In 1701, the Brandenburg-Prussian state was given the name "Kingdom of Prussia". It was distinguished by a rigid bureaucratic system and militarism. A second edition of serfdom was observed in Prussia and other East German states. On the other hand, it was in Prussia that Kant and Fichte laid the foundation for classical German philosophy.

The most famous was Frederick II (King of Prussia). He was considered a supporter of an enlightened monarchy, abolished torture, reorganized the army on the basis of drill. Under him, Prussia participated in the War of the Austrian Succession, in the Seven Years' War, in the division of the Commonwealth. Although the Austrian Habsburgs remained Holy Roman Emperors, their influence waned and Prussia wrested Silesia from Austria. East Prussia was not even considered an integral part of the empire. In a fragmented and weakened form, the Holy Roman Empire existed until 1806.

Creation of a single state

Germany during the Napoleonic Wars

United Germany (1871-1945)

German Empire (1871-1918)

Map of the German Empire at the beginning of the 20th century from the Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron

Third Reich

The regime that existed in Germany under the Nazis is called the Third Reich. On February 1, 1933, the Reichstag was dissolved. The presidential decree of February 4, 1933 became the basis for the ban on opposition newspapers and public speeches. Using the Reichstag fire as an excuse, Hitler launched mass arrests. Due to the lack of places in prisons, concentration camps were created. Re-elections were called.

The Second World War

On September 1, 1939, German troops invaded Poland. Britain and France declared war on Germany. During 1939-1941, Germany defeated Poland, Denmark, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Greece, Yugoslavia, and Norway. In 1941, the Nazis invaded the territory of the Soviet Union and occupied a significant part of its European territory.

Cruelty against the civilian population caused the growth of the partisan movement in the territories of the occupied USSR, Poland and Yugoslavia. Gradually, a guerrilla war also unfolded in the occupied territories of Greece and France. In the territories of occupied Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium and annexed Luxembourg, the regime was softer, but there was also anti-Nazi resistance. Separate underground organizations also operated in Germany itself.

The principles of the occupation policy and most of the territorial changes were fixed in the Potsdam Agreement.

Later, the political and economic unification of the American, British and French occupation zones took place in the so-called. Trizonia, since 1949 the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG).

A peace treaty with Germany following the results of World War II has not been signed to date.

Federal Republic of Germany

The Federal Republic of Germany was proclaimed in 1949 on the territory of the British, American and French occupation zones. The capital of Germany was the city of Bonn. France tried to separate the Saar region from Germany, but in the end, under the Luxembourg Treaty of 1956, the Saarland was reunited with Germany.

Thanks to the help of the Americans under the Marshall Plan, rapid economic growth was achieved in the 1950s (the German economic miracle), which lasted until 1965. To meet the need for cheap labor, Germany supported the influx of guest workers, mainly from Turkey.

The USSR removed machinery and equipment from the Soviet occupation zone, levied reparations from the GDR. Only by 1950 did industrial production in the GDR reach the level of 1936. The events of June 17, 1953 in the GDR led to the fact that instead of collecting reparations, the USSR began to provide economic assistance to the GDR.

As proclaimed, the citizens of the GDR had all democratic rights and freedoms. Although the Socialist Unity Party of Germany occupied the dominant position in the country (its leading role was enshrined in the Constitution), four other parties existed alongside it for decades.

The rates of economic development of the GDR were lower than in the FRG, and the lowest among the Warsaw Pact states. Nevertheless, the standard of living in the GDR remained the highest among the Eastern European states. By the 1980s, the GDR had become a highly industrialized country with intensive agriculture. In terms of industrial output, the GDR occupied the 6th place in Europe.

After a short period of relative unity in the X-XII centuries. in Germany, a natural process of feudal fragmentation began. However, unlike France, it took on an irreversible character here. This is due to a number of reasons, among which foreign policy factors played an important role. The two main directions of the external expansion of feudal Germany (to Italy and to the Slavic East) led to the artificial unification of the German duchies, the forcibly annexed Slavic lands and Northern Italy into an empire, which received in the 15th century. the name of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation.

The German emperors inherited not only the title of "King of the Franks", but were also crowned in Rome as "Emperors of the Romans", receiving the crown from the hands of the pope and thus claiming spiritual and temporal leadership in Christendom. This explains the special significance that the relationship between the state and the church, including its center in Rome, acquired in the history of Germany.

The change in the forms of the feudal state can be traced here not so much on the scale of the entire empire and Germany itself, but on the individual German principalities and lands. From the 13th century they gradually turned into independent states, only formally connected with each other by imperial power. As for the German feudal state as a whole, its history can be conditionally divided into two large stages:

Formation and development of a relatively centralized early feudal state in Germany within the empire (X-XII centuries).

Territorial fragmentation in Germany (XIII - early XIX century) and the development of autonomous German principalities - states.

After the formation of independent principalities and the legal registration of the oligarchy of the largest princes-electors (XIII-XIV centuries), Germany until the XIX century. did not represent a single state and retained the form of a senior monarchy with separate elements of a class-representative monarchy. The various stages in the development of the feudal state can be identified here only within the limits of local territories, states-principalities. In the XIV-XVI centuries. in the principalities of Germany, estate-representative ones are established, and in the 17th-18th centuries. absolute monarchies. In 1806, under the blows of Napoleon's troops, the "Holy Roman Empire" fell.

The "Golden Bull" consolidated the historically established practice, in which the control of Germany was actually concentrated in the hands of seven electors: three archbishops - Mainz, Cologne and Trier, as well as the Margrave of Brandenburg, King of Bohemia, Duke of Saxony, Count Palatine of the Rhine. The prince-electors determined the choice of the emperor by a majority of votes. The "Golden Bull" regulated in detail the procedure for electing the emperor by electors. In case of equality of votes, the casting vote belonged to the Archbishop of Mainz. He was the last to cast his vote, was chairman of the college of electors and had to convene a meeting of the entire college in Frankfurt am Main. The Archbishop of Mainz could ask in advance the consent of other electors for this or that candidacy. The bull provided for the transformation of the College of Electors into a permanent body of state administration. Every year, for one month, a congress of the collegium was to be held to discuss state affairs. The collegium had the right to judge the emperor and remove him.

The "Golden Bull" recognized the complete political independence of the electors, their equality to the emperor. She secured the rights of their territorial supremacy, established the indivisibility of the electors, their transfer by inheritance. The electors retained the regalia they seized, in particular such as the ownership and exploitation of mineral resources, the collection of duties, and the minting of coins. They had the right of supreme jurisdiction in their domains. Vassals were forbidden to wage war against the lords, cities - to enter into alliances against the electors. Thus, in Germany, the oligarchy of several major feudal lords, which had developed even before the Golden Bull, was legally formalized. The electors were united only by common citizenship to the emperor and did not have only the right to independently declare war and make peace with foreign states.

From the XIV-XV centuries. in Germany, in addition to the emperor, there were two more all-imperial institutions - the Reichstag and the imperial court. The Reichstag was an all-imperial congress (literally, "imperial day"), which since the XIII century. convened by the emperor quite regularly. Its structure finally took shape in the 14th century. The Reichstag consisted of three boards: the board of electors, the board of princes, counts and free masters and the board of representatives of imperial cities. The nature of the representation of these imperial estates, or ranks, differed from the representation of the three estates of other Western European states. First of all, representatives of the petty nobility, as well as the burghers of non-imperial cities, were absent from the Reichstag. The clergy did not form a separate college and sat in the first or second college insofar as large prelates were part of the princely stratum. All three boards met separately. Sometimes only the chambers of electors and princes met together.

Thus, the Reichstag acted not so much as an organ of class representation, but rather as an organ of representation of individual political units: electors represented the interests of their states, princes - principalities, and burgomasters of imperial cities represented by position.

The competence of the Reichstag was not precisely defined. The emperor asked for his consent on military, international and financial issues. The Reichstag had the right of legislative initiative; decrees issued by the emperor together with members of the gofrat (imperial council) were submitted for approval by the Reichstag. The acts of the Reichstag, as a rule, did not have binding force and were more in the nature of imperial recommendations.

At the end of the XV century. the Reichstag made a number of unsuccessful attempts to introduce at least some elements of centralization into the political system of the empire. These attempts reflected the concern of some part of the feudal nobility with the weakening of the central government in the face of increasing social tension in society. The Reichstag of Worms in 1495, which proclaimed the "eternal zemstvo peace" (prohibition of private wars), established an imperial supreme court for the affairs of imperial subjects and subjects of individual principalities. Members of the court were appointed by electors and princes (14 people), cities (2 people), and the chairman - by the emperor. It was decided to divide the empire into 10 districts, headed by special guardians of order from the princes, who were supposed to carry out the sentences of the court. They were provided with military contingents for this. In addition, a special tax was introduced for the needs of managing the empire - the "general imperial pfennig". However, a significant part of these measures was never carried out.

The weakness of the central apparatus was also reflected in the principles of creating the army of the empire. The empire did not have a permanent army. Military contingents, in case of need, were supplied by imperial ranks according to special decisions in accordance with the forces of the country.

Thus, the absence of a professional bureaucracy, a permanent army, and sufficient material resources in the imperial treasury led to the fact that the central institutions could not enforce their decisions. Until the end of the XVIII century. the political system of the empire retained the appearance of a class monarchy, which covered the polyarchy of the electors, with a peculiar confederal form of state unity.

The word "Germany" comes from the Latin word Germania. So during the Gallic War (58-51), the Romans called people who lived east of the Rhine River. The German name of the country Deutschland comes from a Germanic root, which means "people" or "people".

A Frankish court document (written in Latin in AD 768) uses the term "theodisca lingua" to refer to the spoken language of people who did not speak either Latin or early Romance languages. From this point on, the word "deutsch" was used to emphasize differences in speech that corresponded to political, geographical, and social differences.

Since the Frankish and Saxon kings of the early Middle Ages liked to call themselves emperors of Rome, it was still too early to talk about the birth of their own national identity at that time. By the 15th century, the name Heiliges Römisches Reich, or Holy Roman Empire, was supplemented by the definition of the German nation (deutschen Nation).

It is important to note that at that time the phrase "German people", "German nation" referred only to those who were close to the emperor - dukes, counts, archbishops. However, such a name indicates the desire of members of the imperial court to separate from the Roman curia, with which they were in conflict on various political and financial issues.

The area that became known as Deutschland, or , was nominally under the rule of a German king, who was also the Roman emperor, from the 10th century. In fact, various principalities, counties, cities had a sufficient degree of autonomy. They kept their own traditions even after the foundation of the national state - the German Empire in 1871.

The old names - Brandenburg, Saxony are still the designations of their respective lands. Other names (for example, Swabia, Franconia) are saved in reference books and maps in the "Historical Landscapes" section. Regional differences are of great importance in German culture, although it is quite obvious that they are often manipulated by the authorities for political and commercial purposes.

The Federal Republic of Germany was founded in 1949 after the country's defeat in World War II. Initially, it consisted of the so-called West Germany, that is, the area that was occupied by the French, British and Americans. In 1990, the five regions that make up eastern Germany - the area under the control of the Soviet Union, known as the GDR (German Democratic Republic) - became part of the FRG.

From now on, Germany consists of 16 federal states: Brandenburg, Lower Saxony, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, North Rhine-Westphalia, Rhineland-Palatinate, Saarland, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Schleswig-Goldstein and Thuringia.

Country Education

At different times, the concept of nationality was interpreted in different ways. Humanist scholars of the early 16th century initiated a controversy about the German nation. In their opinion, modern Germans are the descendants of the ancient Germanic peoples, which are described in the writings of Roman thinkers - Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) and Cornelius Tacitus (55-116 AD), the author of the famous work "Germany" .

From the point of view of Ulrich von Hutten (1488-1523), it was Tacitus who most accurately approached the understanding of the origin of the German nation, which in many respects, if not equal, then exceeded the Romans. The German humanists made their hero Armin, who defeated the Roman forces at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD.

The interest of German thinkers in their famous predecessors and the literature of that time, as history shows, continued into the 18th century - this is felt in the inspired patriotic poetry of Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock (1724-1803) and poets belonging to the Göttinger Hain group, founded in 1772 .

Scholar Norbert Elias has argued that the heightened attention that German philosophers and writers paid to the writings of Roman intellectuals was largely motivated by the rejection of the aristocratic court traditions that characterized their French counterparts.

On the eve of the French Revolution (1789), it was divided into almost 300 political entities of various sizes, each of which had its own degree of sovereignty. In 1974, French troops occupied the left bank of the Rhine, which was divided among several principalities.

In 1806, Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) disbanded the territory of the Holy Roman Empire. In the same year, Napoleon's troops defeated Prussia and its allies in the battles of Jena and Auerstet. German nationalism formed in response to this defeat. During the War of Liberation (1813-1815), many patriotic volunteers joined the army, and the allied forces under the Prussian leadership drove the French out of Germany.

Those who hoped that a unified German state would be created became disillusioned with these aspirations after the Congress of Vienna (1815). The dynastic rulers of individual German lands remained in their positions. Along with the rise of historical science in the first half of the 19th century, the emphasis on German history was supplemented by the ideas of medieval thinkers about the origins of the German nation.

In the era of nationalism, when the nation-state was understood as the end point of historical development, German historians tried to explain why Germany, unlike France and England, still could not become a single state. They believed that they found the answer to this question in the medieval period of history. Shortly after the death of Charles (814), the Carolingian empire was divided into northern, middle and eastern kingdoms.

From the teleological point of view of historians of the 19th century, the western kingdom became France, the eastern - Germany, and the middle lands remained a bone of contention between these states. The German king Otto I, who ruled in the 10th century, organized a number of expeditions to. In 962 he was crowned emperor by the Pope. From that moment on, a close relationship began to form between Germany and the medieval version of the Roman Empire.

German historians of the 19th century viewed the medieval kingdom as the beginning of the process of formation of the national German state. The medieval ruler was the main initiator of national development, but modern historians are inclined to believe that the real actions of the emperors contradicted this lofty goal.

The most important villains of medieval history, especially in the eyes of the Protestants, were the popes and those German princes who supported them against the emperor for reasons that were called "selfish". The opposition of the pope and the princes, as historians believed, "strangled" the proper development of the German nation. The high point was the era of the Hohenstaufen emperors (1138-1254).

Emperor Frederick I of Hohenstaufen is considered a great German hero, although the empire entered a long period of decline after his reign. The first Habsburgs, according to modern researchers, showed great promise, but their successors did not excel in anything particularly good. The lowest point in the development of national consciousness is considered to be the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), when Germany was tormented by both external and internal enemies.

The educated bourgeoisie and the popular masses of Germany in the 19th century hoped for the renewal of the state, but there was no consensus on what exactly it should be. The main conflict was between the supporters of grossdeutsch - "big Germany" under Austrian rule and kleindeutsch - "little Germany" under Prussian rule and without taking into account the territory of Austria.

The second option was implemented when Prussia won a series of wars - defeated Denmark in 1864, Austria in 1866 and France in 1871. In the writings of the Prussian school of history, the victory of Prussia and the foundation of the German Empire in 1981 are portrayed as the realization of the plans of the medieval emperor Frederick I.

After the founding of the empire, the German government pursued an aggressive policy aimed both at other countries and at the territories associated with the eastern border. Defeat in World War I led to widespread dissatisfaction with the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which many Germans considered unfair.

The people also opposed the founders of the Weimar Republic, as they considered them traitors. Adolf Hitler, leader of the National Socialist Party, deliberately exploited the indignation of the masses and their desire to achieve national greatness. The propaganda of the National Socialists was built on the exaltation of the German nation, its biological superiority over other races.

German national identity

After the Second World War, the question of the national identity of the Germans became not very convenient, since the national movement, it would seem, ended with the rule of the Third Reich, because one of its sides was the murder of millions of people, including 6 million Jews. The subsequent years of German history were devoted to combating this problem.

Many attempts have been made to explain the ideology of Nazism and the crimes committed by the Nazis. Some believe that Adolf Hitler and his henchmen are villains who misled the German people. Others blame Nazism for the Germans' lack of national character. Still others see the beginning of Germany's problems in the rejection of the rational and universal principles of the Enlightenment and the adoption of romantic irrationalism.

Marxist scholars consider Nazism a form of fascism, which in turn, in their opinion, is capitalism, formed under certain historical conditions. There are also opinions about the unsuccessful bourgeois revolution of the 19th century and the protracted power of the feudal elites - this is also put in the reasons for the development of Nazism. Interpretations of this kind are called Vergangenheitsbewältigung ("overcoming the past").

These attempts became widespread in West Germany during the socialist rule in the GDR. Some Germans emphasized the similarities between the two forms of dictatorship, National Socialist and Communist, while others, mostly East Germans, felt that the Third Reich and the GDR were fundamentally different states. The differences between the opinions of West and East Germany are called with the so-called Mauer in den Köpfen, or walls - an allusion to the real wall that was erected to separate East and West Germany.

In recent years, German nationalism has been redefined in accordance with the vision of the nation as an "imaginary community" based on "made-up traditions". Scholars have focused on the organization, symbolism, and development path of the national movement as it developed in the 19th century.

The most significant contribution to the development of national self-determination of that time was played by public associations that returned back to local, regional and national traditions; a number of monuments erected by the government and citizens; various works on the history of Germany and the thoughts of historians, which have already been mentioned above. In addition, there is also literature in which there was also a comprehension of the concept of national.

There is considerable controversy over the political implications of a critical history of nationalism in Germany. Some scholars seem to seek to abandon the deviant implications of modern German nationalism, while preserving along the way those aspects with which, in their opinion, the Germans should identify themselves. Others see nationalism as a dangerous stage in the process of historical development, which the Germans must leave behind.

ethnic relations

The creators of the Grundgesetz ("Basic Law", or Constitution) of the Federal Republic of Germany passed the old laws, according to which citizenship is determined according to jus sanguinis (literally: "right of blood"), that is, a child must be born to German parents. For this reason, many people born outside of Germany are considered Germans, while those born in Germany itself are not.

Beginning in the 1960s, the country began to recognize the millions of immigrants who play a huge role in the German economy. Although immigrant workers from Turkey, Yugoslavia, Italy, Greece, Spain and Portugal were called guest workers, many of them remained in Germany and started families here. They assimilated their livelihoods with the German way of life.

However, it is quite difficult for them to obtain German citizenship. The Germans themselves consider them Ausländer (foreigners). Starting in 2000, new laws came into force that grant dual citizenship to the children of foreigners who were born in Germany.

The new legislation has intensified discussions about Germany's status as a country of immigrants. Currently, all major political parties agree on what is and should be a country of immigrants, but their opinions differ on many aspects of immigration policy.

Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), is a state in Central Europe. Borders with Denmark, Poland, Czech Republic, , Switzerland, France, Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands. In the north, the natural border is formed by the North and Baltic Seas. The Russian name comes from lat. Germany. (currency sign - €, bank code: EUR) - the official currency of 17 countries of the Eurozone.

The capital is the city of Berlin (the seat of the Bundestag and the government, some ministries are located in Bonn). The form of government is a parliamentary republic, the form of government is a symmetrical federation of 16 autonomous lands.

Germany is a member of the European Union and NATO, is a member of the G8, and claims to be a permanent member of the UN Security Council.

The Russian name of the state Germany comes from the Latin name Germania, which goes back to the writings of Latin authors of the 1st century AD and is formed from the ethnonym Germans (lat. Germanus). It was first used by Julius Caesar in his "Notes on the Gallic War" regarding the tribes living beyond the Rhine. The word itself probably has non-Latin roots and comes from the Celtic gair ("neighbor").

In German, the state is called Deutschland. The modern name comes from pragerms. Eudiskaz. The name Deutsch (derived from the Proto-German Þeodisk) originally meant "related to the people" and meant primarily the language. Land means "country". The modern form of writing the name of the state has been used since the 15th century.

In the USSR, the name Federal Republic of Germany was used in Russian. This form, for example, is used in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia. After the accession of the German Democratic Republic to the Federal Republic of Germany in 1990, it was decided, by mutual agreement between the governments of Germany and Russia, not to decline the word Germany in the official name of the state. Correct: the Federal Republic of Germany (and not the Federal Republic of Germany).

Story

The first mention of the ancient Germans appeared in the writings of the ancient Greeks and Romans. One of the first mentions of the Germans refers to the year 98. It was made by the Roman chronicler Tacitus (lat. Tacitus). The entire territory of modern Germany east of the Elbe (Slavic Laba) until the 10th century was inhabited by Slavic tribes. (see more details: Polabian Slavs). By the XII-XIV centuries, these lands gradually became part of various German state formations that made up the so-called Holy Roman Empire. As these territories were part of the German states, over several centuries, the local Slavs gradually, almost completely Germanized. This process dragged on until the late Middle Ages and the beginning of the new time, and in some places, with the last, not yet completely Germanized Slavic people of Germany - the Lusatians, continues to this day.

After the collapse of the Roman Empire in Western Europe, the Frankish state was formed, which three centuries later, under Charlemagne, turned into an empire (800). Charles's empire covered the territories of a number of modern states, in particular Germany. However, the empire of Charlemagne did not last long - the grandchildren of this emperor divided it among themselves, as a result of which three kingdoms were formed - West Frankish (later France), East Frankish (later Germany) and the Middle Kingdom (soon split into Italy, Provence and Lorraine).

Traditionally, the founding date of the German state is considered to be February 2, 962: on this day, the East Frankish king Otto I was crowned in Rome and became emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Despite the attempts of the emperors to unite the Holy Roman Empire, it broke up into numerous independent states and cities. After the Reformation and the Thirty Years' War, the emperor's power was still nominal.

This situation continued until 1806, when, under the pressure of Napoleon I, the existence of the Holy Roman Empire was terminated and its emperor began to bear only the title of emperor. . The number of German states was significantly reduced. The Congress of Vienna contributed to the further unification of the German states, as a result of which the German Confederation was formed from 38 German states under the leadership of Austria.

After the revolution of 1848, a conflict began to brew between the growing influence of Prussia and Austria. This led to the war of 1866, in which Prussia won and annexed a number of German principalities. The German Confederation collapsed.

In 1868, the North German Confederation was created, headed by the President - the King of Prussia. On December 10, 1870, the Reichstag of the North German Confederation renamed the North German Confederation into the German Empire (German das Deutsche Reich), the constitution of the North German Confederation into the constitution of the German Empire, and the President of the North German Confederation into the German Emperor (German der Deutsche Kaiser). Count Otto von Bismarck was appointed Chancellor of Germany.

In 1914, Germany entered the First World War, the loss of which led to the end of the monarchy and the proclamation of the republic.

In 1933, the leader of the National Socialist German Workers' Party, Adolf Hitler, was appointed Chancellor of Germany, under which Germany pursued an aggressive expansionist and revanchist policy, which in 1939 led to World War II.

After Germany was defeated in World War II in May 1945, its statehood was terminated, vast territories were separated from Germany, and the rest was divided into 4 zones of occupation: Soviet, American, British and French. In 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) was established on the territories of the American, British and French zones of occupation, and the German Democratic Republic (GDR) on the territory of the Soviet zone of occupation.

On October 3, 1990, the German Democratic Republic and West Berlin were incorporated into the Federal Republic of Germany. It has diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation, which were established by the USSR in 1955 (with the GDR in 1949).

State structure

Berlin is the capital of Germany. Meanwhile, in the course of lengthy negotiations regarding the terms of transferring the capital from Bonn to Berlin, Bonn managed to keep most of the federal ministries on its territory, as well as a number of the main important federal departments (for example, the federal audit chamber).

Germany is a democratic, social, legal state. It consists of 16 lands. The state structure is regulated by the Basic Law of Germany. The form of government in Germany is a parliamentary republic.

Germany is a democratic state: “All state power comes from the people (Volke). It is carried out by the people through elections and voting, as well as through special bodies of legislation, executive power and justice.

The head of state is the federal president, who performs rather representative functions and appoints the federal chancellor. The Federal President of the Federal Republic of Germany takes the following oath: “I swear to devote my energies to the good of the German people (deutschen Volkes), to increase their wealth, protect it from damage, observe and protect the Basic Law and the laws of the Federation, conscientiously fulfill my duties and observe justice in relation to everyone . God help me.” The Federal Chancellor is the head of the German Government. He directs the activities of the Federal Government. Therefore, the form of government in Germany is often also called chancellor democracy.

Germany has a federal structure. This means that the political system of the state is divided into two levels: the federal one, at which national decisions of international importance are made, and the regional one, at which the tasks of the federal lands are solved. Each level has its own executive, legislative and judicial authorities. Although the states have unequal representation in the Bundesrat, legally they have equal status, which characterizes the German federation as symmetrical.

The German Bundestag (parliament) and the Bundesrat (organ of representation of the states) carry out legislative and legislative functions at the federal level and are authorized by a two-thirds majority in each of the bodies to amend the constitution. At the regional level, lawmaking is carried out by the parliaments of the lands - Landtags and Burgerschafts (parliaments of the cities-lands of Hamburg and Bremen). They make laws that apply within the lands. Parliaments in all states except Bavaria are unicameral.

Executive power at the federal level is represented by the Federal Government, headed by the Chancellor. The head of the executive authorities at the level of the subjects of the federation is the prime minister (or mayor of the city-land). The federal and state administrations are led by ministers who are at the head of the administrative bodies.

The Federal Constitutional Court enforces the constitution. The supreme courts of justice also include the Federal Court of Justice in Karlsruhe, the Federal Administrative Court in Leipzig, the Federal Labor Court, the Federal Public Court and the Federal Financial Court in Munich. Most of the litigation is the responsibility of the Länder. Federal courts are mainly engaged in review cases and check the decisions of the courts of the Länder for formal legality.

German "hidden" federalism

Speaking about the form of government, the term "hidden" federal state is often applied to Germany. Although the Basic Law establishes the distribution of powers at the level of the federal states and the federation as a whole, at the same time it combines the advantages of a centralized state with the advantages of a federal state. For example, citizens most often resolve issues through the land authorities and local administrations, which carry out their activities on behalf of the lands (according to the principle of subsidiarity).

However, public life is regulated for the most part by federal laws. The point is that, according to the Basic Law, it is necessary to strive for the equalization of living conditions in all federal states of Germany, which are determined by the social and economic policy of the state. For example, the police is a federal agency with a single federal leadership(there is no police of the federal states, like the police of the states in ).

So, the social and economic spheres of public life are regulated mainly by federal laws. In this aspect, the German federal state is similar to the centralized one.

On the one hand, the land administrations execute the laws of the given federal land, which is typical for a federal state. On the other hand, they enforce most federal laws, which is not typical for a federal government.

Stages of reforming the federal system

After the adoption of the Basic Law in 1949, the German authorities repeatedly made attempts to improve the federal system. The first large-scale reform was carried out by the "grand coalition" government (CDU/CSU-SPD) under Chancellor KG. Kiesinger in 1966-1969. As a result of the reform, the interweaving of the interests of the lands and the federal center received a new dimension. In the financial sector, the principle of "cooperative federalism" was introduced, which will become one of the stumbling blocks at the present stage of the history of Germany.

Under the Schroeder government (1998-2005), the goal was to carry out a large-scale constitutional reform of federalism in order to simplify the political processes in the country, make them more transparent to the population and less dependent on momentary party calculations. The reform was designed to redistribute powers between the center and the subjects of the federation, clarify the legislative competence between the Bundestag and the Bundesrat, and ultimately increase the viability of the state as a whole.

The number of laws requiring the mandatory approval of the Bundesrat was planned to be reduced to 35-40% by removing laws on the principles of administration of all lands from the mechanism of coordination with the Bundesrat. That is, in the future, the Länder will have to proceed from federal guidelines, which implies giving the Landtags greater responsibility.

In March 2003, the Federalism Convention (composed of the heads of state parliaments and the leaders of the factions of the parties represented in them) approved the "Lübeck Declaration", containing specific measures to modernize the federal system.

On October 17, 2003, the Commission on Federalism was created, which included the then Secretary General of the SPD F. Müntefering and the Chairman of the CSU and Prime Minister of Bavaria E. Stoiber.

On November 18, 2005, a coalition agreement between the CDU / CSU and the SPD (“Together for Germany - with courage and humanity”) was signed, which stipulated the proposals of these parties on the division of powers and responsibilities between the lands and the center.

The innovation package covers the following areas:

1. Education Now the current issues of education are within the competence of the Länder, and they will be directly transferred funds from the federal budget. This excludes misuse of the received funds.

2. Distribution of income. Federal laws cannot set tasks for cities and communities that require additional material expenses from local governments. If federal laws interfere with the competence of the Länder, these laws must necessarily obtain the consent of the Bundesrat.

3. High school. Completely relegated to the jurisdiction of the lands. The Federation may participate in the financing of scientific research, but only with the consent of the Länder.

4. Environmental protection The federation can develop framework legislation, but the Länder can make decisions deviating from it. In doing so, the EU environmental regulations must also be taken into account.

5. Budget Introduction of the EU-style Stability Pact. In connection with the problem of land debts, eventual debt sanctions will be 65% on the shoulders of the federation, and 35% on the shoulders of the lands.

6. Land legislation The jurisdiction of the Länder included housing law, issues of meetings, associations and the press, the penitentiary system, hunting legislation, opening hours of shops, rules for opening restaurants.

7. Combating terrorism The exclusive competence of the federation (Federal Office of the Criminal Police), along with nuclear energy, registration of citizens, regulation of the circulation of weapons and explosives.

8. Public service Competence of the Länder.

On December 15, 2006, a new stage of federalism reform started. The main issues unresolved at the 1st stage were: the reduction of land debts, distortions in financial relations between the federation and the lands and the lands themselves.

The essence of the problem is that all the lands must carry out federal tasks, but their possibilities for this are very different.

Therefore, the German Constitution (paragraph 2, article 107) states that “the law must ensure a commensurate equalization of differences in the financial capabilities of the lands; at the same time, the financial capabilities and needs of the communities should be taken into account. ”For this, there was a procedure for equalizing the budgetary provision of the regions, that is, part of the funds of the “rich” lands is redistributed in favor of the “poor”, sometimes with infusions from the federal budget.

Formally, the federal state structure in Germany has two levels: the federation as a whole state and the states as members of this state. But in reality, there is also a "third", informal level of relations between the federation and the lands - "cooperative federalism"; that is, along with the horizontal self-coordination of the lands, the practice of vertical coordination along the federation-Land axis has developed: the participation of the federation in land financing. Within the framework of vertical coordination, commissions are created from representatives of the federation and the states.

The main problems of horizontal and vertical relations in Germany are related to the distribution of financial resources between rich and poor federal states and the implementation of the principle of "equivalence" of living conditions.

"Horizontal" alignment allows you to help underdeveloped regions by redistributing the income that the federation and the states receive jointly (corporate and income tax). This situation causes a lot of criticism, primarily from the liberals (FDP, O. Lambsdorf), who are in favor of reducing the "charitable" role of the state.

Politicians of other parties also agree with similar proposals. For example, the Prime Minister of Bavaria, Stoiber (CSU), calls for increased regionalization, and the Prime Minister of Baden-Württemberg, Teufel (CDU), calls for a reduction in the number of lands and an increase in legislative (legislative) terms.

Briefly, their ideas for reforming federalism can be formulated as follows:
Assignment to each level of its tax powers; the transition of all lands to the status of "solid financial units";
Reducing the "horizontal alignment" of land budgets;
Cancellation of mixed financing;
Reducing the legislative competence of the federation in favor of the lands by limiting the powers of the center to such areas as defense, law and order, human rights, foreign policy and “framework” regulation of environmental, economic and social policy issues;
Significant limitation of the Bundesrat's veto power. The general principles of administration in the Länder were removed from the topics of the bills requiring the mandatory approval of the Bundesrat.

The search for a more effective model of federalism is complicated in Germany by three factors: the aggravation of contradictions between poor and rich lands, the presence of competing projects of large political parties, and the needs of European federalism, which is forced to take into account both the experience of states with centralized government (England and France) and the experience of federations (Germany). )

Foreign policy

In foreign policy, the West-oriented German Chancellor K. Adenauer (1949-1963) acted in accordance with the slogan of the ideologist of South German liberalism K. von Rottek: "Freedom without unity is better than unity without freedom." German European Policy 1949-1963 how the relationship between ends and means is divided into two stages.

In its first phase (from 1949 to the mid-1950s), it was the means by which West Germany planned to rebuild its economy, create its own armed forces, and achieve recognition by world powers. Foreign policy was pursued for the sake of domestic.

At the second stage (from the mid-1950s to 1963), now domestic policy was carried out for the sake of foreign policy: Germany sought to become not just an independent, but also a strong state. European military policy of Germany in 1958-63. was based on rapprochement with France (Berlin-Paris axis) and the rejection of the plan of "multilateral nuclear forces" proposed by the United States. The signing of an agreement on German-French cooperation drew a line under the centuries-old confrontation between these states.

Adenauer recognized the international management of Ruhr industry established by the Petersberg Accords, considering this as the basis for future Western European integration. In 1950, Adenauer adopted the plan developed by R. Schuman to create the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). Adenauer also supported the idea of creating a European Defense Community (EDC) proposed by W. Churchill.

In 1952, the Bonn Treaty was signed, which abolished the occupation statute and granted the Federal Republic of Germany state sovereignty.

On May 5, 1955, the Paris Agreements came into force, the most important of which was the agreement on Germany's entry into NATO. However, at that time, Germany's sovereignty could not be called full-fledged: foreign troops remained on its territory, Germany was deprived of the right to possess many types of strategic weapons.

In 1959, a conference of four powers was held in Geneva: the USA, Great Britain, the USSR and France, which ended with the actual recognition of the existence of two German states: the FRG and the GDR.

One of the important priorities of Germany's foreign policy is to deepen the integration of the EU states. Germany plays a decisive role in the construction and organization of European structures. At the same time, from the very beginning, the goal was to dispel the post-war fear of the neighboring countries of Germany and to make redundant the restrictions imposed by the Soviet occupying forces. Since 1950, Germany has become a member of the Council of Europe, and in 1957 signed the Rome Agreements, which became the foundation for the creation of the European Union: Germany joined the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM).

So, the important results of the European policy of Germany in 1949-63. became: the recognition of Germany's sovereignty and its status as an important European partner and the beginning of the formation of the foundations of Germany's economic power.

Germany has been a member of the Group of Ten since 1964.

During the Cold War, Germany's foreign policy was severely limited. One of its main tasks was the reunification of West Germany with East Germany. Military-politically, Germany was closely connected with the NATO bloc. American nuclear warheads were stationed in West Germany.

Modern Germany is rightfully considered a nodal center both between East and West, and between the Scandinavian and Mediterranean regions, the countries of Central and Eastern Europe.

With the accession of the GDR to the FRG, the threat of using the GDR as a springboard for the deployment of foreign troops was eliminated, the risk of turning Germany into an object of the use of nuclear weapons, as well as the dangerous game of "third countries" on the contradictions between the GDR and the FRG, was eliminated.

Until recently, one of the most controversial was the question of the possibility of using the German armed forces outside the sphere of joint responsibility of NATO.

According to the constitution, Germany has no right to take part in wars of conquest. This limitation is the subject of ongoing controversy. Its armed forces stand to protect the sovereignty and integrity of Germany and the NATO countries.

Only recently has the Bundeswehr taken part in various activities aimed at maintaining peace. This became possible after the decision of the Constitutional Court, which allowed the use of the German Armed Forces for UN peacekeeping missions, and for each specific case, the consent of the Bundestag is required, which until now was given only with temporary restrictions. In this case, the use of weapons only for self-defense is allowed. All attempts by various parties to get the Constitutional Court to review this issue have so far been rejected. German troops took and are taking part in resolving the following conflict situations:
1992 - 1996: Operation SHARP GUARD using warships and reconnaissance aircraft in the Adriatic Sea against Yugoslavia;
1993 - 1995: UN Force Operation in Somalia UNOSOM II;
1999 - present: NATO war against Yugoslavia, operation KFOR;
2002 - present: NATO war in Afghanistan, operation ISAF;
2002 - present: Operation Enduring Freedom with the participation of the naval contingent in the coastal waters of East Africa and the Mediterranean Sea;
2003 - present: With AWACS reconnaissance aircraft, with the right to cross Iraqi airspace, but without the right of occupation.
2005 - present: Maintaining peace in Sudan as part of Operation UNMIS.
2006 - 2008: Participation in the armed mission of the EU to ensure elections in the Congo
2006 - present: Protection of the coastal waters of Lebanon in order to suppress the smuggling of weapons (as part of the UNIFIL mission)
2008 - present: Somali Coastal Patrol under Operation ATLANTA (Counter Piracy).

Administrative division

Germany is a state with a federal structure; consisting of 16 equal subjects - lands (Länder; see the lands of the Republic of Germany), three of them are cities (Berlin, Bremen and Hamburg).


1. Baden-Württemberg	Stuttgart
2. Free State of Bavaria	Munich
3. Berlin	Berlin
4. Brandenburg	Potsdam
5. Free Hanseatic City of Bremen	Bremen
6. Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg	Hamburg
7. Hesse	Wiesbaden
8. Mecklenburg - Vorpommern	Schwerin
9. Lower Saxony	Hanover
10. North Rhine-Westphalia	Dusseldorf
11. Rhineland-Palatinate	Mainz
12. Saarland	Saarbrücken
13. Free State of Saxony	Dresden
14. Saxony-Anhalt	Magdeburg
15. Schleswig-Holstein	Keel
16. Free State of Thuringia	Erfurt

Geography

The northern part of Germany is a low-lying plain formed during the ice age (North German Plain, the lowest point is the Neuendorf-Saxenbande in Wilstermarsh, 3.54 m below sea level). In the central part of the country, forested foothills adjoin the lowlands from the south, and the Alps begin to the south (the highest point in Germany is Mount Zugspitze, 2,968 meters).

Rivers and lakes

A large number of rivers flow through Germany, the largest of which are the Rhine, Danube, Elbe, Weser and Oder, the rivers are connected by canals, the most famous canal is the Kiel Canal, which connects the Baltic and North Seas. The Kiel Canal begins in the Bay of Kiel and ends at the mouth of the Elbe River. The largest lake in Germany is Lake Constance, with an area of 540 sq. km, and a depth of 250 meters.

The weather is often changeable. In the middle of summer it can be warm and sunny, but the very next day it can get cold and rainy. Truly extreme natural events (severe droughts, tornadoes, storms, severe frost or heat waves) are relatively rare. This is also due to the fact that Germany is located in a temperate climate zone. Over the past few years, Germany, as well as throughout Europe, has experienced several large-scale floods, but given the long history of Germany, these are rather rare natural phenomena. Many tend to see this as evidence of climate warming. In the summer of 2003, Germany was hit by a drought: the “summer of the century,” as the media dubbed it, was one of the hottest in decades. The consequences of the drought, among other things, were significant crop failures. Earthquakes with severe consequences in Germany have not occurred so far. This can be explained by the fact that Germany is located on the Eurasian plate. Since there are no boundaries between tectonic plates inside Germany, earthquakes are relatively rare. The average temperature in July is from +16 to +22 degrees Celsius. The average temperature in January is from +2 to -5 degrees Celsius. The average annual temperature is +5-+10 degrees Celsius.

topography of germany

Cities

The largest cities in Germany are Berlin, Hamburg, Munich and Cologne. The next most important is the fifth most populated city in Germany and the financial metropolis of Frankfurt am Main, Germany's largest airport. It is the third largest airport in Europe and the first in terms of revenue from air cargo. The Ruhr Basin is the region with the highest population density.

Economy

With a GDP of $2 trillion 811 billion (PPP), Germany was in fifth place in the world in 2009 (after the US, China, Japan and India). In addition, Germany occupies one of the leading places in the world in terms of export volumes. Exported products are known all over the world under the trademark Made in Germany. In terms of living standards, the country ranks 10th in the world, according to the Human Development Index.
The share of Germany in world GDP is 3.968%
The share of Germany in the GDP of the EU countries is almost 30%
GDP per capita - about 35 thousand dollars
State budget deficit for 2006 - 1.7%
Government spending in Germany is up to 50% of the country's GDP.
SMEs in Germany account for approximately 70% of jobs and 57% of GDP generated.
In general, industry accounts for 38% of GDP, 2% for agriculture, and 60% for services.
The shadow sector of the economy is approximately 15% of GDP

According to official According to data, in 2011 the average number of unemployed was 3.0 million (7% of the German working-age population).

Industry

Germany is an industrialized country. The main industries are mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, chemical, automotive and shipbuilding, coal mining.

Germany does not have large reserves of any minerals. A rare exception to this rule, which applies to the entire Central European region, is coal, both hard (Ruhr basin) and brown. Therefore, its economy is concentrated mainly on the industrial production and service sectors.

Germany is far from the last place in terms of volume and quality of watches and watch movements produced in the country. The center of the German watch industry is the small town of Glashütte. Most of the factories producing watches and mechanisms for them are concentrated here. Also an important link in the watch industry are manufacturers of interior clocks and mechanisms for them. The most famous of them: Hermle and Kieninger.

In Germany, the production of children's toys, goods and products for modeling is developed. The main companies in this industry are Auhagen GmbH, Gebr. Marklin & Cie. GmbH, Gebr. Fleischmann GmbH, PIKO Spielwaren GmbH.

Agriculture

Germany has highly productive agriculture. About 70% of the marketable output of agriculture comes from animal husbandry, the needs of which are largely subordinated to crop production: the area under fodder crops is much larger than under food crops. Large quantities of feed grains, especially maize, are imported.

Germany is a country of predominantly small family farms. In the period 1994-1997. the share of land plots of agricultural enterprises exceeding 50 hectares increased from 11.9 to 14.3%. Larger farms are located mainly in Schleswig-Holstein and in the east of Lower Saxony. Small farms predominate in Central and Southern Germany. At the same time, there was a sharp decline in the number of people employed in agriculture, from 24% of the total number of the economically active population in 1950 to 2.4% in 1997. income in other sectors of the economy.

In areas with high natural soil fertility, the main crops are wheat, barley, corn and sugar beets. The poorer soils of the North German lowlands and mid-altitude mountains are traditionally used for crops of rye, oats, potatoes and natural fodder crops. The traditional nature of German agriculture has been significantly altered by technological progress. Today, the so-called light soils are valued more because of their suitability for mechanical processing, using artificial fertilizers; for example, corn is now widely cultivated also in the North German Plain, where it is replacing the potato.

Of the total grain production in the European Union, Germany accounts for slightly more than 1/5, but it stands out mainly in the production of rye (3/4 of the harvest), oats (about 2/5) and barley (more than ¼). The areas of cultivation of sugar beet largely coincide with the areas of wheat crops.

Of the fodder grains, barley is the most important; some varieties of spring barley are grown specifically for use in the production of beer, which is considered the national drink in Germany (consumption per capita is about 145 liters per year). The world's largest hop-growing area Hallertau is located in Bavaria.

Of great importance is the cultivation of fodder root crops (fodder beets, etc.), corn for green fodder and silage, alfalfa, clover, and other fodder grasses. Of the oilseeds, rapeseed is the most important, the crops of which are more than 10 times higher than the crops of sunflower.

The warm climate of the river valleys, intermountain basins, and lowlands of southwestern Germany favors the cultivation of crops such as tobacco and vegetables; the latter are also grown in the area of the Elbe marches below Hamburg and in the Spreewald region south of Berlin. Fruit plantations are especially characteristic of the mountain slopes of southern Germany, the lower reaches of the Elbe near Hamburg, the region of the Havel lakes near Potsdam and the vicinity of Halle.

Viticulture is superior in marketable products to fruit and vegetable growing combined. Vineyards are located mainly in the valleys of the Rhine, Moselle and other rivers in southern Germany, as well as in the Elbe valley near Dresden.

The valleys of the Upper Rhine, Main, Neckar and Lower Elbe are famous for their gardens.

Cattle breeding is the main branch of animal husbandry in Germany, it provides more than 2/5 of all marketable agricultural products, with milk accounting for the bulk (about ¼). The second place in importance is occupied by pig breeding. The country's self-sufficiency in milk and beef systematically exceeds 100%, but in pork it is less than 4/5.

Dairy and meat cattle breeding is most typical for well-moisturized coastal, alpine and pre-alpine regions rich in meadows and pastures, as well as for the periphery of urban agglomerations. Due to the rather cold winters, stall keeping of livestock is common. Pig breeding is developed everywhere, but especially in areas close to ports of entry of imported feed, areas of cultivation of sugar beets, potatoes and fodder root crops. In the agro-industrial complex, agriculture plays a subordinate role. Slaughter of livestock is carried out by 95% at industrial slaughterhouses, milk processing - at dairies, which are usually included in the systems of either industrial and industrial and commercial concerns, or owned on shares by cooperative associations of the farmers themselves.

Broiler production, production of eggs, veal, as well as pig breeding are concentrated in large livestock farms, the location of which is little dependent on natural factors.

In terms of agricultural production, grain production and livestock production, Germany is second only to France, and in terms of milk production it ranks first within the EU. The efficiency of agricultural production in Germany is significantly higher than the EU average. At the same time, Germany lags behind in the average yield of corn and sugar beets.

The competence of state bodies in the field of agriculture includes: resolving issues of changing the agrarian structure, lending and financing of agriculture, and regulating agricultural markets. The German government is providing financial assistance in the complex process of adaptation and integration of East German agriculture into the European Community. Assistance is also being provided in the transformation of former agricultural cooperatives into competitive firms, which is already bearing fruit: many sole proprietorships have made significant profits, in particular due to large cultivated areas.

In addition to food production in Germany, agriculture performs additional tasks, the importance of which is constantly growing. This is the preservation and protection of the natural foundations of life, the protection of attractive landscapes for residential areas, resettlement, economic location and recreation, the supply of agricultural raw materials to industry.

Infrastructure industries

Transport

The basis of the transport system is made up of railways, carrying about 2 billion passengers a year. Their length is more than 39 thousand km. Some roads are adapted for the movement of high-speed Intercity-Express trains. At the beginning of 2003, 53 million cars (including passenger cars) were registered in Germany. Motor roads of all classes make up more than 230 thousand km, autobahns - about 12 thousand km. The German merchant fleet has 2,200 modern ships.

Energy

Germany is the world's fifth largest energy consumer. In 2002, Germany was Europe's largest consumer of electricity at 512.9 terawatt-hours. Government policy involves the conservation of non-renewable sources and the use of energy from renewable sources such as solar energy, wind energy, biomass, hydropower and geothermal energy. Energy-saving technologies are also being developed. The German government plans that by 2050, half of the electricity demand will be covered by energy from renewable sources.

As of 2009, the following types of energy carriers dominated the structure of electricity consumption in Germany: brown coal (24.6% of net electricity consumption), nuclear energy (22.6%), hard coal (18.3%), renewable energy sources ( 15.6%) and gas (12.9%). In 2000, the government and the German nuclear industry announced the decommissioning of all nuclear power plants by 2021. In 2010, the government abandoned the previous cabinet's plans to shut down the country's nuclear power plants until 2021 and decided to extend the operation of nuclear power plants until the 2030s.

Population

The Federal Republic of Germany is only slightly larger in area than neighboring Poland, but twice as large in population. As of January 1, 2009, 82,002,356 inhabitants live in Germany.

As in many developed countries of the world, the birth rate in Germany is below the replacement level. Since 1972, the birth rate in Germany has been lower than the death rate. In 2008, 8 people were born per 1,000 inhabitants and 10 died.
Annual population growth for 2007 - 0.12%
Annual population growth for 2008 - -0.2%

The rural population is less than 10%, almost 90% of the German population lives in cities and urban areas adjacent to them.

The population of large cities (as of 2008): Berlin - 3424.7 thousand people; Hamburg - 1773.2 thousand people; Munich - 1315.4 thousand people; Cologne - 1000.3 thousand people; Frankfurt am Main - 670.6 thousand people

Immigration

In recent years, the number of immigrants has been growing rapidly. The number of immigrants from India, Syria, Egypt, Libya, Jordan, Israel, Brazil, Ukraine, Belarus, Congo, South Africa and other African and Maghreb countries, Indonesia, Malaysia, North Korea, Serbia, Mongolia is increasing. At the same time, the Germans themselves are migrating to Australia and Canada. Thus, the ratio of indigenous people to migrants has changed dramatically over the past decades. The proportion of immigrants from the traditional is large (the second largest ethnic group).

Population structure

The overwhelming majority are Germans (92%). Lusatian Serbs (60,000) live in the lands of Brandenburg and Saxony, and Danes (50,000) live in the northern regions of Schleswig-Holstein. There are 6.75 million foreign citizens in the country, of which 1.749 million are Turks, 930 thousand are citizens of the republics of the former Yugoslavia, 187.5 thousand are citizens of the Russian Federation and 129 thousand are citizens of Ukraine.

Since 1988, 2.2 million migrants of German origin and 220,000 contingent refugees (including members of their families) have arrived in Germany from the post-Soviet states for permanent residence, thus making up one of the largest Russian diasporas in the world.

The Muslim population in Germany is between 3.2 and 3.5 million, although this figure is sometimes disputed. According to some other data, 4.3 million Muslims live permanently in Germany, of which approximately 63.2 percent are of Turkish origin.

Languages

The official literary and business language is German. Along with this, the population uses Low, Middle and High German dialects (10 main and more than 50 local), which are also spoken by residents of the border regions of neighboring states; the dialects themselves are often very different from the literary language. There are mixed dialects. The recognized minority languages include Danish, Frisian and Lusatian, as well as the regional language Low Saxon (Low German), which has been recognized by the EU since 1994.

According to estimates, about 6 million people in Germany speak Russian to some extent, including more than 3 million immigrants from the countries of the former USSR (and their descendants), mainly from Kazakhstan, Russia and Ukraine. Also in Germany they speak Turkish (2.1 million), the languages of the peoples of the former Yugoslavia (720,000), Italian (612,000). Migrants who do not speak German often find themselves in an information vacuum and/or become dependent on sources of information.

Religion and worldview

Freedom of conscience and freedom of religion are guaranteed by the German constitution.

The majority of Germans are Christians, while Catholics make up 32.4%, Lutherans - 32.0%, Orthodox - 1.14%. A small part of believers belong to Christian denominations - Baptists, Methodists, believers of the New Apostolic Church - 0.46% and adherents of other religious movements.

Part of the believers are Muslims (from 3.8 million to 4.3 million or from 4.5% to 5.2%), Jehovah's Witnesses (about 164,000 or 0.2%) and members of the Jewish communities (about 100,000 or 0.12 %). About 31% of the German population, mainly in the territory of the former GDR, are atheists (70% there).

Germany was converted to Christianity during the time of the Franks. The Baptist of Germany is considered to be Saint Boniface, who was the Bishop of Mainz and converted a significant part of modern Germany to Christianity (he suffered martyrdom from the pagans in 754). At the beginning of the 16th century, the Church Reformation began in Germany and Switzerland, based on the teachings of Ulrich Zwingli and Martin Luther. As a result of the Reformation and the religious wars that accompanied it (the main of which was the Thirty Years' War of 1618-1648), Germany was divided into Catholic and Protestant (Lutheran) regions. The main principle enshrined in the Augsburg Religious Peace (1555) was the principle of “cuius regio euius religio” (“whose power, that is the faith”), that is, the subjects of one or another feudal lord were obliged to accept his faith: Catholic or Protestant.

Holidays

Many holidays have a long history based on ancient rites and religious holidays. A number of holidays are reflected in the calendars as a holiday and therefore a non-working day. All-German holidays include: New Year (January 1); Day of the Three Kings (Magi, in the Orthodox tradition) (January 6); Labor Day (May 1); German Unity Day (October 3); St. Nicholas Day (December 6, see Nikolaustag); Christmas (December 25-26). In addition, each land and administrative unit with appropriate powers can also celebrate a local memorial day. These include Oktoberfest (Munich), Christkindlmarkt (Nuremberg), Rosenmontag (Düsseldorf, Cologne, Mainz, Nuremberg).

Trade unions in Germany

Among the European models of social partnership, one of the most successful and stable is the German one.

The formation of a social partnership system in Germany dates back to the end of the 19th century. An important role in Germany is played by the traditions of interaction between social partners, the experience of conflict-free problem solving, and high civic consciousness. By the middle of the 20th century, a system was developed that included unemployment insurance, government measures to promote employment, a negotiating mechanism between trade unions and employers' unions (tariff autonomy), and the like.

The "German" model provides for the conclusion of a large number of industry agreements, which practically neutralizes negotiations at the enterprise level. According to the Basic Law "The Federal Republic of Germany is a democratic and social state" and through the adoption of relevant laws, the state largely determines the framework conditions in the field of social and labor relations.

So, the State contributes to the creation of the necessary conditions for resolving conflicts, and legally extends collective agreements to "non-unified" employees.

Labor legislation in Germany is also at a high level of development. One of the features of German trade unions is that there is no primary trade union organization at German enterprises, but there is a representative of the trade union. He is a member of the works council of the enterprise. The production council of the enterprise establishes contacts between the administration and trade unions. In relations between employers and employees, these councils have no right to take sides. They cannot organize strikes, and are called upon to defend the interests of the company as a whole. There are such works councils in all sectors of the economy.

In Germany, 85% of all workers who are members of some trade union are members of the German Trade Union Association (DGB).

The Association of German Trade Unions is the largest (6.6 million members) and influential trade union organization in Germany, created back in 1949.

The association of German trade unions represents the interests of workers in the private and public sector, employees and officials. It consists of eight branch trade unions:
Industrial Union "Construction-Agriculture-Ecology" (IG Bauen-Agrar-Umwelt);
Industrial Trade Union "Mining, Chemical Industry, Energy" (IG Bergbau, Chemie, Energy);
Trade Union "Education and Science" (Gewerkschaft Erziehung und Wissenschaft);
Industrial Union "IG Metall" (IG Metall);
Trade Union "Food-Delicatessen-Restaurants" (Gewerkschaft Nahrung-Genuss-Gaststätten);
Police Union (Gewerkschaft der Polizei);
Trade Union of Railway Workers TRANSNET
United Service Workers Union (Verdi)

In its program, the Association of German Trade Unions adheres to the idea of social solidarity, that is, it advocates a fair distribution of jobs and incomes, social subsidies, benefits, the development of accumulation funds, the fight against unemployment, equal chances for success regardless of origin, skin color and gender - the share of women in the SNP - 31.9%.

In the economy, the SNPs support the concept of a socially oriented market economy that meets the interests of established social structures.

The UNP is a member of the European Trade Union Confederation, the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, the Advisory Committee to the OECD and represents the German trade union movement in the EU, UN, IMF, WTO and ILO.

Their slogan is "Save the welfare state through reform." Other priorities include the development of infrastructure and public sector utilities, maintaining a high quality of life. A special role in this, according to the UNP, belongs to the state: active state intervention serves as a guarantor of social order and justice.

The UNP opposes general privatization and deregulation and calls for a redistribution of responsibility for regulating markets between trade unions and the state. It is necessary to limit privatization so that citizens do not pay for the state's mistakes related to the sale of highly profitable business areas to private hands.

The public sector must also address environmental issues and set the norm in the economic and social spheres.

Particular emphasis is placed on the role of local self-government in public life as a form of citizen participation in politics. Creating an affordable housing market that takes into account the opportunities of people with low incomes is one of the main tasks of the state "social construction".

Key tasks of social policy:
Job Opportunity Guarantee
Prevention of poverty and related social exclusion
Integration of disabled people, prevention of their social and professional exclusion
development of affordable health care, family support, school education.
protection of the elderly, development of a system of social insurance funds (accumulation funds), increase in social payments (increase in federal pension subsidies), benefits, accumulation funds, fight against unemployment.

German Bureau of Officials and Tariff Union (DBB)
(Federal Chairman - Peter Hazen)

“Proximity is our strength,” says the German Confederation of Officials. The DBB represents the tariff-political interests of public sector and private sector employees. The trade union has more than 1.25 million members. This trade union is supported by 39 other trade unions and 16 state organizations.

The title of the union's recent program is "Challenging the Future - Creating Opportunities". The DBB says it puts "People First" and calls for a fight against job cuts. The trade union position itself as an association of reformers. “Reforms are not through cost savings… First of all, the rights of the people. Every individual matters." The DBB, like the UNP, advocates equal opportunities for all, especially in matters of gender equality (for example, the DBB has 320,000 women and 150,000 youth aged 16-27).

The DBB expresses its concern about the emerging deficit of public funding.

In 2003, the DBB Congress of the Union in Leipzig presented the program "Reformist model of the 21st century". It contains proposals for a long-term, citizen-friendly reconstruction of public administration.

DBB proposes a "new career model":
According to education and experience, everyone can take a proper post.
Flexible working hours
Reform of labor legislation on wages and working hours
Against slogans like "we will increase working hours, we will refuse public holidays"
Preservation of jobs for workers and employees
Protection of the income of the population in accordance with the economic situation in the country
Extending the working conditions of the West German states to the East German ones (high wages, social guarantees, fixed working week, etc.)
Organization of the work of employees in accordance with the job law that contributes to the success and productivity of labor
Performance related pay
Autonomy in negotiating wage increases and comprehensive labor contracts nationwide
High performance and humane management of recruited employees.

The union works closely with the EU on labor law issues. In 1991 DBB participated in the creation of the European Trade Union Confederation (8 million members).

German Christian Trade Union Association

This trade union represents the interests of religious workers and officials. The German Christian Trade Union Association (CGB) is the third largest trade union association in Germany. Under his leadership are 16 separate tariff negotiators in a wide variety of industries such as railways, hospitality or agriculture. The CGB advocates for the extension of Christian values to working life. In its program, the CGB emphasizes that the CGB is a voluntary association of independent trade unions. The main priorities of the CGB:
Implementation of Christian social values in work, economy, public life and society
Protection of socially vulnerable segments of the population, public unity.
Freedom of association/union in accordance with the Basic Law (workers can choose any representative to protect their interests)
Promoting trade union pluralism in Europe and Germany
Human rights and freedoms are the main value of the rule of law, against all types of extremism

The trade union also advocates the development of a social market economy model that combines the advantages of a competitive economy with social responsibility. The CGB encourages the development of social partnership between employees and employers. Personal performance is the basis for fair job evaluation. Particular attention should be paid to people with limited working capacity.

As far as Christian values are concerned, Sunday should remain a day of rest as an important foundation for the Christian way of life.

The CGB advocates minimal government intervention in tariff autonomy. The task of a Christian-social tariff policy is to ensure a fair participation in social production for workers.

The family is the basis of society, it is necessary to intensify social policy to support the institution of the family.

Preservation and creation of jobs determine the tariff policy of the CGB. The CGB excludes political strikes as a means of defending the interests of workers, and advocates for the rights of workers to participate in the management of the enterprise and for a fair tax system "burdening all social groups according to their ability to pay."

The expansion of the European Community poses great challenges to Germany, primarily in economic and social policy. The CGB stands for the equalization of the living conditions of all EU countries, taking into account the characteristics of the Member States.

United Trade Union of Service Workers

It has over 2 million members. Employee representation was brought to life in 2001 by the merger of five separate trade unions from the economic sectors: financial services, municipal services, logistics, trade and media. Consists of 13 industry divisions and extensive network organizations.

The system of social protection of the population

The model of social protection that existed in Germany (called “corporate”, “continental”, “conservative” or “Bismarckian”) is considered one of the most effective among European countries. Germany was the first country to introduce a social security system. Back in the 1890s, under Bismarck, three laws were adopted that formed the basis of this system: the law on insurance for the sickness of persons in commercial work, the law on insurance against industrial accidents, and the law on disability and old-age insurance (1891).

At the beginning of the 20th century, the development of social insurance led to a reduction in the retirement age to 65 with 35 years of insurance experience. Early retirement pension (from the age of 60) was assigned to miners with many years of work experience.

The modern model of social protection in Germany was formed under the influence of the changes that took place in the country in the 50-60s of the XX century, and changed as a result of the coming to power of each new party.

The concept of the social market economy was developed to rebuild the German economy after World War II. Its political implementation is associated with the personalities of L. Erhard and A. Müller-Armak. The term "social market economy" was introduced by Müller-Armac. L. Erhard was the first Minister of Economics, and then became the Federal Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany. Under his leadership, the concept of a social market economy was developed and then implemented in Germany. The social task of the state was not the redistribution of social benefits, but the provision of framework conditions for the activities of individuals, encouraging their consciousness, independence and responsibility for their own well-being. The result of the implementation of these principles was an "economic miracle". According to L. Erhard, the state should provide social assistance in accordance with the moral principles of society (the most vulnerable and low-income segments of the population - the disabled, orphans, large families, pensioners), but support competition and fight dependency. After the resignation of Chancellor L. Erhard, Keynesian methods of economic stimulation were given priority in domestic policy; the state assumed the role of distributor of the national income.

During the rapid economic growth, due to a shortage of workers, guest workers from southeastern Europe were allowed to enter the country. In the mid-1970s, about 4 million people lived in the country (11% of the workforce). This was the reason for the increase in state social spending, which, after the oil crises, became a heavy burden on the state treasury. The state took measures to restrict immigration, which provoked an increase in taxes. Layoff protection and tariff autonomy laws were passed to restore economic stability. This led to the fact that only three major players remained on the market: the state, trade unions and employers. This weakened competition and made it possible for trade unions to demand higher wages, a reduction in the working week, etc. Another feature of this period can be the desire of the state to redistribute income not vertically (to reduce the differentiation of society), but horizontally (within the middle class).

The modern model of social protection in Germany has the main characteristics: the principle of professional solidarity, the principle of redistribution, the principle of assistance and the principle of self-government of insurance institutions.

The principle of professional solidarity

Insurance funds are being created, managed on an equal footing by employees and employers. These funds receive deductions from salaries in accordance with the “principle of insurance”. The system establishes a strong link between the level of social protection and the success and duration of employment. This model assumes the development of a system of social insurance benefits differentiated by types of labor activity. In contrast to the social-democratic model, the corporate model is based on the principle of personal responsibility of each member of society for their own destiny and the position of their loved ones. Therefore, here self-defense, self-sufficiency play a significant role.

The principle of redistribution

This principle applies to a small part of the low-income strata of society. Social assistance is provided regardless of previous contributions and is financed from tax revenues to the state budget. The right to receive such assistance belongs to persons who have special merits before the state, for example, civil servants or victims of war.

Assistance principle

This principle is an indispensable element of the social protection system, since the previous principles do not take into account all insurance risks. According to the principle of assistance, social assistance can be received by anyone in need of the amount necessary for him, if he does not have the opportunity to improve his financial situation on his own.

The principle of self-government of insurance institutions

The management of the social insurance system is carried out directly by interested persons-employers and employees, which ensures the most complete representation of the interests of both parties. There are three main actors involved in social protection at the regional and local levels: national or local business associations, trade unions and the state. It is interesting to note that the German social protection system is characterized by the division of institutions providing social insurance by areas of competence: organizations for pensions, sickness and accidents at work operate separately. Unemployment insurance is not included in the general system of social protection, but falls within the competence of the federal department for labor, that is, it is carried out within the framework of the policy of promoting employment of the population. The financing of the compulsory social insurance system (in addition to it, there is private, of course) is carried out according to a mixed system: from the contributions of insured workers and their employers (medical, pension and unemployment insurance) and from general tax revenues to the state budget. A special position is occupied only by accident insurance, which is financed by contributions from the employer. In the event of financial difficulties for social insurance bodies, the state acts as a guarantor of the fulfillment of their obligations, which indicates the special role of social protection bodies in maintaining stability and social justice.

At the present stage of history, the former model of socio-economic development of Germany is in crisis. The tax burden reaches 80% of the income of the population, there is a high level of unemployment, which is chronic, the distribution of income is inefficient and non-transparent, the quality of public services does not meet the requirements of the time. Due to the aging of the population (its growth in 2000 was only 0.29%), social security spending is steadily increasing. The high level of benefits for the unemployed generates dependency in society. Against the backdrop of falling economic growth rates, unemployment has become an acute problem in Germany (at the beginning of 2002, more than 4 million unemployed people were registered).

Large companies, skillfully using loopholes in the legislation to reduce taxes, often seek privileges for themselves. In the pension sector, the policy of the "contract of generations" was unofficially proclaimed, when pension contributions are made from the income of the working population. Given the aging of the German population, the tax burden is increasing sharply, and there are not enough funds for payments from the pension fund. Problems arise in relation to those segments of the population that do not have a permanent job and, accordingly, are not entitled to receive insurance benefits, while the level of state assistance is extremely low. Therefore, these categories are forced to rely on local charitable organizations and public assistance. Accordingly, the corporate model of social policy leads to the emergence of a "dual society".

culture

The culture of Germany includes the culture of both the modern Federal Republic of Germany and the peoples that make up modern Germany, before its unification: Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, etc. A broader interpretation of "German culture" also includes the culture of Austria, which is politically independent of Germany, but inhabited by Germans and belongs to the same culture. German (Germanic) culture has been known since the 5th century. BC e.

Modern Germany is characterized by diversity and wide dissemination of culture. There is no centralization of cultural life and cultural values in one or several cities - they are dispersed literally throughout the country: along with the famous Berlin, Munich, Weimar, Dresden or Cologne, there are many small, not so widely known, but culturally significant places: Rothenburg Obder -Tauber, Naumburg, Bayreuth, Celle, Wittenberg, Schleswig, etc. In 1999 there were 4570 museums, and their number is growing. They receive almost 100 million visits per year. The most famous museums are the Dresden Art Gallery, the Old and New Pinakotheks in Munich, the Deutsches Museum in Munich, the Historical Museum in Berlin and many others. There are also many palace museums (the most famous is Sanssouci in Potsdam) and castle museums.

Sport

Germany is a state where physical culture and sports have been widely developed on the basis of the sports traditions of the German nation. According to the German Olympic Sports Confederation (DOSB), in 2009, about 25-30% of the German population (24-27 million people) were members of various sports organizations. Every year the number of people involved in sports in the country increases by 5-6%. The German national football team is one of the strongest teams in the world. The Germans have 11 world championship medals: 3 gold, 4 silver, 4 bronze; 7 medals of the European championships: 3 gold, 1 silver, 3 bronze. The German national football team is one of the most successful national teams in the history of international tournaments. One of the most successful and famous Formula 1 drivers, seven-time world champion Michael Schumacher is German.

Education in Germany

Preschool education in Germany

Pre-school education is provided by institutions (mainly kindergartens (German: Kindergärten)), which work with children aged 3-6 until they usually start school. Children who have not reached the level appropriate for their age or are behind in development have the opportunity to catch up in preschool classes (German: Vorklassen) and kindergartens at schools (German: Schulkindergärten).

These institutions adjoin either the pre-school sector or the primary education sector, depending on the rules of the individual Länder. Attendance is usually optional, although in most Länder it is the responsibility of the authorities to make schooling compulsory for children of the appropriate age who are retarded.

The transition from primary education to one of the types of junior secondary, where pupils study before they have completed the entire course of compulsory education, depends on the legislation of individual states. The recommendations of the school in which the child studied is a kind of guideline in determining further professional orientation. This is agreed with the parents. The final decision, in principle, is made by the parents, but for certain types of schools it also depends on the student's abilities in the area in which the school specializes, where the parents want to send the child, and / or on the decision made by the school management.

School education

School education in Germany is free and universal. A 9 year education is required. In general, the school education system is designed for 12-13 years. To date, there are about 50 thousand schools in Germany, in which more than 12.5 million students study. The school system is divided into three levels: primary, secondary I and secondary II.

All children who have reached the age of six begin their education in primary school (Grundschule). Education in primary school lasts four years (four classes), the load is from 20 to 30 hours a week. In 2008, there were approximately 3 million students in primary school.

Secondary education

Education of the second stage (secondary I) continues until the 10th grade.

After elementary school, children are divided, mainly by ability, into three different groups.

The weakest students are sent for further education in the so-called "main school" (German: Hauptschule), where they study for 5 years. The main goal of this school is to prepare for low-skilled professional activities. This is where basic education comes in. The average workload is 30-33 hours per week. After graduating from the main school, a young German can start working or continue his studies in the vocational education system. Students with average results go to a "real school" (German: Realschule) and study there for 6 years. After graduating from a real school, you can get a job, and the most capable can continue their education in the 11th and 12th grades of the gymnasium.

In the gymnasium, the student receives a classical education. After graduating from the gymnasium, a matriculation certificate is given, giving the right to enter the university.

Secondary education of the second stage (secondary II) is carried out only in the gymnasium in the 11th and 12th grades. Students in the thirteenth grade of the gymnasium are considered applicants. In the thirteenth grade of the gymnasium, students are preparing to study at higher educational institutions. At the end of the thirteenth grade of the gymnasium, students take exams in basic school subjects (German: Abitur). The level of education in the 12th and 13th grades and the level of final exams in the gymnasium is very high and, according to the UNESCO ISCED International Classification of Education Standards, corresponds to the level of 1-2 courses of higher educational institutions of countries with a ten-year or eleven-year school education system (for example, Russia). The average score of all entrance exams is the most important criterion for obtaining a place to study at a higher education institution. There are no entrance exams to higher educational institutions in Germany. Admission is carried out in accordance with the average mark in the certificate, as well as taking into account some social factors. If there are more applicants for study at a higher educational institution than there are places, then the best ones are accepted, and the rest are enrolled in the queue; they can get a place to study next year.

Secondary education in Germany is represented by vocational schools, special vocational schools and higher specialized schools.

Germany is subject to constant criticism from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development for its education policy. The government has not yet taken measures to eliminate the identified problems in the education system. According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Germany's spending on education is below average. At the same time, there is an imbalance in the financing of educational institutions. While the cost of primary school is relatively low, a lot of money is invested in higher education institutions. According to experts, Germany may suffer losses in the future if educational reform is not carried out.

Higher education

The German system of higher education is characterized by a variety of types of universities. In total, there are 383 universities in Germany, of which 103 are universities and 176 universities of applied sciences. Getting the first higher education in almost all universities until recently was free for both Germans and foreigners. Since 2007, students of some universities are required to pay approximately 500 euros per semester plus the regular fee (which has existed for much longer and everywhere), about 150 euros, which includes a ticket, use of libraries, etc. [source not specified 865 days] In the Western federal states under the control of the CDU party, students who exceed the prescribed study period by several semesters are usually required to pay tuition fees. These reforms in the education system are regulated by the relevant law. The number of students is almost 2 million, of which 48% are women, 250,000 are foreign students. The teaching staff is about 110 thousand people. Approximately 69,000 Germans study abroad. Until 2010, in the course of the Bologna process, German universities must restructure their curricula according to a new model.

A significant number of universities are state-owned and are subsidized by the government. There are relatively few private universities - 69.

When entering a university, entrance exams are not provided, and the most important thing for an applicant is to successfully pass the final exams at a school or gymnasium. When enrolling in prestigious specialties, the average score of the applicant's school certificate is of decisive importance.

The distribution of places for prestigious specialties at universities is not carried out by universities, but by a special department - "Zentralstelle für die Vergabe von Studienplätzen". In addition to the average score, ZVS also takes into account social and personal reasons, such as disability, marital status, etc. If the average score is insufficient, then the applicant is put on a waiting list. After several semesters of waiting, he is granted a place at the university.

Those wishing to study at institutes (Fachhochschule) apply directly there. There is also a selection based on certificates.

Parents of all students under the age of 25 in Germany are entitled to receive so-called "children's money" (Kindergeld) in the amount of 184 euros. Students, taking into account their own income and the income of their parents, can receive a student loan (“BaFöG”). Half of this loan must then be returned to the state.

In addition to the usual scholarship, in Germany there are many scholarships assigned by various foundations - there are party foundations and the German People's Foundation, foundations of churches, state governments, departments of the German government, as well as small regional organizations. Scholarships are usually designed for a certain category of students, for example, especially gifted ones. Scholarships are available for both German students and students from other countries. The main organization issuing scholarships for foreigners is the German Academic Exchange Service. The following major foundations: the Konrad Adenauer Stiftung Foundation, the Friedrich Erbert Stiftung Foundation, the NaFög (Each Lands Foundation) grant scholarships only for writing a Dissertation (Promotionsstudium).

The science

Scientific research in Germany is carried out in universities and scientific associations, as well as in corporate research centers. Scientific research at universities is financed from the federal budget, from the state budget and from funds allocated by enterprises. 9.2 billion euros are spent annually on research at universities.

Scientific research in Germany is also carried out by four large scientific associations: the Max Planck Society, the Helmholtz Society, the Fraunhofer Society and the Leibniz Society.

The Max Planck Society has about 13 thousand employees, including 5 thousand scientists, the annual budget of the society is 1.4 billion euros.
The Helmholtz Society has about 26.5 thousand employees, including 8 thousand scientists, the annual budget is 2.35 billion euros.
The Fraunhofer Society has about 12.5 thousand employees, the budget is 1.2 billion euros.
The Leibniz Society has 13,700 employees and a budget of 1.1 billion euros.

Large German and foreign companies also maintain research centers in Germany.

media

Newspapers and magazines

The German newspaper market is characterized by a small number of national newspapers and a well-developed local press. The reason for this development of the press market was that the modern German media landscape is rooted in the post-war years, when the Western allies, having closed all the media that existed in Nazi Germany, began to create their own media system, naturally focusing on the development of media within their own occupation zones. That is why there are relatively few nationwide newspapers in Germany, and most of them appeared after 1949, that is, after the formal occupation status of West Germany ended and the FRG was created. Conventionally, the German press can be divided into three categories:
national newspapers (distributed throughout Germany);
supra-regional newspapers (überregionale Zeitungen) - distributed in more than one region, but not throughout the country;
local press - newspapers of one region, one district, city, and so on.

Separately, it must be emphasized that many small local newspapers are included in the “publishing chains”: since a small newspaper with a circulation of several hundred or thousands of copies, of course, cannot afford to buy good photographs, send a correspondent on business trips, or subscribe to news feeds , she enters into an associated relationship with a certain publishing concern. This concern provides dozens of local newspapers with unified content - articles on domestic and foreign policy, sports reviews, etc., leaving only local news at the discretion of the editors. In this way, the local newspaper survives economically and readers can continue to buy the newspaper they are used to. Meanwhile, in this case, of course, we cannot talk about an independent publication, and German media researchers prefer to talk about "editorial publications" (German: redaktionelle Ausgabe) and "journalistic units" (German: publizistische Einheit).

National dailies:
Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, FAZ (Frankfurt General Newspaper) is a liberal-conservative and the most widely read newspaper in Germany, to the left than "Welt", but to the right than "taz". Published in Frankfurt am Main. Circulation: 387,064 copies.
"Süddeutsche Zeitung", SZ (South German newspaper) - a serious newspaper, left, closer to the "FAZ", a liberal direction, published in Munich. / Concern Süddeutscher Verlag /. Despite its name, it is a national newspaper. Circulation: 444,000 copies.
The Frankfurter Rundschau (Frankfurt Review) is a newspaper close to the Social Democrats. Circulation: 150,000 copies.
Die Welt (Peace) is a right-wing, most conservative newspaper owned by the largest German publishing concern Springer-Verlag, which specializes in the production of mass periodicals. Circulation: 264,273 copies.
"Bild" (Picture) - tabloid newspaper, the most popular "yellow" newspaper, the flagship of the Springer-Verlag publishing house, the most circulated newspaper in Germany. Unlike all other national newspapers, the vast majority of Bild's circulation is retail, not subscription. Circulation: 3,445,000 copies.
Handelsblatt (Trade Newspaper) is Germany's leading financial newspaper. Published since 1946. Circulation: 148,000 copies.
Financial Times Deutschland (Financial Times Germany) is a financial and political newspaper that has been published since 2000. Circulation: 100,000 copies.
Die Tageszeitung (Daily) is a far-left, independent of concerns and political forces, founded in 1978 as a mouthpiece for the radical left movement. Today it has rather a left-liberal orientation. In addition to the Berlin edition, there are several regional editions. Known for her provocative, anti-war and anti-nationalist articles. Circulation: 60,000 copies. Published in Berlin.
"Junge Welt" (Young World) is a small-circulation left-wing newspaper. It was created as the mouthpiece of the youth organization of the GDR, the Union of Free German Youth. Circulation: below 20,000 copies.
"Express" Tale newspaper: Cologne-Bonn /M. DuMont & Schauberg Verlag/.

Supra-regional dailies:
The Westdeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung, WAZ (West German General Newspaper) is a conservative publication distributed in North Rhine-Westphalia and Rhineland-Palatinate, the parent newspaper of the WAZ-Gruppe publishing group.
Neues Deutschland (New Germany) is the former mouthpiece of the SED, the ruling party of the GDR. Today, she is close to her successor, the Left Party. Popular mainly in the eastern lands. Circulation: 45,000 copies.

Other German daily newspapers:
"Sächsische Zeitung" (Saxon newspaper) - the largest newspaper in East Germany, with an editorial office in Dresden, the flagship publication of the newspaper group Sächsische Zeitung
"Berliner Zeitung" (Berlin newspaper)
"Tagesspiegel" (Mirror of the day)
"Stuttgarter Zeitung" (Stuttgart newspaper)

etc.

Weekly socio-political magazines:
"Der Spiegel" (The Mirror) left-wing weekly, criticism, analysis - Hamburg / Bertelsmann AG concern /
"Focus" (Focus) left-wing weekly, Munich / Hubert Burda Media concern
"Stern" (Star)

Weekly Newspapers:
Die Zeit (Time) is the most influential liberal weekly newspaper. Circulation: 480.000 copies
Freitag (Friday) is a small-circulation newspaper that finds its readers among the left-wing intellectuals. Circulation: 13.000 copies.
"Junge Freiheit" (Young Freedom) is a small-circulation newspaper of a national conservative orientation. Circulation: 16,000 copies (according to own instructions).

Russian-language newspapers and magazines:
Russian-language press of Germany - Library online.
Review of the "Russian" press of Germany (Article).
"We are in Hamburg." The main content of the editorial part is articles on the history of Hamburg and its famous people, museums, the Hanseatic traditions of the metropolis on the Elbe, economic and other aspects of life in the districts of modern Hamburg, and the cities of Northern Germany. Distributed for free. Circulation 10,000 copies.

Also in Germany, local versions of international magazines such as Cosmopolitan, Glamour, Maxim, Newsweek, Businessweek, etc. are published.

Television and radio

Today, the system of German audiovisual media is called the "dual" system. This means that there are only two forms of media ownership in Germany:
a) public-legal form of ownership;
b) private ownership.

The public-legal form of ownership dates back to the post-war period, when, as part of the denazification policy, all the media that existed in Nazi Germany were closed by the Western allies, and the press and radio, completely controlled by the occupying military authorities, were created to ensure information broadcasting. Between 1945 and 1949 the radio stations established by the Allies were gradually transferred to the management of German personnel, but the question arose before the occupying authorities how these companies should be managed. The Allies immediately rejected the idea of transferring the media to the hands of the German state (the government of the FRG, as well as the local governments of the federal states are still forbidden to have any media), but the idea of transferring radio stations to private hands was also rejected (despite the fact that newspapers, created by the allies were transferred to private editors). As the main form of ownership, the allies chose the public-legal form of ownership.

This form of ownership is typical for the British BBC and means that the company is not owned by either private persons or the state, but is in the "community ownership". The strategic management of the company is carried out by a special supervisory board, formed from representatives of major parties, significant public organizations, churches, trade unions, etc., which should ensure the most balanced program policy. The Supervisory Board appoints a management board, which is engaged in "tactical planning" of the company's actions and appoints an intendant - the general director of the company, who directly manages the company. Such a complex management system, borrowed from the same BBC, was also designed to ensure the democratic development of the German media. The first public law company in West Germany was NWDR (Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk), broadcasting in the British occupation zone and created by the Englishman Hugh Carlton Green, a BBC employee who later received the post of BBC CEO. Also, the public-legal form of ownership was chosen by the Americans and the French - for their occupation zones.

Broadcasting

Public law broadcasting remained the only broadcast in Germany until the late 1980s, when legislation was amended to allow the creation of private radio and television companies. Private companies subsist by advertising and producing their own films and shows, which they can sell to third parties. Public law companies can only place a limited amount of advertising in their broadcasts (in particular, advertising on public legal channels is completely prohibited on weekends and holidays, and on weekdays - prohibited after 8 pm), but they receive the so-called. "subscription fee" (Gebühren) from all German citizens who have a TV or radio at home. The subscription fee for a TV station is about 17 euros per month, for a radio receiver - about 9 euros per month. All Germans who have a TV or radio are required to pay a subscription fee, regardless of whether they watch broadcasts of public legal channels - this causes fierce discussions in German society. The largest public law company in Germany and the largest television and radio company in Europe is the public law television and radio company ARD (Arbeitsgemeinschaft der öffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunkanstalten der Bundesrepublik Deutschland - the Commonwealth of Public Law Television and Radio Companies of the Federal Republic of Germany).

Within the framework of ARD, the first German television channel is broadcast: ARD Das Erste, about a dozen local television channels produced respectively by members of the community, local public broadcasters and radio broadcasters, as well as over fifty local radio programs.

The members of the ARD are (in alphabetical order):
Bayerischer Rundfunk (BR)
Hessischer Rundfunk (HR)
Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk (MDR)
Norddeutscher Rundfunk (NDR)
Radio Berlin-Brandenburg (RBB)
Radio Bremen (RB)
Südwestfunk (SWR)
Saarländischer Rundfunk (SR)
Westdeutscher Rundfunk (WDR)

ARD also broadcasts radio and television Deutsche Welle - Deutsche Welle. Deutsche Welle performs the functions of foreign broadcasting, therefore, for its creation, ARD receives a separate budget, subsidized by the federal government. Deutsche Welle is presented on television (DW-TV) and radio (DW-Radio), as well as on the DW-WORLD Internet. Broadcasting is carried out in 30 languages. Radio programs and a website are published in Russian.

The second public television channel in Germany is ZDF - Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen (Second German Television), headquartered in Mainz. The history of the creation of the ZDF goes back to the 1950s, when Federal Chancellor Konrad Adenauer tried to bring the media under state control. One of the directions of the federal government's offensive against the media was an attempt to create a state second channel. Faced with serious opposition from both the ARD functionaries, who did not want to tolerate state competitors, and the governments of the federal states, who did not want to strengthen the federal center, Adenauer tried to realize his project until the early 1960s, when in 1962 the verdict of the federal constitutional court recognized the very possibility of creating a state-owned television was illegal and banned the federal center from any attempts to create such media. As an alternative, a second, also public-legal channel, ZDF, was created, which differed from ARD in that ARD was a decentralized structure, a commonwealth of many local companies, and ZDF was originally created as a vertically organized, centralized project.

The following private channels also broadcast in Germany:

RTL, RTL2, Super RTL, Sat1, Pro7, Kabel1, VOX, Eurosport, DSF, MTV, VIVA, VIVA PLUS

news channels: n-tv, N24, EuroNews

other German TV channels:
KinderKanal (KiKa) is a joint project of ARD and ZDF
Phoenix (a political information channel, almost all of whose content is made up of live broadcasts from political events, lengthy speeches by politicians, etc.)
ARTE (French-German cultural and information channel, created on the German side with the participation of ARD and ZDF)
3Sat is a joint German-language channel broadcasting in the territories of Germany, Austria and Switzerland.
R1 - Russian-language channel. broadcasting Russian programs.

Military establishment

On November 10, 2004, German Defense Minister Peter Struck announced plans to reform the armed forces, according to which the number of military personnel and civilians employed in servicing parts of the Bundeswehr will be reduced by a third (35 thousand military personnel and 49 thousand civilians will be fired), and 105 permanent military garrisons on German territory will be disbanded.

Along with the reduction, reforms will be carried out in the system of recruiting the army and the basic principles of its application.

On July 1, 2011, the mandatory military conscription into the German army was discontinued. Thus, the Bundeswehr moved to a fully professional army.

The reform of the principles of the use of the army means the reduction of the Bundeswehr's strongholds from a total of 600 to 400. First of all, this will affect the bases of the ground forces in the country. The Ministry of Defense sees no point in keeping heavily armed units within German borders. Since the whole world is now considered the area of possible operations of the Bundeswehr, it was decided that it would be more correct to maintain military bases outside of Germany, on the territory of NATO countries in Eastern Europe, where the main NATO strike groups will soon be relocated.

At the same time, the terminology is changing - it is supposed to place here not “military bases”, but “rapid deployment strongholds” and “security cooperation zones”, that is, bridgeheads that will become the basis for “rapid deployment of armed forces against terrorists and hostile states”.

Germany is one of the most active NATO countries, providing the military-political alliance during all peacekeeping operations (Afghanistan, Serbia, Macedonia, Kosovo, Somalia, and so on) with a significant proportion of personnel. German troops were also part of the UN multinational force in Central and West Africa.

Since 2000, the foreign operations of the Bundeswehr annually cost the country's budget about 1.5 billion euros.

In the course of the reform, by 2010, German troops will be divided into 3 types:
rapid reaction forces (55 thousand people), which are intended for combat operations anywhere in the world;
peacekeeping contingent (90 thousand);
base forces (170 thousand), stationed in Germany and consisting of command and control units, logistics and support services.

Another 10,000 servicemen will make up an emergency reserve stock under the direct control of the Chief Inspector of the Bundeswehr. Each of the three corps will include units of the ground, air force, naval forces, joint support forces and medical and sanitary service.

In connection with the above, heavy armored vehicles and artillery systems will no longer be purchased for the armament of the army. This is due to the increased mobility requirements for the rapid reaction forces. At the same time, Germany will buy 180 Eurofighter Typhoon multi-role combat aircraft.

Portal for the student. Self-training

Antiquity

prehistoric period

Germans in antiquity

Great Migration

Middle Ages

Frankish state

The beginning of German statehood

Germany - the birthplace of the Reformation

Rise of Prussia

Creation of a single state

Germany during the Napoleonic Wars

United Germany (1871-1945)

German Empire (1871-1918)

Third Reich

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Federal Republic of Germany

Country Education

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Story

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German "hidden" federalism

Stages of reforming the federal system

Foreign policy

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Geography

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Transport

Energy

Population

Immigration

Population structure

Languages

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Trade unions in Germany

The system of social protection of the population

culture

Sport

Education in Germany

Preschool education in Germany

School education

Secondary education

Higher education

The science

media

Newspapers and magazines

Television and radio

Broadcasting

Military establishment

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