The words act as the building blocks of language. To convey thoughts, we use sentences that consist of combinations of words. In order to be linked into combinations and sentences, many words change their form.
The section of linguistics that studies the forms of words, types of phrases and sentences is called grammar.
Grammar has two parts: morphology and syntax.
Morphology- a section of grammar that studies the word and its change.
Syntax- a section of grammar that studies word combinations and sentences.
Thus, word is an object of study in lexicology and grammar. Lexicology is more interested in the lexical meaning of the word - its correlation with certain phenomena of reality, that is, when defining a concept, we try to find its distinctive feature.
Grammar, on the other hand, studies the word from the point of view of generalizing its features and properties. If the difference between words is important for vocabulary house and smoke, table and chair, then for grammar, all these four words are absolutely the same: they form the same forms of cases and numbers, have the same grammatical meanings.
Grammatical meaning e is a characteristic of a word from the point of view of belonging to a certain part of speech, the most general meaning inherent in a number of words, independent of their real material content.
For example, words smoke and house have different lexical meanings: house- this is a residential building, as well as (collected) people living in it; smoke- aerosol formed by products of incomplete combustion of substances (materials). And the grammatical meanings of these words are the same: noun, common noun, inanimate, masculine, II declension, each of these words can be determined by an adjective, change by cases and numbers, act as a member of a sentence.
Grammatical meanings are characteristic not only of words, but also of larger grammatical units: phrases, components of a complex sentence.
Material expression of grammatical meaning is an grammatical tool. Most often, grammatical meaning is expressed in affixes. It can be expressed with the help of function words, alternation of sounds, changes in the place of stress and word order, intonation.
Each grammatical meaning finds its expression in the corresponding grammatical form.
Grammatical forms words can be simple (synthetic) and complex (analytical).
Simple (synthetic) grammatical form involves the expression of lexical and grammatical meaning in the same word, within a word (consists of one word): was reading- the verb is in the past tense.
When the grammatical meaning is expressed outside the lexeme, complex (analytical) form(combination of a significant word with an official): I will read, let's read! In Russian, the analytical forms include the form of the future tense from imperfective verbs: I will write.
Individual grammatical meanings are combined into systems. For example, singular and plural values are combined into a system of number values. In such cases, we are talking about grammatical category numbers. Thus, we can talk about the grammatical category of tense, the grammatical category of gender, the grammatical category of mood, the grammatical category of aspect, etc.
Each grammatical category has a number of grammatical forms. The set of all possible forms of a given word is called the paradigm of the word. For example, the paradigm of nouns usually consists of 12 forms, for adjectives - of 24.
The paradigm is:
universal– all forms (full);
incomplete- there are no forms;
private according to a certain grammatical category: declension paradigm, mood paradigm.
Lexical and grammatical meanings are in interaction: a change in the lexical meaning of a word leads to a change in both its grammatical meaning and form. For example, the adjective voiced in the phrase ringing voice is qualitative (has forms of degrees of comparison: voiced, louder, most voiced). It's the same adjective in the phrase media is a relative adjective (voiced, i.e. formed with the participation of the voice). In this case, this adjective has no degrees of comparison.
And vice versa grammatical meaning some words may directly depend on their lexical meaning. For example, the verb run away in the meaning of "move quickly" is used only as an imperfective verb: He ran for quite some time until he collapsed completely exhausted. The lexical meaning (“to escape”) also determines another grammatical meaning - the meaning of the perfect form: The prisoner escaped from prison.
Do you have any questions? Want to know more about the grammatical meaning of a word?
To get the help of a tutor - register.
The first lesson is free!
site, with full or partial copying of the material, a link to the source is required.
The most important and basic for grammar is the concept of grammatical meaning (in other words, grammes).
grammatical meaning- a generalized, abstract meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic constructions and having its own regular and standard expression in the language. It can be said in another way - this is a formally expressed value.
In morphology, this is the meaning of objectivity, indicativeness, procedurality, indicativeness, etc. (that is, general categorical meanings inherent in certain parts of speech), as well as more specific meanings of words and word forms, such as, for example, the meanings of tense, person, number, gender, case, etc.
In syntax, this is the meaning of predicativity, subject, object, qualifier, adverbial, semantics of theme-rhematic relations in a simple sentence and relations between predicative units in a complex sentence.
Unlike lexical meaning, grammatical meaning is characterized by the following features:
1) the highest degree of abstraction. For word grammar house, city, closet- just items the words at home, city, closet, seventh, reading, his- are united by the same meaning of R.p., which is not related to the lexical meaning of these words. If the lexical meaning is individual for each word, then the GZ is common for entire groups and classes of words.
2) The CG is not necessarily correlated with an extralinguistic referent. Many GCs are only of a linguistic nature. For example, nouns lake, body of water have different generic meanings, although they are similar in lexical terms. The optional connection of the GP with the extralinguistic referent is evidenced by the fact that the GP of words that have the same referents do not always correspond in different languages. For example: Ukrainian - dah ( chol.r.) - Russian. roof(female); Ukrainian - language(zh.r.) - Russian. - language(m.r.), etc.; The same situation can be described in different ways: student reading a book(GZ activity) – The book is read by the student(GZ of passivity).
3) GC is characterized by the regularity of its expression. Each CG has a limited set of ways to express it. For example, the meaning of the perfect form of a single action is expressed by the suffix - -well- (knock, shout), the value of D.p. nouns are expressed with the ending -y (table), -e(spring), -and (rye), i.e. different morphemes. In contrast to the lexical meaning, which is relatively free, i.e. it can be chosen by the speaker at his discretion, the grammatical meaning is not chosen, it is given by the grammatical system if any word is chosen (for example, snowstorm from a synonymous series), then it should be framed as a masculine noun. with the help of appropriate endings, i.e. his GP of the kind must be objectified in a certain way. GCs are given by the language system.
4) PPs are characterized by binding. This feature is related to the previous one, i.e. with regularity.
GZ are those without which it is impossible to use a certain class of words. For example, a noun cannot be used without the GZ of gender, number, case. The obligatory nature of the PG expression is a universal, language-independent criterion for determining grammatical phenomena.
In the GP system, knowledge about objects and phenomena of reality, their connections and relationships is objectified - through a system of concepts: for example, the concept of action (in the broad sense - as a procedural feature) is abstractly revealed in the general meaning of the verb and in the system of more particular categorical meanings inherent in the verb (time, type, pledge, etc.); the concept of quantity - in the GZ of number (category of number, numeral as a special part of speech, etc.); various relations of objects to other objects, actions, properties - in the PG system, expressed by case forms and prepositions.
There are referential (non-syntactic) CGs that reflect the properties of objects and phenomena of extralinguistic reality, for example, quantitative, spatial, temporal values, tools or a producer of an action, and relational (syntactic) CGs that indicate the connection of word forms in phrases and sentences (connective, adversative meanings allied constructions) or on the connection of bases with the composition of compound words (connective, derivational meanings). A special place is occupied by PGs that reflect the speaker's attitude to what is being discussed or to the interlocutor: subjective modality, subjective assessment, politeness, ease, etc.
It is necessary, of course, to distinguish between lexical and grammatical meanings, but one cannot assume that there is an abyss between them. In the same language, the same meaning can be conveyed both lexically and grammatically (the perfect aspect can be conveyed with the help of a formative prefix, the imperfect aspect - with the help of a suffix, suffix exchange, etc.; or in a suppletive way: take - take, catch - catch, i.e. lexically); temporary value can be expressed lexically ( I'm going home yesterday and I think... I was going home). In the lexical expression of the CG, we have syntagmatic convenience, because we use one word with an undivided expression of the lexical and CG (there is a simplification, shortening of the text, i.e., language economy), but at the same time there is a paradigmatic inconvenience, because the number of language code units increases. With grammatical expression, the opposite is true.
Before talking about GC, it is necessary to define grammatical form (GF). GF– in the broad sense of the word, this is a sign in which a generalized, abstract GZ finds its regular (standard) expression.
A specific word in its specific morphological form is called a word form. So, for example, the same morphological form of I.p. plural nouns are represented in Russian by different word forms ( tables, windows, walls...). All forms of the modified word constitute its paradigm.
GC- this is a system of opposed rows of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. (GK of the tense of the verb combines - the form of the present tense (GZ of the present tense) + the form of the past tense (GZ of the past tense) + the form of the future tense (GZ of the future tense). degrees of comparison, verbs - aspect, voice, mood, tense, person The number of opposed members within the CC is different: the category of gender - three rows of word forms, the category of number - two rows of word forms, the category of case - six rows of word forms.
GC is characterized by two features:
1) opposition to the GC;
2) has a formal expression. The presence or absence of a formal expression is the main criterion for distinguishing between grammatical and conceptual categories. For example, the conceptual category of gender is inherent in all speakers, regardless of what language they communicate in: everyone distinguishes between male and female. Such a division is based on non-linguistic reality, therefore the conceptual categories are universal, international. In contrast to the conceptual category of gender, the grammatical category of gender exists only in those languages where it has a formal expression (Slavic, Baltic, German, Romance) - special endings (or articles). And for example, in English, Turkic languages there are no such indicators, therefore, there is no such category as gender.
GCs are not immutable. In the process of historical development, the language may lose or acquire the Civil Code, or change its structure. For example, the GC of time in the Old Russian language consisted of 3 members (singular, dual, plural), and in modern Russian it consisted of two members (singular and plural).
All GCs can be divided into morphological and syntactic. Morphological categories include gender, number, case, species, tense, mood, person. The boundaries of the use of the concept of GC in the syntax have not yet been fully defined. Obviously, this can include the category of communicative orientation (narrative, interrogative, incentive), the category of activity and passivity, the category of affirmativeness and negativity, the category of syntactic tense and syntactic mood, which form the paradigm of the sentence.
Classification - these are those whose members cannot be represented by forms of the same word. For example, number, case, tense, mood, person, degree of comparison are inflectional categories (i.e., those whose members can be represented by different forms of the same word, within its paradigm); gender in adjectives is an inflectional category, and in nouns it is non-inflective (i.e. classificatory), because nouns do not change by gender.
It is necessary to distinguish lexico-grammatical categories (categories) from grammatical categories. These are such groupings of words that are characterized by the similarity of lexical meaning and at the same time have certain features in the formation of forms and in the expression of morphological categorical meanings. These categories of words are distinguished within one or another part of speech and are directly related to a certain grammatical category or categories. So, among nouns, categories of proper and common nouns are distinguished; abstract, real, collective, specific, and these oppositions are associated with the features of the expression of the category of number. Among the names of adjectives, categories of qualitative and relative are distinguished, of which qualitative adjectives have a specific category of degree of comparison, form short forms and have a number of other features. In a verb, aspectual categories (modes of verbal action) are directly related to the category of aspect and the expression of aspect pairs, the categories of reflexive verbs - with the category of voice, the category of impersonal verbs - with the category of person; all of them have features from the point of view of the verbal paradigm. The categories of quantitative and ordinal numbers, semantic categories of pronouns, categories of qualitative and circumstantial adverbs also have their own grammatical features.
The morphological description of each of the significant parts of speech includes consideration of its lexical and grammatical categories, morphological categories and paradigmatics (inflections). Service parts of speech and interjections are characterized in terms of their functions and structure.
The word is one of the basic units of grammar. The word combines its sound matter and its meanings - lexical and grammatical.
Grammatical meaning -a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms and syntactic constructions, which finds its regular (standard) expression in the language, for example, the meaning of the case of nouns, tense of the verb, etc.
The grammatical meaning is opposed to the lexical meaning, which is devoid of a regular (standard) expression and does not necessarily have an abstract character.
Criteria for distinguishing between lexical and grammatical meanings:
2. LZ is individual for each word (is this always true?), while GL is typical for a whole group of words with different LZ, for example, noun singulars.
3. LZ remains the same in all forms of the word, GP changes in different forms of the word.
4. When the LZ changes, new words are formed, and when the GZ changes, new forms of words are formed.
A characteristic feature of grammatical meaning is also recognized standard, regularity of the way of expression. In most cases, the meanings traditionally referred to as grammatical are indeed directly expressed using fairly regular and standard means of expression.
Grammatical forms and grammatical categories. Grammatical form– this is a form of a word in which the grammatical meaning finds its regular (standard) expression. Within the grammatical form, the means of expressing grammatical meanings are special grammatical indicators (formal indicators).
Grammar category– a system of opposed rows of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. A necessary feature of a grammatical category is the unity of meaning and its expression in the system of grammatical forms as bilateral linguistic units.
The concept of grammatical category is closely related to the concept of grammatical meaning. In this regard, any grammatical category is a union of two or more grammatical meanings. On the other hand, it is known that each grammatical meaning has its own way of expression or grammatical form (or a number of forms).
a) inflectional - appear in the process of forming the forms of a given word (for example, case and number of Russian nouns, gender and number of French adjectives, mood and tense of the verb);
b) classification categories are inherent in the given word in all its forms and refer it to the class of similar words.
The members of the classification categories are represented by different words, for example, the category of the gender of nouns in Russian 'stol' is masculine, 'desk' is feminine, 'window' is middle. genus.
33. Means of expressing grammatical meanings.
I. Synthetics
1. Affixation consists in using affixes to express grammatical meaning: books-y; read-l-and; mäktäp-lär. Affixes are auxiliary morphemes.
2. Supletivism. Suppletivism is understood as the expression of grammatical meaning by a word with a different stem: I go - walked (GZ past tense), man - people (GZ pl.), we - us (GZ R. or V.p), I - me, good - best.
Words with different roots are combined into one grammatical pair. LZ they have one and the same, and the difference serves to express the GZ.
3. Reduplication(repetition) consists in the complete or partial repetition of parts of a word to express grammatical meaning. Yes, in Malay orang-' Human' , orange-orange -'people' .
4. Alternation(internal inflection) is a use. sound changes. root composition to express grammatical meaning: ‘avoid – avoid’; ‘to collect – to collect’; ‘sing-sang’.
II. Analytical tools -
GCs get their expression outside the main word, often in other words.
1. Service words can use for express.GZ: I will read (bud. time), I would read (conventional inclination).
We went to a cafe (V.p.). - We went from a cafe (R.p.).
2. Word order.The house (I.p.) covered the forest (V.p.). - The forest (I.p.) blocked the house (V.p.).
It is especially important, for example, for isolating languages.
The material means of expressing grammatical meaning is not always segmental, i.e. consisting of a chain (linear sequence) of phonemes. It can be supersegmented, i.e. can be superimposed on a segment chain.
3. Emphasis: hands (I. and V. p. pl.) - hands (R. p. singular).
4. Intonation:You will go! - You will go?
So, in the adjectives of the Russian language, we distinguish three forms: ‘ big-big-big’. They express the meanings of masculine, feminine and neuter. This gives us reason to assert that the grammatical category of gender is characteristic of the adjectives of the Russian language.
The grammatical meaning (content plan) and the formal indicator of this meaning (expression plan) form a grammatical sign - a grammatical form, a gramme. grammeme– component of a grammatical category, which in its meaning is a specific concept in relation to the grammatical category as a generic concept.
A gramme can have multiple meanings.
The gramme of the plural of nouns in Russian has the following meanings: set ‘ tables’, ‘trees’; varieties ‘ oils’, ‘wine’; a large number of ' snow', 'sands'.
The languages of the world differ in the number and composition of grammatical categories. Each language is characterized by its own set of grammatical categories, grammes, and grammatical ways of expressing grammatical meaning. When comparing the grammatical structure of languages, one should take into account
the following criteria:
The presence / absence of the corresponding grammatical category;
The number of grammes of the grammatical category;
Ways of expressing the grammatical meanings of a given grammatical category;
The digits of words with which this grammatical category is associated
34. Methods of linguistics
General scientific methods.
Humanity is accumulating research techniques that help to reveal the hidden specificity of the object. Methods of scientific research are being formed.
Method- the way and way of knowing the object, depending on the properties of the object, aspect and purpose of the study.
In linguistics, there are:
common methods- generalized sets of theoretical attitudes, language research methods associated with a certain linguistic theory and methodology,
private- separate techniques, methods, operations - technical means of studying a certain aspect of the language.
Each method is based on the knowledge of objects and phenomena of objective reality, based on the properties of realities, but nevertheless it is a mental formation, one of the most important categories of subjective dialectics.
General scientific methods include observation, experiment, induction, analysis, synthesis.
Observation carried out in natural conditions on the basis of sensory perception of the objects of study. Observation concerns only the external side of phenomena, its results may be random and not reliable enough.
Experiment makes it possible to repeatedly reproduce observations in the process of deliberate and strictly controlled influences of the researcher on the object under study.
Induction and deduction are intellectual methods of cognition. Induction is a generalization of the results of individual private observations. The data obtained as a result of the experiment are systematized, and a certain empirical law is derived.
Under analysis refers to the mental or experimental division of an object into its constituent parts or the separation of the properties of an object for studying them separately. This is the basis for the knowledge of the general through the individual. Synthesis- a mental or experimental connection of the constituent parts of an object and its properties and the study of it as a whole. Analysis and synthesis are connected, mutually conditioned.
Private methods of linguistics.
Comparative historical method- the scientific method, with the help of which, by means of comparison, the general and particular in historical phenomena are revealed, knowledge of the various historical stages of development of the same phenomenon or two different coexisting phenomena is achieved;
The comparative historical method is a set of techniques that make it possible to prove the relationship of certain languages and restore the most ancient facts of their history. The method was created in the 19th century, its founders are F.Bopp, J.Grimm, R.Rask, A.Kh.Vostokov.
Descriptive Method- a system of research techniques used to characterize the phenomena of a language at a given stage of its development; it is a method of synchronous analysis.
comparative method– research and description of a language through its systematic comparison with another language in order to clarify its specificity. The method is aimed primarily at identifying differences between the two compared languages and is therefore also called contrastive. Underlies contrastive linguistics.
In modern linguistics, considerable attention is paid to the study of linguistic phenomena. statistical methods of mathematics.
Grammatical meaning and grammatical form of the word
MORPHOLOGY AS A SECTION OF GRAMMAR
Subject of morphology
Morphology and syntax are two sections of grammar, the subject of which is the grammatical meaning and the forms of expression of this meaning. If at the level of syntax the forms of expression of grammatical meaning are a phrase and a sentence, then at the level of morphology - word forms, i.e., individual forms of a particular word (table, table, table etc.).
Morphology studies words in their grammatical forms and functions, the rules for changing words, determines the range of correlative grammatical meanings that make up one or another grammatical category.
Morphology also includes the doctrine of parts of speech - the largest grammatical classes of words.
Thus, the subject of morphology is the grammatical classes of words (parts of speech), their grammatical categories, systems of word forms and the rules for their inflection.
Grammatical meaning and grammatical form of the word
The grammatical meaning accompanies the lexical meaning of the word. If the lexical meaning correlates the sound shell of the word with the reality (object, phenomenon, sign, action, etc.), then the grammatical meaning forms a specific form of the word (word form), which is necessary mainly to link this word with other words in the text.
The lexical meaning of a word is concrete and individual, while the grammatical meaning is abstract and generalized. Yes, the words mountain, wall, hole denote different objects and have different lexical meanings; but from the point of view of grammar, they are included in the same category of words that have the same set of grammatical meanings: objectivity, nominative case, singular, feminine, inanimate.
An indicator of lexical meaning in a word is the basis of the word, and for grammatical meaning - special indicators: ending (window- about, handsome- th, rast- ut), formative suffix, prefix (a game- l, bel- her, with-make), stress (neg e zat- cut a t), phoneme alternation (sl ag at- sl oh it), official word (I will play, about coat) and etc.
Usually a particular word form has several grammatical meanings. Yes, word form strong has the meaning of the nominative case, singular, feminine, and I read- the meaning of the first person, singular, imperfective form, indicative mood, present tense, etc.
Grammatical meanings are divided into general and particular. The general grammatical (categorical) meaning characterizes the largest grammatical classes of words - parts of speech (objectivity - for a noun, an attribute of an object - for an adjective, action as a process - for a verb, etc.). Private grammatical meaning is characteristic of individual forms of words (meanings of number, case, person, mood, time, etc.).
The general grammatical meaning of a word is made up of a set of particular grammatical meanings. For example, the meaning of the objectivity of a noun is made up of particular grammatical meanings of gender, number, and case. In other words, if a word has gender, number, and case meanings independent of the words combined with it, then the meaning of objectivity is inherent in it, and, therefore, it belongs to the class of nouns.
The carrier of grammatical meaning at the word level is a single form of the word - word form. The set of all word forms of the same word is called paradigm. The paradigm of a word, depending on its grammatical characteristics, can consist of both one word form (adverb rashly), and from several word forms (the noun paradigm house consists of 12 word forms).
The term grammar is used in two senses.
1) Grammar as a set of means, methods and rules for constructing phrases and sentences;
2) Grammar - the doctrine of these means, methods, rules with which you can create phrases, sentences in a particular language.
Grammar in the first sense is synonymous with the concept of the grammatical structure of a language.
Grammar consists of several aspects:
1. Word formation (derivatology) - deals with the study of the formation of new words according to existing models in the language, the structure of derivative words that obey strictly defined rules. Word formation occupies an intermediate position between vocabulary and grammar.
2. Morphology - studies the laws of changing words as parts of speech, as well as the categories inherent in a particular part of speech.
3. Syntax (translated from Greek as "military formation") explores various types of word combinations, relationships between words in a phrase and a sentence, and finally, the sentence as a whole, various types and types of sentences.
2. Word form and its grammatical meaning
The subject of study of grammar, as well as vocabulary, is the word.
But lexicology studies the lexical word - the lexeme, and grammar studies the grammatical word - the form of the word, the word form.
A word form is a grammatical modification of the same word - a lexeme. This means that word forms have different grammatical, but the same lexical meaning (sing, sing, sing; cat, cat, cat). Different lexemes can have the same grammatical meaning, but their own lexical meaning. So, the words window, tree, lake have the same grammatical meaning (they express the objectivity and meaning of the neuter gender of a noun).
Lexical and grammatical meanings are thus the two main types of meanings inherent in a language.
3. On the position of grammar in the language system
The interaction of grammar with vocabulary can be shown by the following example. What can express a thought expressed in such a series of words: we, feel, soldier, hurt, for, alive, Tanya, and, what, threaten, danger. In this example, it is difficult to even guess what the words together mean. Meanwhile, in M. Gorky's story "26 and One" we read: "We felt that the soldier was hurt and that Tanya was in danger." Therefore, in order to express a thought, it is necessary not only to understand the semantics of individual words, but also to understand what connections they enter into in the very process of expressing a thought. Our thought, as it were, is clothed in a certain form, which turns out to be closely connected with it. Grammar, by establishing grammatical relations between words, does not mechanically combine them. It is not indifferent to those real semantic connections that exist between words in a given language. Not every word can be combined by grammar with any other word of a given language.
A strong word is a true indestructible word, while a strong word is an abusive bad word.
Grammar is also related to phonetics. Any way of expressing a grammatical meaning (which we will discuss below) is denounced by a material shell in the form of a sound or a letter.
Or a more specific example: houses - houses. Stress acts as the main distinguishing feature of the grammatical meaning of words. The house has the following grammatical characteristics that form the grammatical meaning of the word: masculine noun, in the genitive case, in the singular). And houses with an accent on the second syllable - a plural noun in the nominative or accusative case.
4. On the differences between lexical meaning and grammatical
From a lexical point of view, the word table is understood primarily as a word that has a certain lexical meaning. From the standpoint of grammar, the word table is a masculine noun in the nominative case in the singular, that is, as having certain grammatical characteristics, the totality of which forms the grammatical meaning of this word form.
One of the most important differences between grammatical meaning and lexical meaning is that grammatical meaning correlates with logical concepts, but does not correlate with objects of reality. So the word "tree" in its lexical meaning is not only associated with a logical idea of an object related to flora, but also with a certain tree that the speaker has in mind. Otherwise, grammatically. The same word tree as a noun is comprehended by us primarily in its categorical meaning of objectivity in the broadest sense, unlike, for example, the meaning of quality (which is typical for an adjective), or the meaning of action and state (which is typical for verbs).
5. Ways of expressing grammatical meaning
1. Flexion. So in the phrase book of Peter, the connection between words is achieved with the help of the ending a.
2. Functional words (prepositions, conjunctions, particles, articles auxiliary verbs) went to the brother
the leg of the table
Le livere de Pierre (French)
3. Word order acts as a typical way of expressing grammatical meaning in those languages in which there is no inflection (or there are few of them) and the word in the direct and indirect cases retains the same form. For example:
The man killed a tiger.
The tiger killed the man.
Word order plays a similar role in French.
4. Emphasis. For example: Hands-hands, legs-legs, cities - city, houses - houses. In these examples, the grammatical category of number and case is conveyed by stress.
5. Intonation. Depending on how we say students are attentive with the intonation of the statement or students are attentive with the intonation of the question, the sentence, its meaning, its grammatical design also changes. Therefore, an important category of the question is conveyed here with the help of intonation.
6. Suppletivism is a combination into one grammatical pair of heterogeneous or heterogeneous words:
a) when forming degrees of comparison of adjectives: good - better, bad - worse, gut - besser, bon - meilleur.
b) when forming personal pronouns: I - me, ich - mich, I - me.
7. Reduplication (repetitions, doublings) - when there is a complete or partial doubling of the base, for example:
a) to denote the plural in Indonesian orang (person) - orang - orang (people);
b) to form the superlative degree of an adjective in Chinese: hao (good) - hao-hao (very good, excellent).
6. Synthetic and analytical forms
Different ways of expressing grammatical meaning can be divided into two groups:
1. Ways of expressing grammatical meaning, when lexical meaning and grammatical meaning are expressed, as it were, together, in one and the same word, within a word. form synthetic forms, for example, read Lies!
2. Ways of expressing grammatical meaning, when the grammatical meaning is expressed outside the lexeme, form forms analytical. These forms are a combination of a significant word with a function (preposition, particle, auxiliary verbs). For example, Let's Read!
In Russian, the form of the future tense from imperfective verbs belongs to the number of analytical forms: I will write. However, the lexical meaning of the word will be preserved in such an expression as "I will be a teacher."
Analytical are those constructions of the German language where auxiliary or modal verbs are used: Perfekt, Futurum, Passiv. Analytical is the form of expressing belonging with the help of the preposition von: Die Bucher von meinen Freunden.
7. Inflections and word formations
The formation of the form of the same word is inflection. Inflection must be distinguished from word formation. When inflection changes the form of the same word, a new word is not formed. When word formation with the help of affixes (suffixes and prefixes), new words are formed: teach - teacher. The totality of all forms of words (word forms) forms a paradigm when changed. If a word has a complete system of word forms, then the word is said to have a complete paradigm. If the word is not represented by all forms, then this is a partial paradigm. Most of the words in the Russian language have a complete paradigm, but there are also words with a partial paradigm: dreams, win, vacuum.
8. The concept of a grammatical category
A grammatical category is a grammatical meaning of a generalized nature, inherent in words or combinations of words in a sentence and, at the same time, abstracted from the specific meanings of the words themselves.
The generalized nature of the grammatical category is manifested in the fact that a wide variety of words are “summed up” under the category of the singular: nouns bread, wheel, book, man, adjectives big, strong, reasonable, verbs I do, I build, I write.
A wide variety of words also fall under the masculine category: nouns bread, pencil, house, mind, adjectives big, strong, joyful, beautiful, verbs did, built, wrote.
In Russian, a noun is characterized by the grammatical categories of number, gender and case, and the verb - by number, tense, aspect, mood, pledge, person, gender.
Grammatical categories cannot exist on their own, outside of certain groupings of words. These groupings usually act as parts of speech.
9. Genus category
The category of grammatical gender is common in many languages of the world, although there are languages in which the category of grammatical gender is absent (Finnish, Armenian).
The problem of the category of gender is complicated by the fact that the grammatical category of gender, even in the languages in which it is expressed, very often does not coincide across languages.
So in Russian noun. spoon - feminine, in German - der Loffel. In Russian watch - masculine, in German and French feminine - die Wache, la sentinelle.
There are languages \u200b\u200bthat have a common gender, examples from the Russian language - an orphan, quiet, bore, crybaby, gourmet.
For living beings, the ways of differentiation within the grammatical category of gender in different languages are very diverse:
1) with the help of special endings: guest - guest, spouse, or special suffixes: actor - actress, bear - bear;
2) using different words (heteronymy): father-mother, brother-sister, German. Vater-Mutter, French pere - mere.
3) With the help of special auxiliary words, for example. ein mannlicher Adler - eagle, ein weiblicher Adler - eagle, eng. he goat - goat, she goat - goat.
4) With the help of only contextual clarification: whale, squirrel, monkey, magpie, shark, hippopotamus (both males and females).
The category of gender is usually transparent in cases where the gender of a noun of the type man - woman, bull - cow, rooster - chicken is analyzed. In these cases, the category of grammatical gender is based on the biological gender of animate nouns. But the problem of grammatical gender becomes more complicated when modern languages analyze inanimate names or try to comprehend the nature of the neuter gender. The content of inanimate nouns now does not need any generic characteristic, but grammatically this characteristic is necessary for a name in many languages. In language, due to the very great stability of the grammatical form and its abstractness, such a conflict can persist for a very long time, because the speaker usually does not notice it.
10. Number category
The number category is transparent. Man has long distinguished between one object and many objects, and this distinction could not but find its expression in language. At the same time, the category of number can be called universal. Its universality lies in the fact that it covers not only nouns and adjectives, but also pronouns and verbs.
The category of number interacts with a certain lexical meaning of those words through which it is expressed. Take, for example, nouns that have a collective meaning, that is, when a lot of some objects are thought of as a single whole (game, greenery, foliage, linen). These nouns usually do not form plurals. Consequently, the grammatical category of number, as if rising above individual names and uniting them, is at the same time not indifferent to the semantics of these words.
11. Case category
A case is a form of a name that expresses the relationship of a given name to other words in a phrase or sentence. The case is a unity of form and meaning.
Compared to all other cases, the nominative seems to be freer, more independent. It is also called independent (Peshkovsky), zero (Kartsevsky), a case devoid of special features (Jakobson). The function of the nominative case is primarily nominative, while the function of oblique cases is to express relationships between words.
Case is a morphological category. Therefore, only in those languages in which there are forms of inflection (such as the Russian table, table, table) and cases can exist.
If the case system in a particular language is not developed, then the language completely manages without it, using other methods to express grammatical relations (prepositions, word order, and so on, see the previous lecture).
12. Parts of speech and sentence members
Parts of speech are lexico-grammatical groups of words that differ from each other: a) by a certain meaning, b) by certain morphological and syntactic features, c) by certain grammatical categories, d) by syntactic functions as part of a phrase and sentence. In inflectional languages, parts of speech also differ in the types of form formation and word formation.
The proportion of the features listed above that distinguish one part of speech from another is not the same in different languages.
In Russian, morphological features of parts of speech are of decisive importance and are usually identified very simply and clearly. Silk and silk are clearly distinguished as both a noun and an adjective. It turns out otherwise in a language like English, in which the morphological distinction between nouns and adjectives is not presented as clearly as in Russian. Silk - "silk" is a noun, but in the phrase silk dress - "silk dress" it already acts as an adjective.
Parts of speech in one language are characterized by internal heterogeneity. This is how independent (significant) parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, numerals) and service parts (prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns) are distinguished.
Being lexico-grammatical groups or categories of words, parts of speech should be comprehended on the basis of a number of criteria in their interaction and interconnection. These are the lexical, morphological and syntactic criteria.
Syntax associates parts of speech with members of a sentence. The members of a sentence are syntactic categories that arise in a sentence based on the interaction of words and phrases and reflect the relationship between the elements of the sentence. The parts of speech in the sentence system do not simply repeat themselves, but undergo a certain transformation. No matter how deep the connection between the noun and the subject, these concepts are correlated, but not identical, the same should be said about the interaction between verbs and predicate, adjective and definition.
13. Nouns and adjectives
A noun is a part of speech that expresses objectivity in the broad sense of the word. In Russian, the objectivity of a noun is conveyed in the forms of gender, number, and case.
The noun names and expresses not only objects, but also actions (running, flight), states (joy, knowledge), concepts. That is why nouns should be associated with objectivity, and not only with objects.
The adjective as a part of speech was formed from the name of the noun. Previously, they used to say grass-green or green-grass in the sense of "green grass" or stone - wall meant "stone wall". By such a juxtaposition of two nouns, the idea of quality was expressed in ancient languages. Gradually, as a person became more and more aware that one of the nouns in such combinations depends on the other (in our example, green from grass), in this dependent noun (green) the idea of objectivity weakened more and more and the idea of quality increased. These gradual changes - the weakening of the objectivity of the first name (greenery) and the growth of a sign of quality in it - eventually leads to the creation of a new part of speech - the name of the adjective. Instead of the old green-grass type, a new green grass appears.
Adjectives are usually of two types: qualitative and relative. From qualitative adjectives, degrees of comparison are formed, since the quality in the subject may be present to a greater or lesser extent. From relative adjectives, degrees of comparison are not formed, because the relation is not thought of qualitatively, it is either given or it is not. Therefore, for the classification of adjective names into qualitative and relative, their semantics is very important.
In the process of the long development of language and thinking, a modern system of comparison was gradually developed.
Ways of forming degrees of comparison.
In most modern languages, degrees of comparison are transmitted either inflectively, with the help of endings, or lexically (analytically) with the help of special "amplifying" words.
Beautiful - more beautiful - most beautiful (very beautiful).
A special type of formation of degrees of comparison is the so-called suppletive method (from Latin suppleo, ere - I fill).
Good - best - best.
Good-better-best
Gut-besser-am besten.
With the help of reduplication: big - big, small - small.
14. Pronouns as a special part of speech
A pronoun is a part of speech that refers to persons, objects and their signs, but does not name them.
This is a very special part of speech, since the pronoun combines into one class grammatical features that are individually characteristic of the most diverse parts of speech. Personal pronouns are used in parallel with nouns (for example, I am a person), possessive - with adjectives (my - good), and indefinite - with adverbs (someone - far away). In the category of pronouns, the properties of different parts of speech appear and intersect.
The originality of pronouns is also found in the fact that many traditional grammatical categories acquire a special meaning in the pronoun system. The pronouns we and you, for example, cannot be considered as a plural of "I" and "you", since they do not indicate many I and you, but a person speaking together with another person or persons (we), or the person of the interlocutor shared with another person or persons (you). So the relationship between I - we, you - you turns out to be different than the relationship table - tables.
15. Verb and verbal categories of tense, aspect and mood
A verb is a part of speech that names actions (work, build, draw) or represents various processes in the form of an action - a state, a manifestation of a sign, an attitude towards someone or something (hope, worry, grumble, love, blush, doze, stand, grow, respect).
The concept of a predicate (predicate) is much broader than the concept of a verb. Predicativity (predicate) can be expressed by various parts of speech, for example, a noun. For example, he is an officer. Despite the fact that predicativity is transmitted in different ways, nevertheless, the verb is the main means of its expression, especially in Indo-European languages. In other words, predicativity is the primary function of the verb in the sentence, while in other parts of speech it acts as an auxiliary means, as their secondary function.
As deep as the distinction between nouns and verbs seems now, historically it did not take shape immediately. The presence in the language of a special category of participle, which can perform the function of a name in a sentence - a definition and the function of a predicate, indirectly testifies to the remnants of that era in the development of the language, when the verb was not yet sufficiently separated from the name.
Time category
Time category. This category is presented as the most typical verbal category (in German the verb is called Zeitwort). The grammatical category of time shows how the speaker determines the temporal relation of the utterance to the moment of speech. Everything that happened before the moment of speech belongs to the past tenses in grammar, and what will happen after the moment of speech - to the future, and finally, everything that happens at the moment of speech - to the present tense in grammar.
The aspect category is one of the most ancient categories of the verb, but at the same time it is not known in all languages. In Russian, as in other Slavic languages, the category of aspect is older than the category of time. Temporal distinctions subsequently began to be layered on specific oppositions.
The difference between the present and future tenses originally consisted only in the aspectual meaning of the verb. If the verb was perfective, then the forms of its present tense acquired the meaning of the future tense (for example, I will say or say), but if the verb turns out to be imperfective, then the forms of its present tense did not differ in meaning from the time itself (for example, I say or says). Thus, perfective verbs were not used in the present tense, and imperfective verbs could only have a descriptive future (I will speak), but not a simple future.
The division of the species into perfect and imperfect is very general and does not cover the entire wealth of types and groupings. It is possible to speak about different degrees of perfection of action and about different degrees of its imperfection.
Within the perfect view, there are: final (read, say, remove), initial (sing, speak), instant (blink, sigh) and a number of other sub-signs. Within the imperfect view - the duration of the first degree (carry, lead), the duration of the second degree (carry, drive), the duration of the third degree (read, walk around).
Species pairs of verbs in Russian usually arise by forming imperfective verbs from perfective verbs: toss (Sov. view) - throw (non-sov. view), deprive (Sov. view) - deprive (non-sov. view).
Being important grammatical categories of the verb, aspect and tense, like other categories, rise, although each in its own way, to a certain level of abstraction. To express the present tense, for example, not only the present itself is used, but sometimes the future ("I'm going south tomorrow" in the sense of "I'll go") and even the past ("Your little head is gone" in the sense of "Disappeared"). Therefore, although the present, past and future are quite grammatically delimited, the possibility of "intrusion" of one tense into the area of another is determined by the peculiar conditions of the context. The grammatical concept of time turns out to be wider than the logical representation of it. Therefore, the present tense can in certain cases convey the idea of time in general, without being relative to the moment of the action ("They work perfectly", generally work, always work perfectly).
Grammatical category of mood.
The grammatical category of mood conveys the relation of action to reality established by the speaker, shows whether the speaker considers the action to be real or unreal.
Indeed, one can say: I am writing; I certainly write; I will write; I would write; I may write; I really want to write.
In all these cases, we express our attitude to action in different ways. I write simply affirms, I undoubtedly write categorically affirms, I would write puts forward certain conditions, the observance of which is necessary in order for me to be able to write, I may write - it makes the action dependent on some then conditions, etc.
It is necessary from the very beginning to distinguish between grammatical and lexical ways of expressing modality.
I would write - here the modality is expressed grammatically, while in I, perhaps, I will write or I will actually write - the modality is expressed lexically (with the help of independent words, maybe, really). Consequently, grammatical modality is conveyed not only morphologically, with special endings, but also syntactically (analytically) with special grammatical descriptive constructions (in Russian, by the forms of the verb in -l + by). As for lexical modality, it is expressed by a wide variety of so-called modal words and phrases (certainly, indeed, perhaps, perhaps, apparently, in all likelihood).
16. Syntax: sentence and phrase, their relationship
A sentence is an integral unit of speech grammatically designed according to the laws of a given language, which is the main means of forming, expressing and communicating thoughts.
The main characteristic features of the proposal:
1) not only a thought is expressed, but also the speaker's attitude to this thought is conveyed; 2) there is a special intonation of the message; 3) predicativity is concluded, that is, the relation of the message to reality, regardless of whether there is a verb in this message or not.
Even without going beyond the boundaries of one language, one can trace how the structure of the sentence has historically changed over the centuries. In the Old Russian language, syntactic composition (parataxis) prevailed over subordination (hypotaxis). The movement from syntactic composition to subordination is due to the general development of thinking, the desire of a person to more fully and comprehensively express the diversity of his thoughts. In turn, the increasing strength and diversity of thinking were ultimately predetermined by the increasing diversity of human practice, the deepening of knowledge of the surrounding world.
As a result of a long historical development in the Russian language, a harmonious system of coordinating and subordinating connections has been developed.
phrase
A phrase is a grammatically formed unity of two or more independent (significant) words that do not form a sentence.
In a room or in the air they also represent a combination of two words, however, such compounds are not phrases, since one of the words in each pair turns out to be not independent, but official. The phrase is based on the unity of not only structural (formal) but also semantic moments.
Phrases can be nominal (supporters of the world, white snow, clear sky), verbal (to achieve success), adverbial (sing loudly, stand still). Such a classification of phrases is complicated by the semantic convergence between phrases that are in different structural groups. For example, the verb phrase admire whom, which is clearly close to the nominal phrase admiration for whom or what.
On the relationship between sentences and phrases.
Some linguists (Fortunatov) believed that there is no difference between a sentence and a phrase, that a sentence is nothing more than an extended phrase.
In fact, a sentence is qualitatively different from a phrase, just like a phrase from a sentence. The phrase is also not an "intermediate group" between a word and a sentence. A sentence can also consist of one word. (It's dawning. I'm working). To form a phrase, you always need at least two full-valued words. Consequently, the difference between a phrase and a sentence is not quantitative (more or fewer words), but qualitative (the peculiarity of structures and what is expressed with the help of these structures). The phrase is usually devoid of those features that turn the statement into a sentence and the features of which were discussed above.
