IRAQ, Republic of Iraq (Al-Jumhuriya al-Iraqiya). - go-su-dar-st-in South-West Asia.

In the south-east of the omy-va-et-sya by the Persian Gulf of the Indian Ocean (length-on the be-re-go-howl line 58 km). Gra-ni-chit on the se-ve-re with Turkey-qi-ey, on the east with Iran, on the south-east with Ku-wei-th, in the south and south-west -pa-de with the Saudi Arabian Ara-vi-ey, on the pa-de with Jor-da-ni-she, on the se-ve-ro-for-pa-de with Si-ri-she. The area is 434.1 thousand km2 (according to other sources, 437.1 thousand km2). Population 34.8 million (2008). Sto-li-tsa - Baghdad. The official languages ​​are Arabic and Kurdish. De-nezh-naya edi-ni-tsa - Iraqi di-nar. Administrative-territorial division: 18 mu-ha-phases (table).

Iraq - member of the UN (1945), IMF (1945), IBRD (1945), Arab League (1945), OPEC (1960), Organization of the Islamic Conference (1975) .

Political system

Iraq is a fe-de-ra-tive state. Con-sti-tu-tion approved on re-fe-ren-du-me on October 15, 2005. The form of rights-le-niya is par-la-ment-skaya res-pub-li-ka.

Head of state - pre-zi-dent, from-bi-rai-my lower pa-la-toy par-la-men-ta big-shin-st-vom in 2/3 go-lo-owls -com for 4 years (with the right of one-but-re-re-from-branding). Pre-zi-den-tom, a native of Iraq, having a ro-di-te-lei-Iraq-tsev, who has reached the age of 40, can be elected.

The highest for-co-no-dative body is a two-pa-lat-ny par-la-ment, consisting of So-ve-ta pre-hundred-vi-te-lei and So- ve-ta soy-for. Council of pre-hundred-vi-te-lei (1 de-pu-tat from each 100 thousand inhabitants) from-bi-ra-et-sya for 4 years, all-about-them sche-go, direct-mo-go and tai-no-go-lo-co-va-niya and represents everything on-the-le-country. Council of soy-for-women should consist of pre-hundred-vi-te-lei re-gi-o-nov and provinces that are not included in the composition of the re- gi-o-new. The composition of the So-ve-ta, the condition of the member-st-va in it, the scope of its competence and other issues will be in the further op -re-de-le-ny for-ko-nom.

The executive power is os-sche-st-in-la-et-sya So-ve-to-mi-ni-st-ditch headed by the prime minister. So-becoming pra-vi-tel-st-va ut-ver-zhda-et-sya -ke; the government program must be approved by the ab-so-lute-pain-shin-st-vom member So-ve-ta pre-hundred-vi-te-lei .

Fe-de-ra-tiv-naya system-te-ma of Iraq pre-la-ga-et includes in it the capitals of the country, re-gio-nov, pro-vin- tions that are not included in the regions, and local administrative units.

Con-sti-tu-tion pro-voz-gla-sha-et is-lam of the official re-li-gi-her of the state and the main source-toch-no-one for-ko-no-da-tel-st-va (not a single law can be accepted if it pro-ti-vo-re-chit the basic norms of mam is-la-ma). At the same time, gar-ran-ti-ru-et-sya islamic identity of the pain-shin-st-va of the Iraqi people with one-time recognition of the religious rights of each person, the freedom of his ve-ro-is-on-ve-da-niya and from the rights of religious religious ob-rya-dov.

In Iraq, su-sche-st-vu-et is a lot of-par-ty-ny system-te-ma. Leading Shi-it parties: Supreme Council of the Islamic Revolution in Iraq, "Islamic Call" ("Daa-va "). Leading Kurdish parties: De-mo-cratic party of Kur-di-sta-na, Patriotic union of Kur-di-sta-na. Sunnit Party - Iraqi Islamic Party. Other parties: As-Syrian de-mo-cratic movement, Iraq Tur-Ko-Man Front, Iraqi National Accord Movement, Ob-e-di- non-for-not-for-vi-si-my Iraqi de-mo-kra-tov, Iraqi National Congress, Iraqi Communist Party.

Nature

Relief. Most of the ter-ri-to-rii of Iraq is beyond the equals of the Upper and Lower Me-so-po-ta-mii. Upper Me-so-po-ta-miya, or Ba-di-yat-el-Ja-zi-ra, ras-lo-female in the middle course of the Tigris and Ev rivers -frat, represents-becomes-la-et with a hundred-lo-vuyu de-well-yes-qi-on-but-ak-ku-mu-la-tiv-ny equal-no-well height 200-500 m; meet-cha-yut-sya so-lon-cha-ko-vye de-pressures (seb-khi), the largest of some of them - vpa-di-on so-le-no- th lake Tar-tar. Along the peri-fe-rii, shi-ro-ko ras-pro-countries-not-us on-clone-pro-lu-vi-al-equals with ka-me-ni-sty- mi and hip-with-you-mi in-lu-pus-you-nya-mi. Lower Me-so-po-ta-miya (Shatt-al-Arab, lower than those of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers) - broad al-lu-vi-al-naya bottom -men-ness, no more than 100 m above sea level. Mo-no-ton-ny rel-ef bottom-men-no-sti on-ru-sha-et-sya about-to-ka-mi, be-re-go-you-mi wa-la-mi, ir -ri-gationic ka-na-la-mi, over-the-lake-ren-us-mi on-the-same-niya-mi. The southern part of the Lower Me-so-po-ta-mi is strong but for-bo-lo-che-na.

In the se-ve-re and se-ve-ro-east-to-ke of Iraq, pro-tya-gi-va-yut-sya low and middle-not-high-hundred-th warehouses-cha-ty mountains- nye ridges of Ar-myan-sko-go and Iran-sko-go-go-riy with a height of up to 3587 m (mountain Kha-ji-Ib-ra-khim - the highest point of Iraq). Western and southwestern parts of Iraq (Syrian Pus-ty-nya, Pus-ty-nya El-Khid-ja-ra) races-on-the-same-ny in pre-de-lah Si -riy-sko-Ara-viy-sko-go-layer-to-go-layer up to 900 m high.

Geo-lo-gi-che-structure and useful is-ko-pae-mye. In the tech-to-nical from-but-she-nii, the southern and western parts of Iraq are raced in the same way in the pre-de-lahs of the northeastern outskirts of the Arabian Plateau forms-we, where races-pro-countries-not-we are not-dis-lo-qi-ro-van-nye siege-daughter-nye from-lo-zhe-nia (before-lo-mi-you, from- vest-nya-ki with go-ri-zon-ta-mi fos-fo-ri-tov, clay, etc.) fa-not-ro-zoi-sko-go cover-la power-no-stu 6 -7.5 km. In the north of Iraq from the east-ka-for-ho-dit warehouse-cha-to-blood-system-te-ma Za-gro-sa Al-piy-sko-Gi-ma-lay-sko th in the motion-but-th belt-sa. The ridge-you of the Ar-myan-sko-go and Iran-ko-go-on-mountain are slo-we-smashed-you-mi into warehouses and over-vi-well-you-mi in the right- le-ni south-for-pa-da (in a hundred-ro-well platform-for-we) me-so-kai-no-zoi-ski-mi kar-bo-nat-no-ter-ri-gen- us-mi from-lo-zhe-niya-mi, accommodating-schi-mi thick-schi with-la-nyh species. On the extreme se-ve-ro-vos-to-ke, it’s ras-lo-same-on-over-vi-go-va zone, along some swarm you-stu-pa-ut re- the face of the oceanic crust (ofio-li-you). Warehouse-cha-taya system-te-ma and pre-cam-Bryan platform-for-ma once-de-le-na Me-so-po-tam-sky-pe-re-do-vym pro-gi- bom, for-full-n-ny neo-gene-four-vert-tich-ny-mi about-lo-moch-ny-mi from-lo-zhe-ni-mi (mo-las-soy), is- py-you-vayu-schi-mi in-lo-gie warehouse-cha-tye de-for-ma-tion. For the northern and northeastern regions of Iraq, ha-rak-ter-na is characterized by elevated seismicity. The most seis-mi-che-ski active learning-st-ki and areas of possible strong lands -zhe-us along the border of Iran-th-on-the-mountain with the Me-so-on-the-tam-low-men-no-stu.

The most important uses of Iraq are oil and natural combustible gas. Most of the oil-pas-ty co-medium-to-the-che-on in the largest oil-ty-nyh and oil-te-ga-zo-vy places-sto-ro-zh- de-ni-yah Kir-kuk, El-Ru-may-la, Ez-Zu-bair, Er-Ra-ta-vi, Mand-jun, from-no-sya-shchi-sya to Per-sid-sko -go for-li-va nef-te-ga-zo-nose-no-mu bass-sei-well. It has several own-st-ven-but gas places-one-hundred-ro-zh-de-ny (Chia-Surkh and Ha-well-ka). Pro-mice-len-but we mean-we-sto-rozh-de-niya se-ry (Mish-rak, El-Fat-ha and La-za-ga on se-ve-re), fos- for-ri-tov (Ak-shat and Er-Rut-ba on the za-pa-de, at-above-le-zha-shchy East-precisely-Mid-di-earth-but-sea fos-fo-ri-to-nose-no-mu bass-sei-nu), cement-of-west-nya-kov, ka-men-noy so-li. Also from the West of the place-of-ro-zh-de-niya of iron and lead-in-zin-k-o-ores, gypsum, brick clays. You-yav-le-ny ru-do-pro-yav-le-niya me-di, ni-ke-la, hro-mi-tov, as-be-hundred, tal-ka, etc.

Climate. In the northern part of Iraq, the climate is sub-tropical kon-ti-nen-tal-ny, with dry hot summers and from-no-si-tel-no rain-li-howl and pro-cold winter-mine. Average temperatures in July-la 34 ° C, January-War 7 ° C (Mo-sul). Winter in the mountains lies snow. In the southern part of the country, the climate is tropical con-ti-nen-tal-ny. The average temperatures of Jan-va-rya are 12 ° C, Aug-gu-hundred 34 ° C, max-si-mu-we do-ti-ga-yut 48 ° C (Bas-ra). Quantity of precipitation in mountainous regions 500-1500 mm per year (hour-tych-but you-pa-da-yut in the form of snow), Eastern-ke countries 50-150 mm per year. Most of the precipitation is pa-da-et from de-cab-rya to March. In the south of Iraq, there are not-red-ki dusty storms.

Inland waters. Re-sur-sy in the top-but-st-no-go one hundred (75 km3) og-ra-ni-chen-ny. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers, re-se-kayu-ing the ter-ri-to-riyu of Iraq from the se-ve-ro-za -pa-yes to the southeast. Near the city of El-Kur-na, the Tigris and Euphrates merge and ob-ra-zu-yut the Shatt-al-Arab river, which flows into the Persian Gulf. In the pre-de-lahs of Iraq, the Tiger pri-ni-ma-et is quite large left pri-to-ki (Big Zab, Small Zab, Diya-la), at Ev- there are no significant inflows in Iraq. In the pre-de-lahs of the Lower Me-so-po-ta-mia, the Tiger and Eu-frat are raz-branches-la-yut-sya on ru-ka-va, they form a lot of numerical flood-men lakes and floating lakes. Mak-si-mum of a river-no-one-one hundred come-ho-dit-sya in the spring-well, when it happens to be on-water-non-niya, at the end of summer and autumn-new re-ki ma-lo-water-us. For rivers, ha-rak-te-ren is a significant solid runoff, in the lower-call-yah from-me-cha-et-sya you-so-so-holding so-lei in the de because of the discharge of drainage water from the fields. For deserted areas, ti-pich-us are temporary vo-do-to-ki - wa-di.

For economic purposes, use about 80% every year, but in-goiter-new-lya-my water resources (of which 92% goes to well- railways of agriculture, 3% - on someone-mu-nal-but-to-be-needs, 5% are required by industrial enterprises). Hydro-energy resources (700 thousand MW) are co-medium-to-the-che-us mainly in the basin of the Tigris River. For re-gu-li-ro-va-niya one hundred and fight with on-water-non-niya-mi in the country, create-yes-but a lot of on-living water-do- hra-ni-lisch (up to the rivers Tigris and Euphrates). In the valleys of the rivers Euphrates, Big Zab and Small Zab, complex hydro-nodes are built. Tight-female si-tua-tion with vo-obes-pe-che-ni-em ha-rak-ter-na for the bass-this-on the Euphrates river, since a significant part one hundred re-ki races-ho-du-et-xia for irrigation. Re-gu-lyar-noe su-to-move-st-in is possible, but mainly along the Shatt al-Arab river.

Soil-you, ra-ti-tel-ny and living world. In the valleys of the main rivers of Iraq (the Tigris with pri-to-ka-mi, Ev-frat, Shatt-al-Arab), once-wi-you al-lu-vi-al-nye soils are flat before-native, but places-ta-mi for-bo-lo-chen-nye or for-with-lyon-nye. In the Upper Me-so-po-ta-mii races-pro-countries-not-us se-ro-ze-we and se-ro-ko-rich-non-soils. Large squares on the equals of the Lower Me-so-po-ta-mia for-ni-ma-yut second-rich-but for-saline-soils, that -ky-ry and sand-ki, rise-nick-but-ve-nee-something connected-for-but with many-ve-ko-howling non-ra-tsio-nal-practice -koy oro-shae-mo-go earth-le-de-lia. For the northern and northeastern parts of the country, ha-rak-ter-ny are mountainous brown-rich-not-high and mountain-but-lu-go-vye soils. On the os-tal-noy ter-ri-to-rii, pre-ob-la-da-yut are deserted stones, including gypsum-nosed, soils, as well as dogs-ki and so-lon-cha-ki.

In most of the ter-ri-to-rii of Iraq, there are races of pro-countries of desert-tyn-nye steppes (evil-ki, by-ly-ni, numerous ephemerals) and in-lu-pus-you-ni, re-ho-dying in the south and south-behind-pa-de into tropical deserts-you-ni. Le-sa for-no-ma-yut no more than 2% of the area of ​​Iraq -kov, on the southern slopes they govern for-ma-tions of the middle-di-earth-but-sea-type-pa: ma-k-vis, times-re-female du-bo-vye and fis-tash-ko-vye les-sa, you-she on the slopes of us changing-sya can-same-ve-lo-you-mi-red-to-forest-I- mi. In the upper parts of the mountain slopes, there are new al-piy meadows. On the equals, along the rivers before us, they pro-from-ra-sta-yut le-sa from the EU-frat-th-to-po-la, willows, ta-ma-ri-skov. For the southern districts, ti-pich-na-sa-zh-de-niya fi-no-ko-howl palms. In the valleys of Ti-gra and Ev-phra-ta pre-ob-la-da-yut oro-shae-my lands.

The living world is strong-but lunch-nyon, mainly in connection with the loss of the place-sto-ob-ta-ny. Over 80 species of mammals are melting, of which 11 are under the threat of extinction. Fully-stu is-treb-le-ny Syrian ku-lan, Ara-viy-skaya ga-zel dor-kas, ve-ro-yat-no, from the ter-ri-to-rii of Iraq did it also come from the Arabian oryx and the Iranian fallow deer. Of the large mammals, the wolf was preserved, like a hyena, sha-kal. There are about 400 species of birds in the so-ve or-no-fauna, including over 170 species - nesting-dya-scha. The wetlands of Me-so-po-ta-miya are the only-st-vein-ny places in the world to nest-to-va-niya of the Iraqi ka-we- shov-ki and Iraqi droz-do-howl ti-me-lii (en-de-mi-ki of Iraq), as well as zi-mov-ki of many rare water-to-floating birds (pink flamingo, curly pe-li-kan, etc.) - for the most part de-gra-di-ro-va-li after-st-vie osu-shi- tel-nyh measures in the middle of the 20th century, as well as in the result of military actions. In Ioak, they created-yes-but only 8 oh-ra-nyae-my ter-ri-to-ry with a total area of ​​​​541 hectares (2005); they all have not-you-with-the status of oh-ra-na. Learn the value of the landscapes of Me-so-po-ta-mii for the support of you-so-so-time-but-about-ra-zia or-ni- to-faun-ny, Me-zh-du-folk union of oh-ra-ny birds (Birdlife International) on the territory of Iraq you-de-lil 42 key-che-or-ni- to-logical ter-ri-to-rii of international significance (total area 3.5 million hectares).

Additional literature:

Countries and nations. Trans-ru-beige Asia. Southwestern Asia. M., 1979;

Fisher W. Iraq: Physical and social geography // Middle East and North Africa. L., 1994;

Alek-see-va N. N. Contemporary landscapes of foreign Asia. M., 2000.

Population

Pain-shin-st-in-se-le-niya of Iraq (71.3%) - ara-by-Iraq-tsy. In the north-east of Iraq, there are Kurds (about 14%), in the north - Yezidis (about 2%), as-si-riy-tsy (1.2 %). Azeris-bai-jan-tsy make up 5.3% of the population of the country, ara-by-egypt-tya-ne - 2%, pa-le-stin-tsy - 0.5%, trans -sy - 1.1%, people from Turkestan (Turkmen) - 1.1%, lu-ry - 0.3%, ar-mya-ne - 0.2%, people from the Caucasus ka-za (“cher-ke-sy”) - 0.1%, tsy-ga-ne - 0.1%, etc.

The natural increase in population (2.6% in 2007) is due to you-so-ro-g-give-bridge (31.4 per 1000 inhabitants), almost 6 times the highest mortality rate (5.3 per 1000 inhabitants); po-ka-za-tel fer-til-no-sti 4.1 re-byon-ka for 1 woman-schi-nu; infant mortality is 47 per 1000 live-in-ro-well-days. The average age of the population is 20 years (2007). In the age-ra-t-noy structure-tu-re on-se-le-niya you-so-ka-to-la de-tey (under 15 years old) - 39.4%, persons labor-to-spo-sob -no-age age (15-64 years old) - 57.6%, over 65 years old - 3%. The average life expectancy in May is 69.3 years (men - 68, women - 70.6). For every 100 women, there are 102 husbands. The average population density is 80.2 people/km2 (2008). The most raft-but for-se-le-na to-li-na of the rivers Tigris, Euphrates, Shatt al-Arab. Share of urban population 67% (2005). Large cities (thousand people, 2008): Baghdad 6432 (with pri-g-rod-am-i 10634), Mo-sul 2595, Bas-ra 1862 (with pri-go-ro -da-mi 3803), Er-bil 1628, Su-lei-ma-nia 1201, Kir-kuk 676, En-Nad-jaf 615.

Internal des-ta-bi-li-za-tion after prolonged military actions led to significant external and internal -ren-nim mi-gra-qi-yam na-se-le-niya. According to UN data (end of 2006), more than 1.8 million people have left Iraq, mainly to Syria and Jordan; within the country, the place is one hundred-yan-no-go pro-zhy-va-niya in-ki-well-whether more than 1.6 million people.

Eco-no-mi-che-ski active population of 7.4 million people. About 20% of those employed in agriculture (2004; est.). Level without-ra-bo-ti-tsy 18-30% (2006).

Religion

According to the data (2007) of the Interim Military Ad-mi-ni-st-ra-tion of the coalition forces in Iraq, about 97% of the population of Iraq is mu-sul-ma-ne, of which 60-65% - shii-you, 32-37% - sun-ni-you; about 3% are Christians and pre-hundred-vi-te-whether other confessional groups (Jewish, Yezi-dy, Man-Dei, Bahai-you).

Iraq is one of two Arab countries (on-a-row with Bah-ray-n), where after-to-wa-te-whether shi-it-sko-go-right-le-is -la-ma number-len-but pre-ob-la-da-yut over after-before-va-te-la-mi sun-nit-so-go-right-le-niya.

Shi-iz-ma compose 96-99% on-se-le-niya in mu-ha-fa-zah Ka-di-siya, Ker-be-la, Ba-bil, Di-Kar, Wa-sit and May-san, as well as the overpressing pain-shin-st-in - in mu-ha-fa-zah Nad-jaf, Mu-tan -na and Bas-ra. Significantly-chi-tel-na do-la Shia-tov in the mu-ha-fa-zahs of Diya-la (45%), Baghdad and Sa-lah-ed-Din (25-30%). In the northern mu-ha-fa-zahs of Iraq, do-la shi-it-sko-go na-se-le-nia is not-significant-chi-tel-na: in Ta-mi-me - 8%, Nai-na -ve and Da-hoo-ke - 5% each. In Er-bi-le, Su-lei-ma-nii and An-ba-re shii-tov there is no prak-ti-che-ski. Suppressing pain-shin-st-in the rural inhabitants of the country - shii-you. Shiit religious centers: En-Nad-jaf, Ker-be-la, Sa-mar-ra, Baghdad district of El-Ka-zi-miya. Shi-it-is-lam in Iraq was represented by several-ki-mi-right-le-niya-mi: ima-mi-you, shei-hi-you, ali-ila-hi ( ahl-i haqq), is-mai-li-you. Ima-mi-ty (ja-fa-ri-ty) make up 95% of Iraqi Shiites. Ima-mi-you represent-le-we two schools-la-mi. The most-bo-lea-of-the-number-len-at the school-la Usu-liy-un, with-the-religion-women-square-stand-ly-yut over 80% of the ima-mi-tov . Second-paradise school-la - Ah-ba-riy-un - volume-e-di-nya-et less than 20% ima-mi-tov. Shei-hi-you make up about 3% of Shii-tov (living in the southern regions of Ira-ka along the border with Iran), ali-ila- hi - 1-1.5% Shii-tov (pro-zhi-va-yut mainly in the northern mu-ha-fa-zahs of Iraq, to ​​the north and east of Mo-su- la and to the za-pa-du from Er-bi-la). Ali-ila-khi - kur-dy (in El-Ama-diya, Er-bi-le, Ra-van-du-ze and Ha-na-ki-na region) and Iraqi Azeri-bai-jan- tsy. The whole-ma don’t-mean-chi-tel-on to-la is-mai-li-tov of Iraq, mostly they are Azerbaijanis, pa-ki-stans, not a big group pa kur-dov (district-on Man-da-li).

Sun-ni-you make up over 90% of the population in mu-ha-fa-zah An-bar, Su-lei-ma-niya, Er-bil and Ta-mim, about 80% in Sa -lah-ed-Di-ne, more than 68% - in Nai-na-ve, over-lo-wi-na - in Bagda-de and Diya-le. In mu-ha-fa-zah Bas-ra (over 21%), Nad-jaf, Mu-tan-na (5-10%) sun-ni-you are-la-yut-sya less-shin-st- Vom, in Ker-be-le they are practically-ti-che-ski from-sut-st-vu-ut. Over 65% of Iraqi sun-ni-tovs are pri-ver-women-tsy ha-ni-fit-sko-go maz-ha-ba, about 34% are sha-fii-ty, a little more than 1% are ma -liki-you and khan-ba-li-you. In Iraq, dey-st-vu-yut are several su-fi-or-de-nov. Among the Kurds in the northern provinces, Na-ksh-ban-diya has a significant influence. The second swarm in terms of the number of or-den - Ka-di-riyya - has pri-ver-women among the arabs and from-part of the Kurds of Bagda- and Sa-lah-ed-Dee-na. Or-den Ri-faya has a non-big number of side-ron-ni-kov among sun-ni-tov Bas-ra.

Christ-sti-an-st-vo in Iraq is represented by 11 different churches. The largest of them is the Khal-dey-ka-to-personal church (representing-le-on Pat-ri-ar-shey epar-hi-he bishop-scop-st-vom Ba -gdad, ar-hi-epi-scop-st-va-mi Bas-ra, Mo-sul, Kir-kuk, Er-bil, bishop-scop-st-vom Za-ho). In addition to that, on the territory of Iraq, dei-st-vu-yut: As-si-riy church Vos-to-ka, Si-ro-ka-to-personal church -kov, Syrian pra-in-glorious (like-Vit-sky) church, Ar-myan-sky apo-stol-sky church, parishes of Rome-sko-ka -to-personal church, Coptic right-in-glorious church, An-ti-ohian right-in-glorious church; work is being done on the opening in Iraq of the parish of the Russian right-of-the-glorious church of the Moscow pat-ri-ar-ha-ta. The largest volume of pro-tes-tant-skih de-no-mi-na-tsy - As-samb-lea of ​​evangelical pre-stu-te- ri-an-skih churches in Iraq, which includes 5 churches: National Evangelical pro-tes-tant church (Kir-kuk), As-si -riy-sky evangelical pre-sve-te-ri-an-sky church (Baghdad), Arab evangelical pre-swe-te-ri-an-sky church ( Baghdad), the National Pro-Tess-Tant Evangelical Church (Mo-sul) and the National Pre-Sweet-Te-ri-an-Sky Church (Bas-ra).

On the territory of Iraq there are religious saints-you-ni iu-de-ev, some-rye-chi-ta-yut-sya and Iraqi mu-sul-ma- na-mi: mo-gi-la Ez-d-ry (Ozei-ry) and Ie-ze-kii-la (Dhul Ki-fil), as well as Kur-na (Nabk Kor-na) - holy the birth place of the confluence of the Ti-gra and Ev-phra-ta, where he made the sacrifice of Av-ra-am.

Is-to-ri-che-sky essay

Iraq in antiquity. The most ancient traces of a human-lo-ve-che-deed-tel-no-sti on the ter-ri-to-rii of Iraq yes-ti-ru-ut-sya about 500-400 thousand years ago ass (ru-bi-la and ga-lech-ny tools-diya me-sto-on-hoj-de-nia Bar-da-Bal-ka). Ma-te-ria-ly of the epoch of Mustye from-ve-st-ny in the caves of Kha-zar-Mard, Sha-ni-dar, etc. By the late pa-leo- li-tu and pe-re-ho-du to me-zo-li-tu from-no-syat kul-tu-ry Ba-ra-dost and Zar-zi (they represent-le-na and in Sha - no-yes-re). These tra-di-tions in-lu-chi-li continue in the pa-myat-ni-kah “for-gross-me-zo-li-ta” (Ka-rim-Sha -khir, Ze-vi-Che-mi-Sha-ni-dar, etc.), associated with na-chat-ka-mi pro-from-in-dya-shche-ho-zyay-st -va, mill-new-le-nie-something-ro-go about-follow-the-same-but according to ma-te-ria-lams in-se-le-ny Jar-mo, Mag-za-liya, etc. Increasing-li-chi-vayu-shche-sya on-se-le-nie near the end of VII - the beginning of VI millennia BC os-in-i-lo se-ver al-lu-vi-al-noy do- li-ny Me-so-po-ta-mii (Sot-to). But-si-te-li kul-tour with the development of zem-le-deal tra-di-qi-ey (Khas-su-na, Kha-laf, Ubeid) ob-zhi-li the whole Me-so - by the way, did they begin to adopt artificial irrigation, os-voi-whether about-working non-ferrous metals, to the end of this epoch-hi na-cha-li from-go-tav-li-vat ke-ra-mi-ku on the gon-char-nom circle; about complex so-qi-al-no-imu-sche-st-ven-nyh from-no-she-ni-yah svi-de-tel-st-vu-yut mo-well-men-tal-nye architectural constructions, pe-cha-ti-amu-le-you (see also in the articles Ar-pa-chiya, Gav-ra, Sa-mar-ra, Sav -van, Eri-du, Yarim-Te-pe).

On the basis of the os-no-ve tra-di-tsy Kill-yes by the middle of the 4th millennium in Me-so-po-ta-mii sfor-mi-ro-va-las kul-tu-ra ti-pa Uruk and change -her cul-tu-ra “pro-to-write-men-no-go-pe-rio-da” (see the article Jem-det-Nasr), when complex ir- ri-gation systems, mass-co-re-mes-len production, urban centers with complex mo-well-men-tal-ny-mi complex sa-mi and ka-men-noy skul-p-tu-swarm, writing-men-ness. All this formed the basis of the os-no-woo of the Shu-mer qi-vi-li-za-tion (see the Shu-mer article). The Shu-mer-sky world represented a con-glo-mer-rat of the cities-ro-dov-go-states (Uruk, Ur, La-gash, etc.), bo-rov-shih -Xia me-f-du-fight. Despite the political fragmentation, shu-me-ditch ob-one-nya-lo sa-mo-name, proximity of cults (En- lil, etc.) and cultural similarity. To this-mu, “ran-not-di-na-sti-che-sko-mu”, per-rio-du from-no-si-tsya shi-ro-something-pro-st-ra-ne- nye from de-liy from bronze, appear-le-ing of the royal non-cro-po-lei, where in-gre-be-niya co-leader-da-lis-lo- ve-che-ski-mi sacrifice-in-pri-no-she-niya-mi and bo-ga-tei-shim in-ven-ta-rem (for example, in Ur), the addition of epic stories for-ny (about Gil-ga-me-she, etc.). Eco-no-mic and social development of more northern-than-shu-mer-sky cultural tour on the territory of modern Iraq from-hundred-wa-lo from Me-so-po-ta-mii, but it went in the same right-le-ni.

From the middle of the III millennium in Me-so-po-ta-mii, the Eastern Se-mite tribes-on the Ak-Kad-tsev raced. Along with the shu-me-ra-mi, they were also created-da-te-la-mi and no-si-te-la-mi me-sopo-tam-sky qi -vi-li-za-tion (see Ak-kad). At the turn of the III-II millennia, the Akkadian language and writing-men-ness are you-tes-no-whether from the use of the Shu-Mer-sky. Until the middle of the 1st millennium, the Akkad language remained the di-plo-ma-tic and literary language of the entire Near East. For ak-kad-sko-go va-ri-an-ta me-so-po-tam-sky qi-vi-li-za-tion was-lo ha-rak-ter-no pre-ob-la-da -tion of royal power over the priestly and ty-go-te-nie to the creation of vast states. At the end of the 24th century, the Akkad king Sar-gon, the Ancient one, sub-chi-nil se-be all the me-so-po-tam-sky cities and created a large state institution -zo-va-nie, borders of something-ro-go pro-sta-ra-lis from the Persian Gulf to the Middle-Earth Sea. In the 22nd century, the Ak-Kad-king-st-in ruh-nu-lo under the pressure of the Iranian tribes of the ku-ti-ev, someone, in turn, would have been -be-zh-de-ny pra-vi-te-lem Ura, creating the so-called no-vo-shu-mer-der-zha-va (III dy-na-stii Ur tsar-st- in, XXI century). This is the state-su-dar-st-vo in those-che-ni-almost a hundred-year-tia con-tro-li-ro-wa-lo Me-so-po-ta-miyu, opi-ra-yas for a branch-linen-ny bureau-ro-kra-tic app-para-rat and a large royal economy.

After the pa-de-niya of the king-st-va of Ur under the blow-ra-mi of Ela-ma and amo-re-ev, poly-lytic centers Me-so-po-ta-mii windows-cha- tel-but ne-re-mes-ti-lied to the north in Isin and Lar-su, and later - in Wa-vi-lon, ra-po-lo-women-ny in the Middle Euphranian those. Wa-vi-lon dos-tig race-color-ta in the reign of king Ham-mu-ra-pi (XVIII century), under-chi-niv-she-th Middle and Lower Two-re-whose and famous-viv-she-go-sya with-becoming-le-ni-em de-tal-no-go-yes-for-ko-nov (see Ham-mu-ra-pi the laws). In this period, an old-ro-va-vi-lon literary tradition developed, which had an op-re-de-lying influence on the far-nee- the neck of the development of me-so-on-tam-sky literature. The next-blowing pe-ri-od is-to-rii of Va-vi-lo-nii - the era of the vla-dy-che-st-va of the Kas-sit kings (XVI-XII centuries ) - from-weight-ten less. Supposedly, that with kas-si-tah, usi-li-va-et-sya, the role of the tsar-go-owner-st-va and os-la-be-va- there is a part of the economic ini-tsia-ti-va, ha-rak-ter-naya for the old-ro-va-vi-lon-sky era.

To the north from Va-vi-lo-nii, in As-si-rii, ras-lo-female in the middle of the Ti-gra (historical centers - Ash-shur, then Ni-ne-viya), warehouse-dy-val-sya, an ancient hearth of me-so-po-tam-sky qi-vi-li-za-tion. Old-ro-as-si-riy-sky pen-ri-od (XX-XVI centuries) from-me-chen large-scale eco-no-mic ex-pan-si-her as-si-riy- tsev in Eastern Ana-to-liya and os-no-va-ni-em tor-go-vy co-lo-ni. In the wake of the tor-go-in-eco-no-mic activity of the merchants Ash-shu-ra interrupted, and sa-ma As-si-riya for several years kov left the historical scene, having fallen into the ve-si-bridge from strong co-se-days (Mi-tan-ni). Its lytic revival began in the 14th century and continued until the 7th century. As-si-riya was the leading state of the Near East. Its li-ti-ka, especially in the IX-VII centuries, from-whether-cha-las ag-res-siv-no-stu and not-interrupting-us-mi-trying- ka-mi military ex-pan-si in from-no-she-nii Va-vi-lo-nii, Sred-di-zem-no-sea and Urar-tu. Not-one-but-fold-but As-si-riy-skaya der-zha-va os-la-be-va-la and te-rya-la for-voe-van-ny pro-vines, but then again con-so-li-di-ro-va-las and in-goiter-nov-la-la ek-span-siyu; on the p-ke of his-mo-gu-sche-st-va under-chi-ni-la the whole ter-ri-to-riyu of the so-called Bla-go-dat-no-go Po-lu-me-sya- tsa (Elam, si-ro-li-van-sky re-gi-on and Egi-pet). Wa-vi-lon in soyuz with ple-me-na-mi hal-de-ev (kal-du), ras-se-liv-shi-mi-sya in South Me-so-po-ta-mii in the 9th century, several centuries-old os-ta-val-sya the main anti-no-one of the as-si-riy-tsev, some-rye not-one-but-times-but for-hwa -you-va-li and raz-ru-sha-li this city. In the 1st half of the 1st millennium, in Me-so-po-ta-mii, the ple-me-on ara-me-ev raced, moving from the side The Syrian desert and the Middle Euphrates, and the Ara-Mei language in a degree-pen-but you-tes-nil but-in-va-vi-lon-sky and but -vo-as-si-riy-sky dia-lek-you ak-kad-sko-go language.

In the years 616-606, the As-si-riy-king-st-in pa-lo under the blow-ra-mi mi-dyan and wa-vi-lo-nyan. The northern ok-rai-on the As-Syrian lands became part of the Mi-diy-go state; most of the Bla-go-dat-no-go Po-lu-me-sya-tsa eye-laid under the rule of No-vo-va-vi-lon-go-king-st-va. The tops of their race of color Va-vi-lon dos-tig in the reign of Na-wu-ho-do-no-so-ra II (605-562). One-on-one is-the-thing of the forces of go-su-dar-st-va in the course of the external ex-pan-si, as well as the conflict of the king Na-bo-ni -yes (556-539 years) with priest-che-st-vom made-la-li Va-vi-lon easy to-be-whose Persian king Ki-ra II. In 539, the Persians for-hwa-ti-li Va-vi-lo-niyu and included it in the composition of Ahe-me-ni-dov go-su-dar-st-va.

Persian power-dy-che-st-vo-ma-lo-influence-lo on so-qi-al-no-eco-no-micic relations and cultural-tur-no-religious system -tua-tion in re-gio-not. Va-vi-lon became one of the re-zi-den-tions of the Persian kings. The Ara-Mei language, dominating in Me-so-po-ta-miya, was the language of the state documents of the western regions of the state of Ahe-me- no-dov. At the end of the 6th - the beginning of the 5th centuries in Va-vi-lo-nii, not-one-time-but about-is-ho-di-whether there were revolts against the Persian rule.

In 331, in the battle of Gav-ga-me-lah, Alexander Ma-ke-don-sky carried a resolutely similar to the Persian king Darius III, ov -la-del Va-vi-lo-ni-ey and other regions of the state of Ahe-me-ni-dov. Va-vi-lon became a hundred-face of the im-pe-rii Alek-san-d-ra, and after her dis-pa-da, he entered the state of Se-lev-ki-dov, from-whether-chav-she-go-xia significant eth-no-cultural-tour-ne-st-ro-toy. Lord-under-st-vuyu-sche-lo-same in it for-no-ma-whether you-walkers from Greece and Ma-ke-do-nii, dis-se-liv-shie -sya in many-st-ve-ro-dov-ko-lo-ny. One of them - Se-lev-kiya on the right bank of Ti-gra - became the capital of the state and unas-le-do-val the role of Wa-vi-lo-na as tor-go- in the th center-n-ra. All subsequent lytic centers of Me-so-po-ta-mii on-ho-di-lied on the banks of the Ti-gras, as often from me -non-nie Rus-la Ev-fra-ta created-yes-va-lo labor-no-sti of the economic development of the sing-we of this river.

In the 2nd century, Se-lev-ki-dy in a step-pen-but ut-ra-ti-li control over their eastern provinces-tions-mi, in 141 BC Me-so- in-ta-miya would-la for-hwa-che-na par-fya-na-mi. After this, Wa-vi-lon windows-cha-tel-but came to a drop-dock. The Par-Fyan-kings of the di-na-stii Ar-sha-ki-dov made their own military camp Kte-si-fon on the left bank gu Ti-gra, on-against Se-lev-kii, for a long time keeping your el-li-ni-stic traits. In the state of Ar-sha-ki-dov, pre-ob-la-da-la is a syn-cre-tic Greek-eastern cul-tu-ra; in political terms, the Parthian kingdom was amorphous: it included auto-nome Greek cities in its composition and you-sal-nye authorities, including the kingdom of Adia-be-na with a capital in Ar-be-le (on the left-in-be-re-jee of the Middle Ty -gra) or Khat-ra (in Northern Me-so-po-ta-mii). Par-fya-were not the main ones against-no-ka-mi of the Roman Empire. Rim-la-not for-hwa-you-va-li Me-so-po-ta-miyu under Emperor Tray-ne (AD 115) and Sep-ti-mii Se-ve-re (199), but could not hold it for a long time.

In 227, the power of the Ar-sha-ki-dov dy-na-stia would have overthrown-well-ta Sa-sa-ni-da-mi, the rights of some-ry oz-na-me- but-va-moose voz-ro-zh-de-ni-em of the ancient Iranian cultural-tour-no-po-lytic tradition (including the influence of-ni-em zo-roa-st-riz- ma). Ho-tya in ethnic and cultural terms, Me-so-po-ta-miya did not belong-above-le-zha-la to the Iranian world, she was lytic , the economic and de-mo-graphic center of the state of Sa-sa-ni-dov. One hundred faces im-pe-rii os-ta-val-sya Kte-si-fon, and on-lo-gi with Me-so-po-ta-mii would be the main source to-ho-dov of the state. Most of the on-se-le-niya Me-so-po-tamiya so-stav-la-li ara-mei, in the midst of some races-pro-country-nya-moose hri-sti-an -st-in not-hundred-ri-an-sko-go and mo-no-fi-zit-ko-go interpretation. Fore-mountain Za-gro-sa on-se-la-li pre-ki Kur-dov, in Wa-vi-lo-nii su-sche-st-vo-va-li large iu-day- ko-lo-nii, in the steppes to the west of Ev-fra-ta ko-che-wa-li Arab tribes-me-na. In the 5th-6th centuries, ara-would be about-ra-zo-wa-li sub-chi-nyon-noe Sa-sa-ni-dam the state of Lakh-mi-dov with a capital in Hi-re. Upper Me-so-po-ta-miya would-la object-of-a-hundred-yang-no-go-military co-per-no-che-st-va Vi-zan-tii and Sa -sa-ni-dov, is-it-shiv-she-go both hundred-ro-na and facilitated-chiv-she-go for-voi-ing Fore-fore Asia ara-ba-mi .

Iraq in the Middle Ages. The first detachments of ara-bov-mu-sul-man appeared in the steppes near Evphra-ta in 633 and for-vla-de-li Hi-roy. The decisive clash of the sa-sa-nid-army with the ara-ba-mi pro-isosh-lo at Ka-di-si south of Hi-ra (637); in it, Persians are in-ter-pe-whether in-ra-same-nie and from-stu-pi-li from Me-so-po-ta-mii. Ter-ri-to-riya of modern Iraq became part of Ha-li-fa-ta. Is-to-ri-ko-geo-graphic term "Iraq" appeared in medieval Arabic geo-graphic literature to designate the southern part of Me-so -po-ta-mii (from the city of Bas-ra to the city of Tik-rit). The earth-whether to the se-ve-ru from this zone in-lu-chi-li the name "al-Ja-zi-ra".

In those few centuries after the Muslim conquest of Iraq on its territory, pro-is-ho-di-la in-ste- pen-naya ara-bi-za-tion and is-la-mi-za-tion of me-st-ny ara-me-ev. Already in the 7th century, significant masses of ara-vi-tyan were transferred to Iraq. They group-pi-ro-va-lied mainly on the lands around two built-en-for-vo-va-te-la-mi gar-ni-zone-cities - Ku-fa and Bas-ry; in Northern Me-so-po-ta-miya, Mo-sul became the center of Arab power. On-the-se-le-niye of Iraq took an active part in the inter-before-separate war of 656-661 between Ali ibn Abi Ta-li-bom and Mua-vi-ey ibn Abi Suf-ya-nom, os-no-va-te-lem di-na-stii Omei-ya-dov. In these so-be-ti-yahs, Iraq served as the main base for Ali's parties, and after his gi-be-li (661) became the center of an-ti -omei-yad-sky op-po-zi-tion, you-stu-fell-shey under shi-it-ski-mi lo-zun-ga-mi.

The power of Omei-ya-dov would-la overthrow-nu-ta in the re-zul-ta-te of the resurrection of 747-750, head-of-len-no-go Ab-ba-si-da-mi . With the new di-na-stii, the political and eco-no-mic center Ha-li-fa-ta moved to Iraq. In 762, Kha-lif al-Man-sur os-no-val in Middle Me-so-po-ta-miya on the banks of the Tigris River a new hundred-li-tsu - Baghdad. She would-st-ro become one of the most significant cities of Vos-to-ka (on-se-le-ne-Ba-gda-da in the 10th century in the count -you-va-lo about 1.5 million people), me-sto-pre-be-va-ni-em yard and ad-mi-ni-st-ra-tion, mid-to-to-chi -I eat ara-bo-mu-sulman science and culture. Ho-cha in the rights of ha-li-fa Ha-ru-na ar-Ra-shi-da (786-809 years) Iraqi provinces dos-tig-li the highest points of their -his economic and cultural-tur-no-go race-color, pro-ti-vo-bor-st-in between his sons-new-i-mi al-Amin-nom and al -Maa-mu-nom (811-813) co-pro-in-well-yes-elk groats-we-mi-de-ru-she-niya-mi in Baggda-de and eco-construction -no-mi-ki Ira-ka.

In the reign of al-Maa-mu-na (813-833), the center of Ha-li-fa-ta re-lived a new cultural upsurge associated with os-voe-ni-em ara-ba-mi (with-mid-st-ve near-not-in-the-stoch-nyh chri-sti-an) an-tich-no-go on-uch-no-fi -losophic heritage. In 836-889, the re-zi-den-tion of ha-li-fov and the political center of the state were ras-po-la-ga-lis in the city of Sa-mar-ra on the Tig-re (130 km to se-ve-ru from Ba-gda-da). To re-re-no-su hundred-li-tsy ha-li-fov po-bu-di-li frequent clashes of the Turkic guards-dey-tsev-not-vol-nik-kov (gu- la-mov) with ba-gdad-tsa-mi. In the rezul-ta-te of the guards-dei-sky me-te-zhey in the 2nd half of the 9th century in the me-zh-du-re-whose Ti-gra and Ev-fra-ta on-ras-ta- la anarchia; in the course of new inter-before-common conflicts, Baghdad re-lived one more opus-so-shi-tel-nuyu siege (865). So-kra-sche-nie to-ho-dov Ha-li-fa-ta you-nu-di-lo ha-li-fa al-Mu-ta-di-da (892-902) from-give to from-kup on-lo-vi-nu the lands of Iraq; in-stu-p-le-niya from them for-met-but fell in re-zul-ta-te zind-zhey of the resurrection of 869-883, in the course of something-ro- go pov-stan-tsy ov-la-de-li to all of Southern Iraq and raz-ru-shi-li Bas-ru. In 876, in the south-east of Iraq, the Khalif-sky troops from-ra-zi-li on-stu-p-le-nie on Baghdad Yaku-ba ibn Ley-sa as-Saf -fa-ra (see the article Saf-fa-ri-dy), and from 890 Southern Iraq became the scene of the resurrection of kar-matov. Os-lab-le-tion of the central government and away from Ha-li-fa-ta bol-shin-st-va pro-vin-tions led to the fact that in the middle of the 10th century, the un-mediocre power of the kha-li-fs was ras-pro-country only on Baghdad with pri-go-ro-da-mi, on the Middle and Lower Me-so-po-ta-myu.

In 945, Baghdad passed under the control of the di-na-stia of Bui-dov; ab-ba-sid-sky ha-li-fa eyes-were in-the-same-nii of their even captives. The rule of Bui-dov, the adherents of the women of Shii-tiz-ma, was from-me-che-but in Iraq, there was a growth of privileges for Shii-tov and Usi -le-ni-em vra-zh-deb-no-sti me-zh-du ni-mi and sun-ni-ta-mi. Baghdad fak-ti-che-ski split into separate kvar-ta-ly, someone would be one-but-kind-us-mi in et-no-confessio -nal-nome from-no-she-nii, ok-ru-same-we ste-na-mi and had their own city in-fra-struct-tu-ru and or-ga-ny sa-mo-up -equation. In the 10th - early 11th centuries, most of Northern Me-so-po-ta-miya was na-ho-di-las under the rule of the Arab di-na-stiy be-du-in-sko-go pro-is-ho- w-de-niya - Ham-da-ni-dov, Ukai-li-dov, etc. as well as the dis-construction of oro-si-tel-ny systems in Southern Iraq and the growing from-tok to-se-le-nia, Baghdad until the XIII century os-ta-val -is a leading in-tel-lek-tu-al-nym center of the Mu-Sulman world, a place of interaction of various cultures and religions .

In 1055, Iraq was captured by sel-ju-ka-mi and became one of the provinces of their vast state. Ho-tya sul-ta-ny from di-na-stiya Sel-dzhu-ki-dov, in-li-chie from Bui-dov, would it be pri-ver-wives-tsa-mi sun-niz-ma , the status of ab-ba-sid-skikh ha-li-fov did not pre-ter-sing for-met-nyh from me-not-ny. They preserve the av-to-ri-tet of the spiritual heads of the Mu-Islamic world; re-al-naya is the same power in Bagda-de and Iraq as a whole at-over-le-zha-la sel-juk-skim on-me-st-ni-kam. At the beginning of the 12th century, the power of the Sel-ju-ki-dov os-lab-la, and their state on-cha-lo dis-pa-give-sya. In the ter-ri-to-rii of modern Iraq in the 1110s, the military officer of the West-sel-juk-sky (Iraqi) sul-ta-nat, as part of someone-ro-go -di-whether also Azerbaijan-bai-jan, Syria, Khu-ze-stan (Khu-zi-stan), Is-fa-khan and other regions. Iraqi sul-ta-nat pro-su-sche-st-vo-val until the end of the 12th century in ob-sta-nov-ke ozhes-to-chen-no-go pro-ti-vo-bor-st- va with po-lytic co-per-ni-ka-mi: in Mo-su-le in 1127, ut-ver-di-las di-na-stiya Zen-gi-dov, on the se-ve-ro -east of Iraq, their own state was created by is-mai-li-you, and the ab-ba-sid-kha-li-fas in the middle of the XII century you-were the central regions of Iraq from under the power of Sel-ju-ki-dov. Av-to-ri-tet Ab-ba-si-dov and pre-stige Baghda-da especially-ben-but grew-whether under ha-li-fah al-Muk-ta-fi (1136-1160 years), al-Mus-tand-ji-de (1160-1170 years) and al-Mus-ta-di (1170-80 years), some su-me-li raz-gro-mit from- rows of Turkic and Arab emirs, ov-la-det El-Khil-loy, Ku-foi and Wa-si-tom and spread their power over Central and Southern Iraq. Their pre-em-nick kha-lif an-Na-sir (1180-1225) pre-ten-do-val for the role of the political li-de-ra of the Mu-Sulman world. One-on-to-torture ha-li-fov ob-edi-thread mu-sul-man in front of the face of over-vi-gayu-sche-scha with the Mongolian ug-ro -zy not uven-cha-lis us-pe-hom. On February 12, 1258, Baghdad was over-hva-chen ar-mi-ey of the Mongolian il-ha-na Hu-la-gu. In those 40 days, the city was subjected to robbing; mon-go-ly pe-re-bi-li about 100 thousand baghdads and kaz-ni-li ha-li-fa al-Mustasim (1242-1258). Pa-de-nie Ba-gda-da and the capture of Iraq mon-go-la-mi shook the Muslim world and would you perceive it as apo-ka-lip -tic events. The ter-ri-to-riya of modern Iraq became part of the chin-gi-sid-sko-go ulu-sa Hu-la-gui-dov.

In re-zul-ta-te of the Mongolian na-she-st-viy, co-pro-in-g-da-she-go-sya demon-sparingly-grab-le-ni-em settled lyh re-gio-news, would there be a thunder-le-na oro-si-tel-nye sys-te-we in southern Iraq and a ra-zo-ryon land-le-deal way in al-Jah -zi-re, that for several centuries pre-before-pre-de-li-lo eco-no-mic, de-mo-graphic and cultural stagnation of the country. Tor-go-in-eco-no-mic center of the Middle Eastern region-na-re-mes-til-sya from Iraq (Ba-gdad) to the north of Iran (Teb-riz and Sul-ta- nie). From-no-she-niya between the language-ni-ka-mi-mon-go-la-mi and the Muslim pain-shin-st-vom of their subjects first-in-on- chal-but would-whether hostility-deb-ny-mi, in si-lu che-go Hu-la-gui-dy in-cro-vi-tel-st-vo-va-li hri-sti-an-skim and the Jewish communities of Iraq, willingly using no-mu-sul-man in the public service. Nevertheless, the Mongolian nobility is in a degree-pen-but under-pa-da-la under the influence of the ara-bo-mu-sulman culture. In 1295, Gazan Khan accepted Islam and pro-voz-la-forces of his state re-li-gi-ey; after this, after-to-va-la vol-on go-not-niy on me-so-po-tam-sky christi-an. Despite the tortures of Ga-zan-kha-na and his pre-em-ni-kov, point out the eco-no-mic life of the Middle East and uk-re -drink state structures, los-kut-noe state Hu-la-gui-dov ras-pa-moose as a result of un-successful wars with Zo-lo-that Or-doy , Cha-ga-tai-da-mi, mam-luk-skim Egypt-tom. In 1335, a significant part of the modern territory of Iraq, fak-ti-che-ski, went under the control of the Mongolian military-no-ko-che-voi group-pi-rov-ki (and for- those di-na-stii) Je-lai-ri-dov, having adopted the ara-bo-mu-sulman culture. Since 1340, Je-lai-ri-dy pe-re-sta-whether you-dvi-gat ma-rio-not-precise il-ha-nov-Khu-la-gui-dov and already for-mal- but govern-la-Iraq and north-western Iran as not-for-vi-si-my go-su-da-ri. At the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th centuries, Iraq not-once-but-ra-zo-rya-li howl-ska Ti-mu-ra, claiming its inhabitants. In re-zul-ta-te on-ho-dov Ti-mu-ra in the southern and central part of Me-so-po-ta-mii, christ-sti-an-skoe-on-se- le-nie (communities not-hundred-ri-an-as-si-riy-tsev co-stored only in ok-ru-ge Mo-su-la and the mountains of Kur -di-sta-on).

With death, Ti-mu-ra (1405) -house, one-at-a-ko in 1410 after-ter-pe-whether in the fight against the con-fe-de-ra-qi-she ko-che-vyh Turkmen tribes Eastern Ana-to-lii - Ka-ra-Ko-yun-lu (“black-no-ba-ran-nyh”). Almost a hundred years of Ka-ra-Ko-yun-lu and their co-per-ni-ki Ak-Ko-yun-lu (“white-lo-ba-early”) authorities in-va-li in most of the ter-ri-to-rii Me-so-po-ta-mii. It was a pe-ri-od of a deep decline in city life and the owner of Ira-ka.

Iraq in the Ottoman era. At the beginning of the 16th century, a part of the ter-ri-to-rii of Iraq became part of the der-zha-you Se-fe-vid-dov (Bagdad was Is-mai-la I in 1508), which is both-st-ri-lo from-no-she-niya se-fe-vid-sko-go-Iran and Os-man-im-pe-rii. In the battle at Chal-dy-ra-ne (August 23, 1514), the Os-Man army defeated the Iranian troops, after which the Upper Me-so -po-ta-miya passed under the control of Stam-boo-la. In the years 1533-1535 and 1548-1555 Su-lei-man I Ka-nu-ni for-war-shaft also Lower Me-so-po-ta-miya with Baggda-dom and Bas- Roy. According to the conditions of the mi-ra, behind the key-chon-no-go in 1555 in Ama-sye, the Iranian Shah Tah-masp I recognized the Ottoman power in Iraq, one -ko country for even more than 80 years was-ta-va-las in-lem co-per-no-che-st-va of two empires. In 1623, Shah Abbas I conquered a significant part of Iraq with Baghda-dom and the sacred places for the Shiites of the city-ro-da-mi Ker-be-la and Ne -dzhef (En-Na-jaf). Se-fe-vi-dy hold-wa-li Iraq until 1638, until it was again from-voe-van by the Turkish army and windows-cha-tel-but included in the composition Os-man-sky im-pe-rii. Under Se-fe-vi-dah, the Iraqi sun-ni-you under-ver-ha-lis went-no-ni-yam; the same fate befell the local Shiites after the resurrection of the Ottoman authorities. Gra-ni-tsa, us-ta-nov-len-naya between Os-man Iraq and Iran according to the agreement of 1639, almost owls-pa-da- em with the modern border of the two countries.

Having established their dominion in Iraq, the os-mans once-de-li-whether it into a number of provinces (eya-le-tov; hey-a-le-tov) with cent- tra-mi in Mo-su-le and Baggda-de (later - in Bas-re). To the Iraqi re-gio-well, cha-go-te-li is also eya-le-you Shah-ri-zor (to the east of Ti-gra) and El-Ha-sa (on the western be- re-gu Per-sid-th hall.). In the XVI-XVII centuries, frequent wars interfered with the economic development of Iraq, the area of ​​\u200b\u200bob-ra-ba-you-vae-myh lands was not-significant-chi-tel-noy, to-lo-vin-na on-se-le-niya ve-lo-ko-che-howl or in-lu-ko-che-howl way of life. By the end of the 17th century, the power of the os-mans in Iraq was os-lab-la, the me-st-nye pa-shi began to use the shi-ro-koi av-tono-mi-ey. At the beginning of the 18th century, Iraqi eya-le-you (with the exception of Mo-su-la and the Kurdish principalities) were ob-e-di-ne-na under the rule Kha-san-pa-shi (1704-1723), ar-nau-ta (al-ban-tsa) according to pro-is-ho-zh-de-ny. Vos-pol-zo-vav-shis ira-no-os-man-ski-mi war-na-mi of the 1720-1740s and the resurrection of the Arab tribes, his pre-em-ni -ki-Ha-sa-ni-dy pre-vra-ti-whether your power in the next-st-ven-nuyu. Until the 1830s, power in Iraq was in the hands of mam-lu-kov (Turkish - kyu-le-me-ny). Na-cha-lo their mo-gu-sche-st-vu lo-lived Ha-san-pa-sha himself, os-no-vav-shiy in Baggda-de school-lu, in someone -swarm trained and re-pi-you-va-li-bo-do-mom-lu-ki. They came from Kav-ka-za (mainly from Georgia; they kept their language and ties with their homeland). Mam-lu-ki in Iraq is not only a military force, including the personal guard of the right-wi-te-la, but also the administrative elite. Ho-cha can-di-da-tu-ry of Iraqi pa-shey were approved in Stam-bu-le, their appointment to the post for-vis-se-lo from is- ho-da fight between Iraqi mam-luk-ski-mi do-ma-mi, from palace-tsov in-trigs, in-zi-tion in-zh-day large Arab and Kurdish tribes, and not-rarely from foreign influence.

Inner-ren-her and outer-her-lo-the-same-of Iraq under mam-lu-kah was-lo mustache-toy-chi-vym; only out of red it os-lie-nya-moose you-stu-p-le-niya-mi yany-char (1748), clash-but-ve-niya-mi with Iran (on-pa -de-mation of mam-lu-kov on Ker-man-shah in 1723 and Ha-ma-dan in 1724, the second of Iranian Na-dir-sha-ha in 1733 and 1742) and on- le-ta-mi wah-ha-bi-tov from Arabia (capture and destruction of Ker-be-ly in 1802). Mam-luk-sky pra-vi-te-li co-dey-st-vo-va-li once-vi-tiyu re-myo-sel, build-whether honey-re-se, ba-za-ry and ka -ra-van-sa-rai, under-der-zhi-wa-whether in the right state of oro-si-tel-nye systems-te-we. From the middle of the 18th century, British, Dutch and Portuguese merchants settled in southern Iraq; representative of the British East India Company would have been opened in Bas-ra (1763) and Baggda-de (1798). Under Su-ley-man-pa-she We-li-kom (Arabic - Su-ley-man al-Ka-bir, Turkish - Bu-yuk Su-ley-man) in 1780-1802 and Da- oud-pa-she come alive-wee-lis agriculture and trade-la.

In 1831, the Ottoman authorities under-chi-ni-li se-be the Iraqi rights-vi-te-ley. Pa-de-nie Da-ud-pa-shi owl-pa-lo with epi-de-mi-she chu-we, on-water-no-no-em and hunger-lo-house, what with-ve- lo to a part-tich-no-mu deprivation of the country (the number of people in Iraq at the beginning of the 19th century was 1.28 million people, wilted only in the 1870s, wowed to the beginning of the First World War), de-construction of its irrigation systems and eco-but -mic life. In the 1830-1850s, in the eco-no-mi-ke of Iraq, the meaning of ko-che-in-go-ho-zya-st-va, city-ro-da and urban re- the month came to a decline (the number of zhi-te-lei Ba-gda-da so-kra-ti-moose from 150 thousand to 20 thousand people, Bas-ry - from 80 thousand to 5-6 thousands of people). Continued border conflicts with Iran. In 1842-1843, the Os-manian troops from-ra-zi-li seconded to Su-lei-ma-niyu and Ker-be-lu army of Kadzha-rov and great-ve-lis with not-lo-yal-ny Stam-bu-lu shi-it-sky on-se-le-ni-em of Iraq. For-the-key-of the Os-man-im-pe-ri-ey and Iran-nom Er-ze-rum-go-to-go-in-ra of 1847 did not us-ra-ni-lo them mutual pre-ten-zis on Kur-di-stan and along the be-re-jee of the Shatt al-Arab river.

Iraq's exit from the social and economic crisis was associated with the scale of re-for-ma-mi (see the article Tan-zi-mat), about -ve-den-ny-mi os-man-sky ad-mi-ni-st-ra-qi-ey in the 2nd half of the 19th century. Back in 1848, the 6th (Ba-gdad) Corps of the Os-Man Army was created and the military and administrative authorities in Iraq were divided, which -st-in-va-lo og-ra-ni-che-niyu of the power of pa-shi (wa-li) and the center-tra-li-for-tion of administrative management. The Ottoman authorities should pay special attention to the re-mon-tu of irrigation canals and dams, emphasizing go-about-lo-same-nia and in-ze-mel-nyh from-but-she-ny. Wishing to ob-e-di-thread the dis-united pro-provinces of Iraq and uk-re-drink its connections with Stam-bu-lom, os-man-skie gu-ber-na -to-ry in the 1860s from-me-no-whether internal ta-mo-women-s-shel-us and uso-ver-shen-st-vo-whether transport-com- mu-ni-ka-tion (laying lines of tele-le-gra-fa; on-cha-lo pa-ro-move-no-go communication along the Tig-ru; build-tel-st-in highways-this-nyh roads).

The most in-ten-siv-nye pre-ob-ra-zo-va-nia in Os-man Iraq were connected with the activities of the gu-ber- na-to-ra Ba-gda-da A. Mid-hat-pa-shi in 1869-1872. Under him, there was re-re-building Baghdad, creating industrial enterprises, ar-se-nal, on a small scale would-cha oil-ti. Mid-hat-pa-sha co-dey-st-in-val raz-vi-tiyu sis-te-we o-ra-zo-va-niya, you-launch the first newspaper in Iraq "az- Za-cheers" in Turkish and Arabic, encouraged the re-move of ko-chev-ni-kov to settle down. In 1871, under the leadership of Mid-hat-pa-shi, the Os-Man-sky troops of Iraq, under the pretext of helping the pra-vi-te-lu Sau-dov-sko-go emi-ra- that Ab-dal-la-hu ibn Fey-sa-lu in the inter-common struggle-be ok-ku-pi-ro-wa-li of the prince-same-st-va El-Ha-sy. On the de-le ras-shi-re-nie of the Turkish presence in Ara-wii there were-lo ob-words-le-but striving-le-ni-em Stam-bu-la pro-ti-vo -de-st-in-vat-to-torture We-li-ko-bri-ta-nii for-kre-drink-sya on the coast of the Persian Gulf. Before-on-cha-scrap of the military operation of the va-li of Iraq, they beat from the kuwait-sko-go shei-ha Ab-dal-la-ha ibn Sa-ba-ha ( 1866-1892) recognition of the os-man-sko-go su-ze-re-ni-te-ta and declared it to be my own for-mes-ti-te-lem (kai- ma-ka-mom).

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries, in-tel-lek-tu-al-nuyu and spiritual-at-mo-sphere in the Iraqi society-st-ve op-re-de-la-li mu -Sulman religious institutes-tu-tu-you and pat-ri-ar-khal-ny way of life. The rise of the Arabic na-tsio-na-liz-ma after Mla-do-to-tu-retz-coy re-vo-lu-tion of 1908 weakly for-tro-null on-se-le-Iraq , most of someone-ro-go co-storage-nya-la ar-ha-ich-ny way of life and would-la iso-li-ro-va-na from political and cultural-tour-no-th influence of the European powers. On the other hand, a number of Os-man officers of the Iraqi pro-is-ho-zh-de-niya were in secret organizations "al-Kah-ta-niyya" and "al-Ahd", you-st-fallen-shih for not-for-vi-si-bridge of the Arab provinces of im-pe-rii.

Iraqi Republic, state in the Southwest. Asia, in Mesopotamia. The name appeared in the 7th-8th centuries. n. e. after Arab, the conquest of the territory along the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates, inhabited in ancient times. Arab, Iraq "shore, coast".

Geographical names of the world: Toponymic dictionary. - M: AST. Pospelov E.M. 2001 .

Iraq

(Iraq), a state in the Middle East, between Syria, Turkey, Iran and Saudi Arabia; goes to V. in a narrow strip to Persian Gulf . Pl. 441.8 thousand km²; consists of 18 governorates. Capital - Baghdad ; other large cities - Basra , Mosul , Erbil , Kirkuk , Karbala , Nasiriyah, An Najaf , Umm Qasr (main seaport). Population 23.3 million people (2001); townspeople - 76%; Arabs 75%, Kurds live in the north (18%; have had national autonomy since 1977), Assyrians, Turkmens, Armenians, Chaldeans. The majority of the population are Shia Muslims (60–65%; live mainly in the south, their sacred centers are An-Najaf, Karbala, Samarra) and Sunni Muslims (32–37%; in the center and in the northwest); a small number of Yezidis, Christians, Mandaeans. Official language - Arabic; Kurdish - in the northern regions ( Kurdistan ). The population is concentrated in the river valleys Tiger and Euphrates , as well as in the urban agglomerations of Baghdad and Basra.
Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia) is one of the oldest centers of civilization. The first states (Ur, Kish, Lagash) arose in the interfluve of the Tigris and Euphrates in the 4th-3rd millennia BC, and in the 3rd-1st millennia - Akkad, Babylonia, Assyria, which in the middle of the 6th century. BC. were conquered by the Persians, in the middle of the IV century. BC. - Alexander the Great, in the III century. BC. - Parthians. From the 3rd century AD the territory of Iraq was part of Persia (Iran), in the middle of the 7th century. it was conquered by the Arabs (included in the Abassid Caliphate), and in 1534 by the Ottoman Turks. In 1914 Yuzh. Iraq was occupied by British troops, and from 1922 all of Iraq became a British mandate. Since 1932, India has been an independent emirate, and since 1958, a republic. In 1979–2003 the country was ruled by the totalitarian regime of Saddam Hussein, who waged wars with neighbors (Iran, Kuwait) and against which the UN introduced the economy in 1990. sanctions. In the spring of 2003, the Anglo-American coalition overthrew this regime by military means, and all the previous state. institutions (the Ba'ath Party, the Revolutionary Command Council, the Majlis el-Watani) were abolished. Management is carried out by an interim American administration, which will be replaced by an Iraqi one after the elections.
B.ch. I. takes Mesopotamian lowland , on NW. plateau Jezire (Upper Mesopotamia), to the west and south - Syrian and Arabian desert , on SV. - south. spurs Zagros(the highest point of Haji Ibrahim - 3613 m). In the north, the climate is of the Mediterranean continental type; in the south, it is dry tropical; sufficient amount of precipitation falls only in the mountains. With SZ. to SE. the territory of the country is crossed by the rivers Tigris and Euphrates; merging near the Persian Hall. (near El-Kurn), they form the river. Shatt al Arab (193 km), the valley of which is heavily swamped. Steppes predominate, turning into deserts and semi-deserts. The Euphrates and Tigris valleys have fertile alluvial soils.
The basis of the economy is oil production (more than 11% of the world's oil reserves are concentrated on the territory of India; the main centers are Kirkuk, Ain Zala, Ez-Zubair, Rumaila) and the export of crude oil, which provide 95% of the country's income. Oil is exported through a network of oil pipelines (4350 km) to the ports of the Mediterranean Sea and the Persian Gulf. Economy UN sanctions and the oil-for-food program in the 1990s limited its exports. In present time the oil sector is controlled by Anglo-American companies. Extraction of natural gas, sulfur, phosphates, salt. Petrochemical, met.-mod., el.-tech., cement., text., food. prom. After hostilities 1980–88, 1991, 1998–99, 2003 the country's economy fell into decline, and in the present. time most prom. enterprises are not working. Only 12% of the territory is cultivated and cultivated, irrigated agriculture prevails. Barley, wheat, rice, vegetables, cotton, gourds, tobacco, and date palms are grown (in the Basra region). Sheep and cattle are bred. Main transp. axes: Mosul - Baghdad - Basra, Erbil - Kirkuk - Baghdad, Baghdad - Ramadi - Kusayba, the Tigris and Euphrates rivers; main ports - Umm Qasr, Fao, Ez-Zubair, Basra; intl. Baghdad airport. Numerous monuments of the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia (Babylon, Nineveh, Nippur, Nimrud, etc.), Muslim shrines, mosques have been preserved. Cash unit - Iraqi dinar and US dollar.

Dictionary of modern geographical names. - Yekaterinburg: U-Factoria. Under the general editorship of Acad. V. M. Kotlyakova. 2006 .

The Republic of Iraq, a state in Southwest Asia. In the north it borders with Turkey, in the east with Iran, in the west with Jordan and Syria, in the south with Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, in the extreme southeast it has access to the Persian Gulf. For a long time, Iraq, together with Saudi Arabia, owned a neutral zone used by the nomadic pastoralists of both countries. In 1975 and 1981, agreements were reached on the division of this territory, which actually took place in 1987. The border between Iraq and Iran along the Shatt al-Arab river remains controversial: Iraq claims the entire channel, and Iran believes that the border should run in the middle rivers.
Iraq occupies the territory between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, known since biblical times as Mesopotamia. Its inhabitants created the oldest Sumerian civilization based on irrigated agriculture. Later, Mesopotamia was part of the great ancient states - Babylonia and Assyria.
NATURE
Terrain, water resources and minerals. The territory of Iraq is divided into four main natural regions: the mountainous north and northeast, Upper Mesopotamia (El Jazeera plain), the alluvial plains of Lower Mesopotamia and the desert plateaus of the southwest.
The mountainous region is located to the east of the Tigris river valley. The northern mountains are the spurs of the Eastern Taurus, and the northeastern ones are the Zagros. The surface of this region gradually rises from the Tigris valley to the northeast from 500 to 2000 m. Separate mountain ranges rise above 2000 m above sea level, and the peaks in the border zone are above 3000 m above sea level. Here, on the border with Iran, there is the highest nameless peak of the country - 3607 m above sea level.
Folded mountains with steep slopes and often peneplanated ridges stretch parallel to the Iraqi-Turkish and Iraqi-Iranian borders. They are composed of limestones, gypsums, marls and sandstones and are deeply dissected by numerous streams of the Tigris basin. The Ravanduz gorge with the Shinek mountain pass stands out especially. The road connecting Iraq with Iran passes through this gorge.
The hilly plain of El Jazeera (translated as "island") is located on the interfluve of the middle reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers north of the cities of Samarra (on the Tigris river) and Hit (on the Euphrates river) and rises northward from about 100 to 450 m above sea level In places, the flat character of the terrain is broken by low mountains. In the east, the Makhul and Khamrin ridges (with a peak of 526 m a.s.l.) are elongated submeridionally, and in the northwest, sublatitudinally, the higher Sinjar mountains (with a peak of Shelmira 1460 m a.s.l.) are elongated. The plain is deeply dissected by numerous wadis, the flow of which is directed to the Euphrates or internal depressions and lakes. The Tigris and Euphrates within El Jazeera flow in narrow valleys, most deeply incised in the north and northwest.
Lower Mesopotamia extends southeast as far as the Persian Gulf and is ca. 500 km, area approx. 120 thousand sq. km, is composed of alluvial deposits and is characterized by a flat relief. Its absolute heights are usually less than 100 m above sea level. (in the north, in the Baghdad region, - 40 m, in the south, near Basra, - 2-3 m). The monotonous relief is broken in places by natural coastal ridges, numerous channels, irrigation and drainage channels. In many areas, the bottoms of the Tigris and Euphrates are elevated above the surrounding area. The slopes of the channels of both rivers are insignificant, so the flow is difficult and extensive swamps have formed in the southeast. In addition, Lower Mesopotamia abounds in lakes. The largest of them are El-Milh, El-Hammar, Es-Saadia, El-Habbaniya.
The southwestern desert region is a continuation of the Syrian-Arabian plateau. Its surface gradually decreases towards the valley of the Euphrates River and to the south from 700–800 m in the west to 200–300 m in the east and south. Flat-topped remnant hills and hills rise above the rubble-pebble surface. Sometimes there are sandy deserts and dune fields. The plateau is separated from the alluvial plain by a clear ledge up to 6 m high. Numerous wide wadis originate within the plateau, the flow of which is directed to the Euphrates valley. Wadis fill with water only after occasional downpours.
The rivers Tigris and Euphrates, which cross the entire country, are the most full-flowing in the entire Middle East, and play an important role in the economy of Iraq. The Euphrates originates from the confluence of the Karasu and Murat rivers, the sources of which are located in the Armenian Highlands in Turkey, then through the territory of Syria it enters the borders of Iraq. In these countries, the waters of the Euphrates are largely taken for hydropower and other economic needs. The length of the Euphrates (from the sources of the Murat River) is approx. 3060 km. In the upper reaches of the Euphrates - a stormy mountain river, in Syria its course slows down somewhat, near the Syrian-Turkish border, the width of the channel is 150 m, and the speed of the flow is 1.5–2 m / s. The height difference is on average 1 m per 1 km. After the city of Heath, the width of the river is approx. 1.5 km at average depths of 2–3 m, the current is calm with a height difference of less than 9 cm per 1 km. At the confluence of the Euphrates with the Tigris, a full-flowing Shatt al-Arab stream with a length of approx. 190 km, flowing into the Persian Gulf. Below the city of Faisalia, the bed of the Euphrates bifurcates and reconnects above the city of Es-Samava. Further, downstream, south of the city of An-Nasiriya, the river bifurcates again and changes the direction of the flow to sublatitudinal. One stream flows into the Shatt al-Arab near the city of El-Kurna, and the other feeds the lake-marsh system of El-Hammar and, flowing out of the lake of the same name, also flows into the Shatt-al-Arab above Basra. The peak of the flood falls in April - June, when the snow melts in the mountains, and the low water in August - October.
The Tigris River, 1850 km long, originates from the lake. Khazar in the Armenian Highlands in Turkey and for almost 1500 km flows through the territory of Iraq. In the middle reaches, this rather turbulent river has a narrow channel that runs through a series of mountain ranges in northern Iraq. Within the Mesopotamian lowland, the width of the channel ranges from 120 to 400 m, and the depth is from 1.5 to several meters. Flow rate approx. 2 m/s. Since here the level of the water surface is almost 1.5 m higher than the surrounding area, the channel is artificially dammed. Unlike the Euphrates, the Tigris has high-water tributaries that originate in the mountains of northeastern Iraq. The largest tributaries are the Big and Small Zab, Diyala, Kerkhe, El-Uzaym. The water content of the Tigris increases significantly from October to March. The peak of the flood occurs in April, less often in March, and low water in August - September. Floods in Iraq are often catastrophic and cause severe economic damage. Meanwhile, Iraq has significant hydropower resources.
The Euphrates, Tigris and Shatt al-Arab rivers carry a large amount of sediment that is deposited on the floodplain during floods. Together with silty precipitation due to high volatility, up to 22 million tons of chemicals are annually deposited on the soil surface. As a result, soil salinization increases south of Baghdad, which significantly limits agricultural activity, especially south of 32°N.
Many ore and non-metallic minerals lurk in the bowels of Iraq. The leading place among them is occupied by huge reserves of oil, natural gas, solid bitumen and asphalt. The main oil reserves are concentrated in the vicinity of Kirkuk (the Baba-Gurgur, Bai-Khassan, Jambur fields) and Khanakin in the foothills of the Zagros, in the south in the Basra region (the Er-Rumaila field) and in the north near Mosul. Brown coal deposits have been explored in the region of Kirkuk, Zakho and in the Hamrin mountains, table salt in the vicinity of Baghdad, iron ore in Sulaimaniya, copper ore, sulfur, bitumen near Mosul. Silver, lead, zinc, chromium, manganese, and uranium were also found. Iraq has huge reserves of building materials such as marble, limestone, quartz sand, dolomite, gypsum, clay, etc.
Climate, soil, flora and fauna. The climate of Iraq is subtropical Mediterranean with hot, dry summers and warm, rainy winters. Two seasons are most pronounced: a long hot summer (May-October) and a shorter cool and sometimes cold winter (December-March). In summer, the weather is usually cloudless and dry. Precipitation does not fall at all for four months, and in the remaining months of the warm season it is less than 15 mm.
The northern mountainous regions are characterized by hot dry summers and mild warm winters with rare frosts and frequent snowfalls. El Jazeera has dry hot summers and mild rainy winters. Lower Mesopotamia is characterized by hot summers and warm winters with rain and relatively high relative humidity. Dry hot summers and cool winters with rare rains are typical for the southwestern region. Significant seasonal and diurnal temperature fluctuations (sometimes as high as 30°C) have been recorded in many parts of Iraq.
Average temperatures in July are 32–35°C, maximum temperatures are 40–43°C, minimum temperatures are 25–28°C, absolute maximum is 57°C. Average January temperatures are +10–13°C, average January maximum is 16–18°C, minimum – 4–7° С, the absolute minimum in the north of the country reached –18° С.
Precipitation occurs mainly in winter (December-January), and there are few of them in the central and southern regions of the country: the average annual rainfall in Baghdad is 180 mm, in the southwest approx. 100 mm, in Basra 160 mm. As you move north, their number increases and amounts to approx. 300 mm in the plains and up to 500–800 mm in the mountains.
In summer (May-June), northwestern winds blow continuously, carrying a lot of sand (the so-called dust storms), and in winter, northeast winds prevail, especially strong in February.
In the valleys of the Euphrates and the Tigris and its tributaries, the most fertile alluvial-meadow and meadow soils are widespread. . True, in the south and east they experience strong salinization. In the southwest, in the interfluve of the Tigris and Euphrates, especially north of Baghdad, and on the left bank of the Tigris, serozems of subtropical steppes and semi-deserts, often saline, are widespread. The higher plateaus of El Jazeera are dominated by chestnut soils of the dry and desert steppes, while the mountains of the northeast are dominated by mountain chestnut and mountain brown soils. Barren sands are widespread in the south, the southeastern regions of Iraq are heavily waterlogged, and the soils are often saline.
The most widespread in Iraq is subtropical steppe and semi-desert vegetation, confined to the western, southwestern and southern regions (west and south of the Euphrates valley) and represented mainly by wormwood, saltwort, camel thorn, juzgun, astragalus. In El Jazeera and in the north-east of the country, steppe xerophytic and ephemeral-forb vegetation prevails. Above 2500 m, summer pastures are common. In the mountains in the north and northeast of the country, massifs of mountain-oak forests have been preserved, in which oaks predominate and there are comb (tamarix), pine, wild pear, pistachio, juniper, etc. At the foot of the mountain ranges, thorny bushes are common. The floodplain of the Euphrates, the Tigris and its tributaries is associated with tugai forest vegetation with shrub undergrowth, including poplars, willows, and comb. In the south-east of the country, large swampy areas are occupied by reed-reed thickets and solonchak vegetation. At present, in the river valleys of central and southern Iraq, up to the coast of the Persian Gulf, significant areas are set aside for date palm plantations.
The fauna of Iraq is not rich. In the steppes and semi-deserts there are gazelle, jackal, striped hyena. Rodents and reptiles are widespread, including the monitor lizard and the venomous cobra snake. Many waterfowl (flamingos, pelicans, ducks, geese, swans, herons, etc.) settle along the river banks. Rivers and lakes abound with fish. Carp, carp, catfish, etc. are of commercial importance. Horse mackerel, mackerel, barracuda, and shrimps are caught in the Persian Gulf. The real scourge of Iraq is insects, especially mosquitoes and mosquitoes, carriers of malaria and other diseases.
POPULATION
Demography. As of July 2004, there will be about 25.4 million inhabitants in Iraq. For several decades, the population of the country has increased rapidly due to high natural growth. Starting from 1957, when there were 6.4 million people, and until 1998, this figure exceeded 2.5% per year. The birth rate gradually decreased, from 4.9% in the 1950s to less than 3.2% in the 1990s. Citizens in 1957 accounted for 39% of all residents, and in 1997 - 72%. The death rate declined even faster than the birth rate, from 2.2% in the early 1950s to 0.8% in the late 1990s, primarily due to lower infant and child mortality. An estimated 42% of the residents were children under 15, 55% were between the ages of 15 and 65, and 3% were 65 or older.
Immigration was balanced to a large extent by emigration: in the 1980s, approx. 1 million people from some Middle Eastern and other Asian countries. Several hundred thousand Iraqis live outside of it, in Western Europe and the United States, as well as in other Arab countries, in particular in Syria and the states of the Persian Gulf. In 1980-1988, during the Iran-Iraq War, c. 500,000 Iraqi Shiites were deported to Iran. In the summer of 1988, after the defeat of the uprising in Iraqi Kurdistan, thousands of its inhabitants fled to neighboring regions of Turkey.
Ethnolinguistic and religious composition of the population. 75% of the country's population are Arabs, approx. 18% are Kurds, 7% are Turkmen, Assyrians, Armenians and other small ethnic groups. Kurds form the majority in the northern and northeastern regions of the country. Throughout the 20th century Kurdish leaders and their supporters fought for independence or autonomy within modern Iraq. Kurds initially belonged mainly to semi-nomadic tribes, but then moved to a settled way of life, and the spread of education, population migration to cities and various political shifts contributed to the decrease in the power of Kurdish tribal leaders. Sunni Turkmen live mainly in the city of Kirkuk. The Assyrians originally belonged to an ancient Christian community, as did the Armenians, most of whom are descendants of refugees who arrived in Iraq during or immediately after the First World War.
The most widely spoken language is Arabic, used in government and educational institutions. Kurdish, which is spoken in the north of the country, also has official status.
The vast majority of Iraqis (95%) profess Islam and belong to the Imami communities (almost all of them are Arabs) and Sunnis. Shiites make up about half of all Muslims and predominate in the south. In other areas, the majority are Sunnis. There are many shrines of the Imamis in Iraq: in An-Najaf, Karbala, Samarra and Al-Qasimiya (one of the urban areas of Baghdad). Christianity is practiced by 3% of the population.
Modern Iraq is ruled predominantly by Sunni Arabs, people from Baghdad and Mosul. However, in recent decades, some Shiites and Iraqi Christians have held top government positions, such as Sadun Hamadi and Tariq Aziz. Educated Iraqis from outlying small towns were also appointed to some leadership positions, regardless of their religious or national affiliation.
Cities. According to the 1998 census, the population of Baghdad was 5123 thousand people, about a quarter of the entire population of Iraq. The capital grew at the expense of rural migrants and their descendants, who settled mainly in the urban areas of Saura and Esh-Shura. In 1998, there were about 1.5 million each in Mosul and Basra, and approx. 800 thousand people.
GOVERNMENT
Legislative and executive power. Iraq was proclaimed a republic after the overthrow of the monarch in 1958. An interim constitution, adopted in the same year, proclaimed the people to be the bearer of the supreme power in the country, Islam the state religion, and Iraq a part of the "Arab nation". The constitution confirmed the right to private property, freedom of speech and the press. In 1964 a new provisional constitution was approved. All citizens were given equal rights, regardless of race, religion or language. The constitution declared the main goal to achieve Arab unity. Subsequently, new interim constitutions came into force in 1968 and 1970, the latter being amended in 1973, 1974 and 1995. The most important of these was the recognition of "the rights of the Kurdish population." In 1973, the president of the republic, in addition to the post of supreme commander of the armed forces, received the post of chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), which consisted of 9 members and had the exclusive prerogatives of the highest legislative body until the first elections in 1980 of the National Council (unicameral parliament). The Parliament considers bills adopted by the SRC and submits them to the President for publication, and also independently considers bills that do not concern financial, military and public security issues and submits them to the SRC. The latter, if the bill is approved, submits it to the president for signature. Thus, the legislature includes the president, the SRK and the parliament, which consists of 250 deputies (30 of them are appointed by the president). The first parliamentary elections were held in 1980. At the same time, elections were held for the Legislative Council of the Kurdish Autonomous Region, consisting of 50 deputies. The term of office of the National Council is 4 years. The last election campaign took place in 2000.
Initially, it was enough to get two-thirds of the votes in the SRC to occupy the presidency. In accordance with the constitutional amendment of 1995, the head of state is elected for a 7-year term by popular referendum. On October 15, 1995, a referendum extended Saddam Hussein's powers for another term, and on October 15, 2002, another similar referendum took place, extending the president's term in office for another 7 years. In fact, Saddam Hussein is a sovereign dictator. The head of state is in charge of the Council of Ministers, whose members are appointed and dismissed by his order.
Judicial system. Iraq has adopted a mixed system of law, including Islamic law (to determine personal status) and European, mainly French, law. There are three schools of Muslim law: Hanafi (among Sunni Arabs), Shafi'i (among Sunni Kurds) and Jafarite (among Shia Arabs). Civil and economic cases are heard in numerous local courts of first instance, consisting of one judge appointed by the Ministry of Justice. The judgments of these courts can be appealed to the five circuit courts of appeal. The highest appellate body for civil cases is the Court of Cassation in Baghdad. In parallel with the courts of first instance, Sharia courts operate in which household, inheritance and religious cases are considered. In each territorial unit under the jurisdiction of a certain appellate court, there are criminal courts in charge of criminal cases. In addition, there are revolutionary courts that deal with political, economic and financial disputes related to the security of the state.
Administrative-territorial division. The main administrative divisions of Iraq are governorates (provinces). They are divided into kazy (districts) and nakhi (districts). There are 18 governorates in total, three of which - Dahuk, Erbil and Sulaymaniyah - form the Kurdish Autonomous Region in the north of the country.
Political parties and social movements. In the conditions of a monarchical system, from 1921 to 1958, political power belonged mainly to a small circle of privileged families. Despite the fact that from the beginning of the 1920s a parliament was convened and the activities of parties were officially allowed, the possibilities for opposition activity and criticism of the ruling elite remained extremely limited. As a result, legal political organizations, although not completely devoid of influence, were characterized by a small number and consisted mainly of supporters of well-known political figures. The most authoritative parties—the Iraqi Communist Party, the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (Baath Party), and the Kurdistan Democratic Party (founded in 1946)—operated underground.
Iraqi Communist Party. Under the monarchical regime, the Iraqi Communist Party (ICP), founded in 1934, was the most influential political organization. Along with the opposition to the authorities, she supported social reforms and gaining national independence. After the overthrow of the king, under the government Abdel Kerim Qasem(1958–1963), the party was semi-legal for a short time. When the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party was in power, especially in 1963 and after 1979, the ICP was severely persecuted, many of its members were arrested and executed. Like all other opposition forces, the ICP is outlawed. In the late 1970s, the Communist Party supported the liberation movement in Kurdistan by allying with the Kurdistan Democratic Party. In the 1960s and then in the late 1980s, the ICP split into several factions. Most ICP activists in opposition to the regime live in exile, mostly in Western Europe. In 1996, the "renewed" ICP was allowed to openly operate in the country, but it does not play any political role.
Arab Socialist Renaissance Party(Baath). The fundamental principles of Ba'athism - "a single Arab nation with an eternal mission", expressed in the slogan "unity (creation of a single Arab state), freedom (liberation of all Arab states from colonial dependence) and socialism (building a single Arab socialist society)" - were developed at the end 1940s in Syria, where the Ba'ath Party was formed in 1947. In Iraq, the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party began functioning in 1954 as a regional branch of the all-Arab Ba'ath Party. In 1957, together with the ICP and other parties, it joined the National Unity Front and took part in the revolution of 1958. The party was represented in the first republican government.
In February 1963, supporters of the ideas of "Arabism" - the military and the Ba'athists overthrew Qasem and undertook repressions against the communists and their supporters. The Ba'ath Party formed a government (which fell already in November). The Ba'ath Party was forced to go underground. This party again came to power in July 1968 as a result of a coup d'état. In the early years, Saddam Hussein - the second person in the state after President Bakr - invited the former implacable opponents, the communists and the Democratic Party of Kurdistan, to join the Ba'ath in the framework of the Progressive National Patriotic Front, which was implemented in 1973.
By the late 1970s, membership in the Ba'ath had become a sign of loyalty to the ruling regime. After Saddam Hussein assumed the presidency of Iraq on July 16, 1979, and especially during the war with Iran in 1980-1988, the party began to be identified with Hussein himself, who, along with his closest associates and relatives, monopolized power.
Democratic Party of Kurdistan. The Iraqi branch of the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) was established in 1946 by Mustafa Barzani. One of the most important points of disagreement between Barzani and the central government was the borders of Kurdistan, in particular Barzani's demand to include Kirkuk and its environs, where most of Iraqi oil was produced, into the Kurdish Autonomous Region. Shortly after the Ba'ath came to power in 1968, hostilities broke out in Kurdistan. Realizing that the Kurds could not be defeated by military force, and trying to buy time, Saddam Hussein signed an agreement with Barzani in March 1970, known as the March Manifesto, which declared significant concessions to the Kurds. However, almost immediately after the release of the manifesto, the government began the forcible expulsion of Kurds from their homes, seeking to change the ethnic composition of the population of some areas, and in 1971 deported approx. 40 thousand Shia Kurds (faili). On March 11, 1974, in accordance with the provisions of the March Manifesto, the Kurdistan Autonomy Law was adopted and the authorities of the Kurdish Autonomous Region were established.
In March 1975, an Iran-Iraq agreement was signed in Algeria, according to which Mohammed Reza Pahlavi undertook an obligation not to provide further assistance to Barzani and not to allow the rearmament or regrouping of Kurdish forces on the territory of Iran. In response, Iraq agreed to move its border with Iran along the Shatt al-Arab river in the section below Basra from the left (eastern) bank to the middle line of the channel. In 1979, after the overthrow of the Shah's regime, the KDP, led by the sons of Barzani - Idris and Massoud, relying on the new Shiite regime in Iran, again took up arms against Baghdad. Throughout the 8 years of the war with Iran, Kurdistan remained the main center of organized armed opposition to the Baathist regime. The Kurds were supported by the communist resistance forces and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan, an organization led by Celal Talabani, which broke away from the KDP in 1975. Beginning in 1981, mass executions and deportation of hundreds of thousands of Kurds began to be carried out in Kurdistan by the central authorities.
Shiite opposition movement. The Shiite political movement in Iraq dates back to the late 1950s. Alarmed by the growth of communist influence in their community, several prominent religious leaders (ulema) of An-Najaf, led by Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr, founded in the fall of 1958 their own political organization, the Association of An-Najaf Ulema.
In the late 1960s, the An-Najaf Ulema Association was transformed into the Islamic Appeal political party, to which the Baath responded with brutal repression. In 1974, five ulema were executed without trial, and in February 1977, during the religious holiday of Muharram in cities where Muslim shrines are located, numerous arrests were made. Eight clerics were executed and fifteen were sentenced to life imprisonment. Inspired by the Islamic Revolution of 1979 in Iran, where political power passed into the hands of Shiite religious leaders, the Islamic Call came into open conflict with its own government. Ba'ath institutions and police stations were attacked, and support for the new leadership of Iran was openly declared. In turn, the Baath took punitive action against the Islamic Call, declaring membership in this party a crime worthy of the death penalty. Already in April 1980, Ayatollah Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr and his sister Bint Huba were executed. The war with Iran that began in September served as a pretext for launching a struggle against the Shiite movement in Iraq.
Foreign policy. Iraq's foreign policy in the 1970s–1980s was guided by the growing influence of Saudi Arabia and the small oil-producing states of the Arabian Peninsula, which was associated with the growth of their oil export revenues in 1973–1980. During this period, especially during the war with Iran, Iraq improved relations with most of the Arab countries. The exception was Syria, which supported Iran. After the ceasefire in the fall of 1988, Iraq began to provide military assistance to the commander of the armed forces of Lebanon, General Michel Aoun, who opposed the Syrian army stationed on Lebanese territory. Saddam Hussein tried to weaken the position of Syrian President Hafez al-Assad and expand and strengthen his influence in the region. Territorial claims to Kuwait, its occupation and attempted annexation in August 1990 led to the UN embargo on trade with Iraq and the start of a new war. It was attended by a large international military contingent, mainly consisting of American troops operating from the territory of Saudi Arabia and some other states.
Iraq is a member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), the Arab Cooperation Council, the League of Arab States, and the UN.
Military establishment. In 2002, the Iraqi army consisted of approx. 430 thousand people, the Republican Guard - 80 thousand people, there are 650 thousand trained reservists. The army was armed with 2200 tanks, the air force consisted of 350 combat aircraft and 500 helicopters, 2400 artillery pieces, 4400 armored vehicles. There are also paramilitaries (the "People's Army"), numbering 650,000, and three complementary security services.
ECONOMY
national income. In the 1970s, the state's huge revenues from oil exports made it possible to finance the dynamic growth and modernization of the country's economy. This process was interrupted due to hostilities in the Persian Gulf in 1980-1988 and 1990-1991, the reorientation of resources for military needs and the introduction of embargoes and economic sanctions by the UN decision, as well as due to falling oil prices. In 1988, Iraq's GDP was equal to 57.6 billion US dollars, or 3380 dollars per person, and in 1994, according to Western experts, it was only approx. 15 billion dollars, while by 1999 it had grown to 59.9 billion.
Structure and planning of production. Iraq is constitutionally a country with a state-regulated capitalist economy. The state is called upon to directly control the extraction and export of oil, most other leading industries, all banks, and almost all foreign trade; it must also allocate contracts for large construction projects against profitable loans and maintain the exchange rate. The state assumes an obligation to assist investors in the organization of capital-intensive agricultural enterprises, such as irrigated fruit growing and horticulture, broiler production. Agricultural producers lease public land at preferential prices, receive preferential loans and enjoy favorable exchange rates. Private entrepreneurs are allowed to invest in construction, freight transport, retail trade and the service sector. The state also regulates prices for a number of goods.
The UN sanctions on foreign trade introduced in 1991 made significant adjustments to the state economic policy. At present, private entrepreneurs are allowed to enter the foreign market, which is connected even with the export of oil.
Labor resources. In the mid-1990s, ca. 40% of all employed were concentrated in the service sector, 30% in agriculture, 10% in manufacturing, another 8% in trade and 2% in the mining industry. As a result of the economic boom of the 1970s, a significant number of migrants from Arab and other Asian countries came to Iraq in search of jobs. Qualified foreign specialists were invited to manage some high-tech processes in the construction and manufacturing industries. Moroccan and Egyptian peasants were recruited to work in the agricultural sector.
Mining and manufacturing industry. Oil production is concentrated mainly in the fields around Kirkuk and Mosul in the north and around Basra and Rumaila in the southeast. Several smaller deposits are being developed in other parts of the country. Crude oil goes to refineries (Basra, Ed-Dawra, Baiji, Salah-ed-Din, etc.) and chemical plants (Ez-Zubair and Baghdad and its environs). In Mishraq, west of Mosul, sulfur deposits are being mined. Sulfur and sulfuric acid are obtained from it. Phosphorites are mined at two deposits north of Baghdad. They are used for the production of mineral fertilizers at the Al Qaim and Baiji chemical plants. Other important public sector industries include metalworking, electric power, gas, cement, textile, electrical and food industries, synthetic fiber production, truck, bus and motor assembly. Most of the large and high-tech enterprises, built mainly by foreign companies, are under state control, mainly in the vicinity of Baghdad, in Mosul and Basra.
Energy. Approx. 28.4 billion kWh (1998) of electricity, with 97.7% due to oil and gas processing, 2.1% due to the use of hydro resources. Almost the entire country is electrified, and 95% of the population has access to energy supply. Only in remote rural areas does the population use kerosene and firewood for heating and other household needs. Annual energy consumption is estimated at 26.4 billion kWh (1998).
Agriculture. The area suitable for agriculture is approx. 5450 thousand hectares (1/8 of the territory of Iraq). Up to 4,000 thousand hectares are occupied by pastures. The rest of the lands are withdrawn from agricultural use due to arid conditions and soil salinization, including due to insufficient drainage of previously irrigated lands. The main agricultural crops are wheat, barley and rice. Half of the arable land is allocated for them, mainly in the better moistened northern regions. Large areas in the river valleys are set aside for date palm plantations. Animal husbandry is based on the breeding of sheep and goats, to a lesser extent, cattle and is developed in mountainous regions.
Transport. In the late 1990s, Iraq had a well-developed road network with a total length of approx. 45.5 thousand km, (of which 38.8 thousand km are paved), which included a number of high-speed highways. The length of railways is 2450 km. The country has two international airports - in Baghdad and Basra, and more than 100, providing communication on local lines (in El-Khadit, Kirkuk, Mosul, etc.). The main Iraqi ports in the Persian Gulf - Basra, Umm Qasr, Fao and Ez-Zubair suffered little damage during military conflicts.
Within Iraq, the oilfields of Kirkuk (in the north) and Al Rumaila (in the southeast) are connected by a network of reversible pipelines to oil consumption and processing areas, as well as to ports on the coast of the Persian Gulf. The total length of oil pipelines is 4350 km, oil product pipelines 725 km, gas pipelines 1360 km. Through pipelines laid through the territories of Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Syria and Lebanon, Iraqi oil can flow to the ports of the Red and Mediterranean Seas, and from there to foreign markets.
Monetary and banking systems. Iraq has a Central Bank that issues the Iraqi dinar, state agricultural cooperative, industrial banks and two state-controlled commercial banks - Rafidain Bank and Rashid Bank. The authorities encourage the creation of private banks.
Budget. The main income of the treasury comes from the oil industry, on which the viability of the Iraqi economy depends. The expenditure side of the budget is not rigidly fixed and, as necessary, is redistributed between the usual cost items of state departments and “semi-independent agencies” that control key state and other oil-related enterprises, as well as annual development programs.
SOCIETY
Iraqi society was formed mainly under the influence of Islam and Arab culture. Throughout the 20th century under the influence of Western civilization, growing urbanization and modernization, traditional social groups were blurred, but did not completely disappear. Communities of small towns, villages and camps have survived as separate social units, and for the bulk of the population, religious affiliation remains the most important factor in self-identification.
Public associations and labor movement. The influence of the state in Iraq is so strong that all trade unions and various public organizations are the mouthpiece of official political power.
Trade unions are under the control of the organs of the ruling Baathist regime. All industrial workers are required to be members of trade unions. The latter, together with associations representing 150,000 agricultural workers and 475,000 service workers, form the General Federation of Iraqi Workers' Unions. The rural population is mostly involved in the General Union of Peasants' Cooperative Associations. Trade union members are entitled to free medical care and social benefits, as well as to purchase industrial goods on credit in cooperative stores. Strikes are prohibited and suppressed by the authorities.
Several organizations protect the interests of small urban merchants and entrepreneurs. Teachers, doctors, pharmacists, lawyers and artists also have their own associations and trade unions. These associations perform certain social functions, and their headquarters serve as social clubs and leisure centers.
Social Security. Institutions in this area are mainly under the jurisdiction of the state. The state social insurance system guarantees pensions and disability benefits. Various professional associations also pay pensions to their members. Private and public charitable organizations provide assistance to the needy and the disabled.
Since 1959, the state has helped in the construction of housing migrants who rushed to Baghdad from the countryside. To this end, a belt of “model cities” with cheap housing has been created around the capital.
With the exception of a few private hospitals, almost all medical institutions in the country are state-owned. Medical assistance is provided to the population free of charge or at low prices. With the assistance of the World Health Organization, Iraq operated under a program to combat malaria, schistosomiasis and trachoma.
CULTURE
Iraq is home to various ethnic and religious groups whose traditions have influenced Iraqi culture. Muslim worldview and philosophy underlie the life of society.
Education system. The state provides universal free secular education at all stages - from kindergarten to university. Primary schooling is compulsory for all children from the age of six. It lasts for 6 years and ends with exams, on the basis of which students move to secondary school. Secondary education includes two three-year stages. In 1998, approx. 71% of boys and 46% of girls of the corresponding age. After graduating from high school, young people can enter technological institutes or universities. In higher educational institutions, preference is given to liberal arts education. Their graduates often go to work in government agencies. Humanitarian universities also train specialists in creative professions. The language of instruction is Arabic, with the exception of the northern regions, where the first grades of elementary school are taught in Kurdish. English has been taught since the fifth grade. There are six universities in Iraq: three in Baghdad and one each in Basra, Mosul and Erbil. There are also 19 technological institutes. In 1998, more than 70,000 students studied at the country's higher educational institutions.
As of the beginning of 1998, literate (able to read and write) were approx. 80% of the population.
Literature and art. Poetry is considered the most highly valued genre of creative self-expression in Iraq. This is truly folk literature, addressed not only to the educated or wealthy strata. The fine arts are less popular. The country's painters and sculptors are looking for modern art forms that would reflect the traditions and culture of Iraq. The art of ornamentation and calligraphy are especially developed. Many modern artists create in the style of abstractionism, surrealism, cubism, symbolism, although their works are not without national features. One of the most famous innovative artists of recent times is Javad Salim, whose work has received international recognition.
Dramatic performances usually carry a socio-political load. Most often, plays by Iraqi playwrights are staged, although performances based on scripts and European authors (both classical and modern) are regularly staged. There are several thriving theatres, the Modern Theater enjoys particular success. Certain efforts are being made to revive folk music and dance. In the mass audience, songs in colloquial Arabic are the most popular. Jalil Bashir and some other composers write music for such traditional Arabic instruments as udd (lute) and qanun (zither).
Museums and libraries. The Iraqi Museum in Baghdad houses the rarest archaeological collections. Together with its large library, this institution is the main center of scientific archaeological and historical research. In addition, the capital has the Museum of Arab Antiquities, museums of modern art, ethnographic and natural history. There are libraries in all major cities of Iraq. The Public Library in Baghdad has the largest collections. There are also mass rural libraries.
Publishing. Most publications are carried out by state organizations. Several scientific societies publish journals in various branches of the social and natural sciences.
Baghdad publishes 7 daily newspapers in Arabic or English. The largest circulations have As-Saura (250,000 copies, printed organ of the Baath Party), Al-Jumhuriya (150,000 copies, government newspaper) and the weekly socio-political, literary and artistic magazine Alif Ba "(150 thousand copies). A number of state and public organizations have their own publications. The Ministry of Information and Culture publishes the monthly political and literary magazine Al-Afaq al-Arabiya (Arab Horizons, 40 thousand copies), the Progressive National Patriotic Front - the daily newspaper Al-Iraq (Iraq, 30 thousand copies), Iraqi Communist Party - monthly socio-political magazine "As-Saqaf al-Jadida" ("New Culture", 3 thousand copies), General Union of Agricultural Cooperative Societies - weekly newspaper "Sout al-Fellah" (“Voice of the Peasant”, 40,000 copies), General Federation of Workers' Unions of Iraq - weekly “Wai al-Ummal” (“Workers' Consciousness”, 25,000 copies). Al-Qadisiyah (Armed Forces), Al-Iraq and popular magazines for children, women, workers and other groups are also published.
Broadcasting, television and film. State radio broadcasting, including an information block, music, entertainment and educational programs, is conducted around the clock. State television, which operates mainly in the evening, shows programs from both local and foreign production. The film industry in Iraq is underdeveloped; on average, one full-length film is produced per year. Popular with viewers are Egyptian, Indian, American and Italian films.
Sport. There are large stadiums in Baghdad and other major cities. Iraqi athletes have excelled in sports such as weightlifting, freestyle and classical wrestling, football, volleyball and basketball. Traditionally, wrestling, target shooting, and running are the most popular among the population.
Holidays and significant dates. As in the rest of the Islamic world, in Iraq such major religious holidays as the birthday of the Prophet Muhammad, Eid al-Adha (Eid al-Adha - the feast of sacrifice) and Eid al-Fitr (Eid al-Fitr - the Feast of breaking the fast) are especially celebrated, which ends Ramadan, the ninth month of the Muslim lunar calendar. Ashura (day of mourning) is also deeply revered in the country - a day of mourning for Shiite Muslims (during this period, all entertainment events, radio and television programs are under strict control) in memory of the "martyrdom" of Hussein, Ali's son, cousin and son-in-law prophet Muhammad. The first day of spring is also celebrated - Navruz, the national holiday of the Kurds. There are two secular holidays in July: July 14 - Republic Day (the anniversary of the 1958 revolution) and July 17 - The Day the Baath Party came to power in 1968. In addition, Labor Day is celebrated on May 1 and January 6 is Army Day.
STORY
In 539 BC Cyrus II the Great defeated the Chaldeans and included Mesopotamia in the Persian state of the Achaemenids. Their reign continued until the collapse of the monarchy as a result of the conquests of Alexander the Great, between 334 and 327 BC. Approximately 100 years later, the territory of Iraq became part of the Parthian kingdom. It lasted (with the exception of two short periods when it was under the rule of the Roman Empire), until its conquest in 227 AD. new Iranian rulers, the Sassanids, whose power stretched from Eastern Iran to the Syrian Desert and Anatolia. The period of Sassanid rule lasted ca. 400 years. see also Mesopotamia, ancient civilization.
Arab conquest. Starting from 635, the Sassanids began to gradually lose their positions before the onslaught of the Arab troops. The Sassanids suffered a final defeat from the Arab armies at the Battle of Qadisiya in 637. By the end of the 640s, most of the local Christians were converted to Islam. After the death of the Prophet Muhammad, a sharp rivalry for the throne of the caliph began. After the Umayyad dynasty seized power over the Arab Caliphate in 661 and moved its capital from Medina to Damascus, a period of long schism began in Islam. The inhabitants of Iraq, as followers of Ali (cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad), who was caliph for a short time (from 656 to 661, before the victory of the Umayyads), professed Shiism. With the coming to power of the Umayyads, Sunnism began to spread in the country. The confrontation between the Shiites and the Umayyads was the most important factor in the defeat that the Umayyads suffered from the Abbasids in 750.
Abbasid dynasty. Under the Abbasids, Baghdad became the center of power and the capital of the Arab Caliphate, which stretched from Morocco to northern India. The construction that unfolded in the city is associated with the reign of Caliph Al-Mansur (754-775). By the end of the 9th c. the rulers of Baghdad lost dominance over the rest of the Islamic world. see also Abbasids.
Mongol and Persian rule. In 1258 the Abbasids were dethroned by the Mongols, led by Khan Hulagu, who plundered Baghdad and devastated Mesopotamia. The Mongolian Hulaguid dynasty ruled in this region until the middle of the 14th century. It was succeeded by the Jalairid dynasty (1339–1410). In 1393 and 1401, Baghdad was again destroyed by the troops of Timur (Tamerlane) and twice (in 1394 and 1405) was restored under the Jalairids. Following this, various dynasties that ruled for a short time were replaced on the throne. The last in this series was the Iranian Safavid dynasty, which seized the territory of Iraq in 1509. Under the Safavids, Shiism became the state religion.
Ottoman Empire. The rulers of the neighboring Turkish state were afraid of the spread of the influence of Shiism in their territory, where Sunnism dominated. In 1534, the area between the Tigris and Euphrates was conquered by the Ottoman Turks, whose hegemony lasted almost 400 years. Remoteness from the capital of the Ottoman Empire contributed to the weak supervision of Istanbul over the lands of Mesopotamia. Real power was often in the hands of governors.
At the end of the 19th century The Ottoman state, making efforts to regain control over the independent territory, carried out a number of important administrative reforms. At the beginning of the 20th century ideas of the "Arab revival" began to penetrate into Iraq from Syria and other centers, and some Iraqis were involved in secret societies in Istanbul that advocated granting federal or autonomous status to the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire. In 1914, when Iraq joined Germany and its allies, Great Britain invaded southern Iraq, and in 1918 British troops already controlled almost the entire territory of the country.
Modern Iraq and British rule. The modern Iraqi state was created by Great Britain in 1920. It included three vilayets of the Ottoman Empire: Basra (from which Kuwait was previously separated), Mosul and Baghdad. In April 1920, the League of Nations at a conference in San Remo issued a mandate to govern Iraq to Great Britain. In 1921, Iraq was proclaimed a kingdom headed by Emir Faisal (son of the sheriff of Mecca Hussein) from the Hashemite dynasty. Government was established in the form of a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament. However, initially all the most important ministries were under the control of the British "advisers", and the final decisions were taken by the British High Commissioner and the Commander of the Royal Air Force. In the localities, political power was concentrated in the hands of several urban clans and a newly created elite of large absentee landowners.
In 1932, Iraq received formal independence, but the real levers of government were concentrated in the British embassy. In the imperial mindset of the time, the importance of Iraq was determined by its important strategic position on the route to India. In addition, Iraq possessed large oil reserves, a concession for the development of which was obtained in 1925 by the Anglo-French-American consortium Turkish Petroleum (renamed Iraq Petroleum in 1929).
King Faisal died in 1933 and his son Ghazi succeeded to the throne. The political life of the country in the 1930s was characterized by factional struggle in the army, especially after the military coup of 1936. King Ghazi died suddenly in 1939, and his young son Faisal II ascended the throne, under whom Abdul Illah became regent. After the outbreak of the Second World War, the position of nationalist-minded officers proved strong enough to prevent a declaration of war on Nazi Germany, although the prime minister at that time was the pro-British General Nuri Said. Iraq merely broke off relations with Germany and declared its neutrality. In April 1941, the military overthrew the government, which accelerated the entry of the British armed forces, which by the end of May 1941 returned Nuri Said and Regent Abdul Illah to the leadership of the country. In January 1942, Iraq formally declared war on Germany and Italy. British troops were in Iraq until the autumn of 1947.
In 1946, civilian rule was restored in the country. However, left-wing parties were banned, and the government remained in the hands of the conservatives, led by Nuri Said. In 1953, Faisal II, who had reached the age of 18, was crowned.
In 1948, Iraq participated in the unsuccessful first Arab-Israeli war, and then in 1949 refused to sign an armistice agreement with Israel.
In 1952, the government legalized an increase in Iraq's share of the rapidly growing oil revenues of the Iraq Petroleum Company to 50%. A significant part of the funds received was invested in long-term development projects. In 1955, in an attempt to protect itself from the left-wing "Nasserist" movement spreading throughout the Middle East, Iraq concluded a military treaty with Turkey, which, after the accession of Iran, Pakistan and Great Britain, turned into a US-backed military bloc known as the Baghdad Pact. see also british empire.
Iraqi Republic. On July 14, 1958, a revolution took place in Iraq under the leadership of the underground organizations National Unity Front and Free Officers, the monarchical regime was overthrown and a republic was proclaimed. King Faisal II, Nuri Said and Abdul Illah were executed. The new government was headed by Brigadier General, leader of the Free Officers organization. Abdel Kerim Kasem. The cabinet included both military and civilians. A law was passed to carry out land reform on the model of the Egyptian. In 1959, Iraq withdrew from the Baghdad Pact, and in 1961 expropriated the plots that were in concession from the Iraq Petroleum Company. On June 25, 1961, six days after Britain recognized Kuwait's independence, Qasem laid out Iraqi claims to that country's territory.
The first issue on which the struggle unfolded already in July 1958 was the accession of Iraq to the United Arab Republic (UAR), which had just been created by Egypt and Syria. Accession was advocated by nationalists and leaders of the Ba'ath Party, who believed in Arab unification. The communists were against it. In an effort to distance himself from the communists, Kasem began repressions against the left. In February 1963, there was a military coup by supporters of the nationalists and the Baath Party. Qasem was killed, and a junta consisting of Ba'athists and Arab nationalists, led by Abdel Salam Aref, seized power. Aref formally recognized Kuwait's independence, but not its British borders, and put forward claims to the Bubiyan and Warba islands in the Persian Gulf off the coast of Iraq, as well as to the southern periphery of the giant Rumaila oil field.
Aref was president of the country for three years and died in a plane crash in April 1966. The post of president was taken by the brother of the late Abdel Rahman Aref, who was in power for two years. In July 1968, he was overthrown in a military coup organized by the Ba'ath Party. During the reign of the Aref brothers, many key sectors of the economy (with the exception of the oil industry) were nationalized.
The main task of the Ba'ath leaders, who came to power in 1968, was to consolidate the country's political system. During the presidency of Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr and his successor Saddam Hussein, who took office in 1979 but actually took power much earlier, the regime brutally persecuted potential opponents and used the entire economic power of the state to support its supporters.
At first, the Baathists tried to put an end to the Kurdish uprising by concluding a peace agreement with their leaders in March 1970, according to which the Kurds were promised autonomy. However, a significant part of the agreements was not fulfilled, and in 1974 the leader of the Kurdish Democratic Party, Mullah Mustafa Barzani, who enjoyed the support of the Shah of Iran, again raised a full-scale uprising in order to expand the autonomy of the Kurds. As a result, on March 11, 1974, the autonomy of Iraqi Kurdistan was proclaimed.
In 1972, having concluded a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the USSR, the Baathist government nationalized the Iraq Petroleum company, which forced the Iraqi communists to unite with the Baath Party within the Progressive National Patriotic Front, which included the Kurdish movement Kurdistan Revolutionary Party. After the members of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries raised the price of oil, the position of official power and its economic power were strengthened. The rise in oil export revenues has allowed the government to fund large-scale development projects.
In 1975, as a result of negotiations in Algiers, the Ba'athists concluded with the Shah of Iran an Agreement on Borders and Good Neighborly Relations, according to which the border between the two countries was moved from the eastern bank of the Shatt al-Arab river to the middle of the river. In response, Iran closed its border to Kurdish rebels, making it easier for Baghdad to crack down on resistance. In the fall of 1978, Iraq expelled the Iranian Shah's main opponent, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, who then spent 15 years in exile in An-Najaf.
In early 1979, after the victory of the Iranian revolution and the overthrow of the Shah's regime, the actions of the Kurds in Iraq resumed, and the basis of the Algiers agreements became invalid. In addition, the Shiite regime in Iran, led by Khomeini, attacked the Baathist regime in Iraq with the help of its Shiite opponents. In response, Saddam Hussein revived the old dispute over the Iraqi-Iranian border along the Shatt al-Arab and the status of Iranian Khuzestan (called Arabistan in Iraq). Hussein used the frequent border incidents that took place after the revolution as a pretext for a military invasion of Iranian territory on September 22, 1980.
At the beginning of the war, Iraq achieved some success, but the enemy army turned out to be more combat-ready than expected. In the spring of 1982, Iranian troops launched an offensive and expelled Iraqi armed units from their territory, and after a long period of positional actions, they captured the city of Fao in 1986 and approached Basra at a distance of 65 km. At the same time, Kurdish rebels under the command of Barzani's son Masoud regrouped their combat units and established control over most of the border mountainous regions in the north and northeast of the country. In 1987, the United States, which had previously sold weapons to Iran, sent its naval forces to the Persian Gulf to prevent Iran from blocking the shipping lanes leading to Kuwait, which served as a transit point for the supply of military equipment to Iraq and partly for the export of its oil. In the same year, the Iraqi army managed to oust the Iranian troops from the territory of their country, as well as begin military operations in Kurdistan. In August 1988, an Iran-Iraq ceasefire agreement was signed.
At the end of the war, the United States banned the export to Iraq of equipment that could be used for military purposes, and Israel threatened to attack Iraq's chemical and nuclear weapons plants. The post-war recovery of the economy was hampered by the sharp drop in oil prices caused by the economic policies of Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates, which sold more than 270,000 tons of fuel per day (mainly produced in the Kuwaiti sector of the Er Rumaila field) in excess of the quota set by the Organization oil exporting countries. After negotiations with Kuwait that ended in failure, Hussein decided to respond to "economic aggression" with his own military action.
In August 1990, the Iraqi army invaded Kuwait. The invasion of Kuwait was condemned by the UN Security Council, which placed an embargo on trade with Iraq.
The United States and its coalition allies, based on a UN resolution condemning the occupation of Kuwait and demanding the immediate withdrawal of Iraqi troops and the restoration of the legitimate Kuwaiti government, on January 16, 1991, launched a massive strike against Iraq using aircraft and navy. The bombing continued for more than 40 days, followed by a massive multinational force ground operation in Kuwait and Iraq lasting 100 hours. At the same time, Kuwait was liberated and part of the territory of Iraq was occupied. The bombardment that continued for a month destroyed the entire economic infrastructure of Iraq. The US has announced that it will not allow the relaxation of UN sanctions as long as Hussein remains in power. Iraq accepted the condition that tough economic sanctions against it would continue until the complete elimination of all weapons of mass destruction, including nuclear, chemical and biological.
In the autumn of 1991, Iraq was allowed to sell a strictly fixed amount of oil, provided that all transactions were carried out under the supervision of UN representatives. The proceeds, after the payment of reparations, were proposed to be directed to the emergency purchase of food and medicine. From 1991 to 1998, conflicts took place between Iraq and the UN inspectors who supervised the elimination of weapons of mass destruction, which brought Iraq to the brink of war with the United States.
Until November 1998, UN inspectors controlled the process of destroying missiles and weapons of mass destruction in Iraq, but since the end of 1998, Hussein stopped allowing UN representatives into the country.
The UN sanctions have caused enormous economic damage to the country, where devastation and hunger reign, there is not enough electricity and drinking water. Sewerage systems (30% of rural residents are deprived of modern sewerage) and water treatment plants (half of the rural population do not have clean drinking water) have been destroyed in many areas. Intestinal diseases and cholera are rampant. In 10 years, child mortality has doubled, and a third of children under the age of five suffer from chronic diseases. Medicine is destroyed - there is no modern medical equipment, not enough medicines.
UN sanctions prohibit the import of products necessary for economic recovery, considered as dual-use goods - paper, printing equipment, paints, chemicals, stainless steel (necessary for the manufacture of surgical instruments), and so on. The entry into the country of scientific literature and equipment for educational institutions is closed.
Until 1991 approx. 90% of foreign trade was concentrated in the hands of the state. In recent years, the private sector has been allowed to trade. Since direct trade operations are prohibited by UN sanctions, it is carried out through the Jordanian, Turkish, Syrian and Iranian borders. In November, the checkpoint on the Saudi-Iraqi border was officially opened. The most lively trade is with Turkey. In exchange for Iraqi oil, food, clothing, household appliances and equipment come from there. The volume of Iraqi-Turkish trade reaches 1 billion 200 million dollars a year. According to unofficial data, oil exports amount to 2.7 million barrels per day (before 1991 - 3.5 million barrels).
On March 27, 2000, parliamentary elections were held in Iraq, as a result of which the majority of seats (165 out of 250) were received by representatives of the ruling Arab Socialist Renaissance Party - Baath, 55 - by independent deputies and 30 were appointed by the president.
In the summer of 2001, the UN Security Council voted to extend the Oil-for-Food humanitarian program by five months, with the proviso to tighten control over Iraq's compliance with the ban on the purchase of weapons and dual-use goods. However, Iraq does not agree to any reservations and insists on the final lifting of economic sanctions. Russia supports this demand and considers Iraq as a potential economic partner. There are currently approx. 200 Russian companies (the largest are Surgutneftegaz, Tatneft, Rosneft, Bashneft). They account for 40% of Iraqi oil exports.
In September 2002, Iraq agreed to re-authorize the activities of international inspectors who, on behalf of the UN and in pursuance of a Security Council resolution, are to verify the existence of weapons of mass destruction in Iraq. This move was prompted mainly by the threat of military attack from the United States. The activities of Russian diplomacy also contributed to softening Iraq's position.
On March 20, 2003, the United States and Great Britain launched military operations against Iraq (Operation Shock and Awe). On April 9, Anglo-American troops took the city of Baghdad, and by the end of the month they occupied the entire country. In May 2003, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 1483, according to which the United States and Great Britain were officially recognized as occupying Iraq. It also reaffirmed the sovereignty, integrity of the country and the right of the Iraqi people to freely determine its future political development. Since July 13, 2003, Iraq has been governed by the Provisional Governing Council (TMC), which included 25 political figures from the country. In the fall of that year, American soldiers captured former President Saddam Hussein. He was taken into custody at Camp Cropper (the largest US military base in the Persian Gulf). On June 1, 2004, the WSC handed over power to the elected president, Sheikh Ghazi al-Yawar; The interim government was headed by Ayad Alawi. On August 18 of the same year, a provisional parliament consisting of 100 deputies was elected.
On January 30, 2005, parliamentary elections were held, in which more than 200 political parties and coalitions took part. According to the new constitution, the parliament (National Assembly) consists of 275 deputies. Most of the seats in parliament (140) were won by the Shiite United Iraqi Alliance. The Kurdish Alliance received 75 seats, the Iraqi List party of Prime Minister A. Alawi - 40 seats. The National Assembly includes representatives of 24 political associations. Voter turnout reached over 70%. Several thousand observers followed the course of the elections, incl. 800 foreign.
On April 6, 2005, the Parliament elected 72-year-old Kurdish Jalal Talabani (Secretary General of the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan - PUK) as the President of the country. In April 2005, one of the leaders of the United Iraqi Alliance, Ibrahim al-Jaafari, was appointed prime minister. In an attempt to stop the wave of violence in the country, the government reintroduced the death penalty. Under pressure from the opposition in April 2006, Ibrahim al-Jaafari resigned, and Jawad (Nuri) al-Maliki took over as prime minister.
At the end of December 2006, Saddam Hussein was sentenced by a tribunal to death by hanging for crimes against humanity (accusations of killing 148 Shiites in the village of Ad-Dujail in 1982 after an unsuccessful attempt on his life). On December 30, he was hanged at the Iraqi military intelligence headquarters in northern Baghdad. On January 15, 2007, two associates of the former Iraqi president, Barzan al-Tikriti (former head of the Iraqi intelligence services) and Awwad al-Bandar (former chairman of the Iraqi Revolutionary Tribunal), were also executed by court verdict.
During the military operation and occupation of Iraq, more than 3,000 US servicemen were killed. The number of foreign troops in Iraq in con. 2006 amounted to 140 thousand people, incl. American contingent - 132 thousand people. In January 2007, US President George W. Bush proposed to increase it by another 21.5 thousand people.
According to a report released in January 2007 by the UN Human Rights Office in Iraq, in 2006 more than 34,000 people died in the country and approx. 36 thousand civilians. Talabani's government focuses on fighting terrorism and engaging in dialogue with political opposition groups. The President supports George Bush's new plans to stabilize the political situation in Iraq.
LITERATURE
Gorelikov S.G. . M., 1963
Gerasimov O.G. . M., 1984

Encyclopedia Around the World. 2008 .

REPUBLIC OF IRAQ
State in Southwest Asia. In the north it borders with Turkey, in the east - with Iran, in the south - with Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, in the west - with Jordan and Syria. In the south, the country is washed by the Persian Gulf. The area of ​​Iraq is 434924 km2. The northern region of Iraq - Al Jazra - occupies the Armenian Highlands, the height of which reaches 2135 m in the region of the Turkish border. In the northeast, in the Iranian Plateau, is the highest point in Iran, Mount Haji Ibrahim (3600 m). Further south lies the vast plain of the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In the extreme south of Iraq there is a swampy plain, and to the west of the Euphrates the valley passes into the Syrian desert. In addition to the two main rivers of the country - the Tigris and the Euphrates, the tributaries of the Tigris are quite large: the Big Zab, the Small Zab and the Diyala.
The population of the country (estimated for 1998) is about 21,722,300 people, the average population density is about 50 people per km2. Ethnic groups: Arabs - 75%, Kurds - 15%, Turks, Jews. Language: Arabic (state), Kurdish. Religion: Muslims - 95% (Shiites - 60%, Sunnis - 35%), Christians - 3%, Jews. The capital is Baghdad. Largest cities: Baghdad (4478000 people), Mosul (748000 people). The state structure is a republic. The head of state is President Saddam Hussein al-Takriti (in power since July 16, 1979, re-elected in 1995). The monetary unit is the Iraqi dinar. Average life expectancy (for 1998): 65 years - men, 68 years - women. The birth rate (per 1,000 people) is 38.6. Mortality rate (per 1000 people) - 6.6.
Iraq has a very rich history. The most famous states of antiquity flourished on the territory of modern Iraq: the Sumerian kingdom, which arose around the 4th millennium BC; from the 3rd millennium to the middle of the 1st millennium BC the territory was under the rule of the Babylonian and Assyrian kingdoms. From 539 to 331 BC Iraq was part of the Persian kingdom, and after that for 200 years it was part of the empire of Alexander the Great. For a long time, Persian dynasties ruled the country, and in the 7th century AD. Arabs came to the country. From 750 to 1258 Baghdad was the capital of the Abassid caliphs. In 1258, the country was ravaged by the Mongol invaders, and for a long time Turkish and Iranian rulers argued over its possession. It was only in the 17th century that Iraq finally became part of the Ottoman Empire. At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, there was a movement in Iraq for liberation from Turkish rule. Great Britain, which had its own interests in this region, actively helped Iraq. In August 1921, Iraq gained independence, at the same time King Fesal I was elected. Until 1932, Great Britain had a mandate to govern Iraq through its commissioner. In February 1958, the Arab Union of Iraq and Jordan was formed, but on July 14, 1958, as a result of a bloody military coup, the monarchy was overthrown, the king was killed, and the Arab Union fell apart. On July 15, a republic was proclaimed in Iraq. Since that time, the country has experienced several more military coups. As a result of the last of them, the current President of Iraq, Saddam Hussein, came to power. One of the latest international crises caused by Iraq's policy in the region was the occupation of Kuwait: on August 28, 1990, Iraq declared Kuwait its 19th province and sent its troops there. The international community, led by the United States, organized an operation to liberate Kuwait, and at the end of February 1991, Iraqi troops were driven out of the country. Iraq is a member of the UN, IMF, ILO, Arab League, OPEC.
Most of Iraq is in the continental climate zone. In the north, in the mountainous region, snow often falls in winter. In central Iraq, summers are long and hot, winters are short and cool. The average January temperature in Baghdad is about 9.5 ° C, the average July temperature is about 33 ° C. In the southernmost region of the country, the climate is very humid and the temperature often exceeds 50 ° C. The largest amount of precipitation occurs in the northern regions of Iraq, in the central valley the average the norm of precipitation does not exceed 152 mm. The vegetation of the country is not rich: deserts are located in the south and south-west, among the rare trees of the central part, date palm and poplar stand out. The fauna is quite rich: cheetah, gazelle, antelope, lion, hyena, wolf, jackal, hare, bat, jerboa. Among the numerous birds of prey, it is necessary to note the vulture, crow, owl, several species of hawk, buzzard. Lots of lizards.
Among the main museums of the country stand out the Museum of Iraq with a rich collection of exhibits from the period of ancient Mesopotamia, the Iraqi Museum of Natural History, the Iraqi War Museum - all in Baghdad. The Museum of Babylon exhibits exhibits from the period of the Babylonian kingdom. The Museum of the city of Mosul has a large collection of exhibits from the period of the Assyrian kingdom. Other attractions include the ruins of the last gates of Baghdad; the Abbasid Palace (1179), the former al-Mustansiriya University (1232), the Mirja Mosque (1358) are all in Baghdad. Not far from Baghdad is the city of Kedimein, famous for its mosque with a golden dome. In the city of Najaf - the tomb of Ali, the cousin of the Prophet Muhammad, one of the main shrines of the Shiites. In the city of Karbala, one of the holy cities of Shia Muslims, there is the tomb of Hussein ibn Ali, a Muslim martyr. In Mosul, the Chandani Church and the Great Mosque; on the other side of the Tigris are the ruins of Nineveh, the capital of the ancient Assyrian kingdom. Iraq is one of the early centers of human cultural development. Here, sites of the ancient stone (Shanidar cave in Iraqi Kurdistan) and new stone (settlements of Dzharmo, Hassuna) centuries were discovered. The Mesopotamian lowland was already in ancient times considered the breadbasket of a vast region of Asia. On the territory of Iraq there were such powerful states of antiquity as Akkad, Babylon, Assyria.
Approximately 80% of the population of Iraq are Arabs, 18% are Kurds. Some of the Arabs and Kurds retain tribal division. There are more than a hundred nomadic, semi-nomadic and sedentary tribes in the country. The vast majority of the Iraqi population (96%) are Shiite and Sunni Muslims, 3% are Christians, and 1% are Yezidis, Mandeans, and Jews. In Iraq, there are two holy cities of Shiites - An-Najaf and Karbala, where the tombs of Shiite imams have been preserved and where Shiites from all over the world make pilgrimages. The basis of the country's economy is the oil industry. About 60% of the population lives in cities. The largest city - the capital of Iraq - Baghdad. Other large industrial cities are Basra, Mosul, Erbil, Kirkuk.
In ancient times, the states of Akkad, Babylonia, Assyria, and others existed on the territory of Iraq (Mesopotamia, or Mesopotamia). With the arrival of the Arabs in the 7th century, the Arab language and Islam spread to the territory of Iraq. From the 1630s until the end of the First World War as part of the Ottoman Empire; By the end of the war, Mesopotamia was occupied by British troops. In 1921, the kingdom of Iraq, dependent on Great Britain, was created. From 1922 (actually from 1920) to 1932, Iraq was a British mandated territory. In 1958 it was proclaimed a republic. At the end of 1979, relations with Iran escalated, which in 1980-1988 took the form of an armed conflict. In August 1990, Iraq carried out an armed takeover of Kuwait; in February 1991, he was defeated by the multinational armed forces led by the United States and withdrew his troops from Kuwait.
After Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, the world community imposed trade and economic sanctions and established a sea, land and air blockade of Iraq. The war and its aftermath have taken a toll on Iraq. In March 2003, the United States launched military operations against Iraq and occupied Baghdad and the entire country three weeks later. After the overthrow of Hussein, the contradictions between the main groups of the population - Shiites, Sunnis and Kurds - intensified.

Under the authoritarian rule of the Ba'ath Party, Iraq seeks to play the role of a regional power. Iraq, which has rich natural resources, relies mainly on the armed forces in foreign policy; allied to Iraq… … Terrorism and terrorists. Historical guide

Basic moments

Iraq, like many neighboring countries of Southwest Asia, is one of the earliest centers of human cultural development. Sites of ancient stone (Shanidar cave in Iraqi Kurdistan) and new stone (settlements of Dzharmo, Hassun, etc.) centuries were found here. The Mesopotamian lowland was already in ancient times considered the breadbasket of a vast region of Asia. On the territory of Iraq there were such powerful states of antiquity as Akkad, Babylon, Assyria. The ethnic composition of Iraq is relatively homogeneous. Approximately 80% of the population are Arabs, 18% are Kurds, as well as Persians, Turks, Assyrians, Armenians, Turkmens. Some of the Arabs and Kurds retain tribal division. There are more than a hundred nomadic, semi-nomadic and sedentary tribes in the country.

The overwhelming majority of the Iraqi population (96%) are Shiite and Sunni Muslims, 3% are Christians, and 1% are Yezidis, Mandeans, and Jews. In Iraq, there are two holy cities of Shiites - An-Najaf and Karbala, where the tombs of Shiite imams have been preserved and where Shiites from all over the world make pilgrimages. The basis of the country's economy is the oil industry. About 60% of the population lives in cities. The largest city - the capital of Iraq -. Other major industrial cities are Basra, Mosul, Erbil, Kirkuk.

Cities of Iraq

All cities in Iraq

Sights of Iraq

All sights of Iraq

Story

In ancient times, the states of Akkad, Babylonia, Assyria, and others existed on the territory of Iraq (Mesopotamia, Mesopotamia). Arabs and Islam spread to the territory of Iraq. From the 30s. 17th century to con. 1st World War as part of the Ottoman Empire; By the end of the war, Mesopotamia was occupied by English troops. In 1921, the kingdom of Iraq, dependent on Great Britain, was created. From 1922 (actually from 1920) to 1932, Iraq was a British mandated territory. In 1958 it was proclaimed a republic. At the end of 1979, relations with Iran escalated, which in 1980-88. took the form of an armed conflict (a truce was reached in 1988).

In August 1990, Iraq carried out an armed takeover of Kuwait; in February 1991, he was defeated by the multinational armed forces led by the United States and withdrew his troops from Kuwait. After Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, the world community imposed trade and economic sanctions and established a sea, land and air blockade of Iraq. The war and its aftermath have taken a toll on Iraq.

Saddam Hussein severed relations with the UN in 2000 and expelled international inspectors from the country. Despite the fact that Hussein agreed to return them under the threat of military intervention, in March 2003 the United States launched military operations against Iraq and occupied the entire country three weeks later. A military administration has been appointed to govern Iraq. A transitional government was formed from representatives of the local population, which mainly performs representative functions. After the overthrow of Hussein, the contradictions between the main groups of the population - Shiites, Sunnis and Kurds - intensified.

By the end of 2008, attacks on international forces and the Iraqi police had almost ceased. Terrorist acts continue, as a result of which the civilian population suffers. Some of the rebels legalized and receive salaries as members of the so-called "Sunni militia". The commander-in-chief of the Iraqi Resistance, Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri, continues to be in hiding, despite all efforts to capture him, he remains elusive.

On March 7, 2010, parliamentary elections were held, but as a result of the behind-the-scenes struggle over the election results, the parliament did not meet, and the government was not formed. It was only on November 10 that a fragile agreement was reached on the distribution of power in the country between parties and groups.

Climate and weather

In the north of Iraq, a subtropical climate dominates, and in the south - a tropical one. Due to the fact that the climate here is sharply continental, summers in the country are extremely hot, and winters are cold (especially in the north). On average, in the summer season the air temperature is about +40 °C, but often reaches +50 °C. In winter, the average temperature most often fluctuates between +4 ... +16 °С, although in the north it sometimes drops to -10 °С.

Precipitation mainly falls in the north-east of the country (November - February). In the summer season, there is practically no rain, but the humidity is quite high. In addition, sand and dust storms sometimes occur in summer.

Nature

Iraq lies in the southwest of Asia, in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which is called Mesopotamia. In the southeast of Iraq, a narrow strip of the mouth of the Shatt al-Arab River opens to the Persian Gulf. Most of the country is a flat area in the Mesopotamian lowland, where the main cities and agricultural areas are concentrated. The plains of the Shatt al-Arab River are quite swampy and abound in many lakes (the largest is El-Hammar).

The western regions of the country are occupied by sandy, pebbly and gravelly deserts and semi-deserts, which are separated from Mesopotamia by a tectonic ledge. There are plateaus and hills everywhere, as well as dry riverbeds. In the north of the country, the Tigris River flows and the El Jazeera plateau rises, and the Hamrin mountain range stretches a little to the east. To the west of the Tigris Valley lies the narrow Sinjar Range. The highest point of the country is the peak of Chik-Dar, which is located near the border with Turkey, but officially the highest points of Iraq are the mountains of Kuh-i Haji-Ibrahim and Gundah-Jur.

Almost all areas suitable for vegetation are occupied by agricultural crops, or are saline and deserted. Therefore, the natural environment has been preserved here only in some desert and foothill regions of the country.

Attractions

The territory of modern Iraq is one of the centers of the formation of the entire civilization, where the legendary cultures of Parthia, Mesopotamia, Assyria, Sumer, Persia and Akkad were born. In addition, there is still an ancient city (XIX-XVIII centuries BC), as well as the holy cities of Karbala and An-Najaf. Therefore, it is not surprising that Iraq is a very interesting and unexplored place, the sights of which deserve special attention.

The main archaeological monument of Iraq are the ruins of Babylon, which is recognized as the oldest city on the planet. During its highest dawn, huge temples and palaces were built here, as well as other structures, including the famous Hanging Gardens and the Tower of Babel. Only a few fragments of the former grandeur of Babylon have survived to this day: the Winter and Summer Palaces of Nebuchadnezzar II, Processional Street with the world's first asphalt road, a seven-tiered ziggurat, the Ishtar Gate and the famous Babylonian Lion. Unfortunately, ruthless time turned all other buildings and houses into dust. By the way, around the ruins of the city is the monumental country residence of Saddam Hussein.

In addition, many other remarkable places are scattered on the territory of Iraq: the Sumerian city of Ur, the ancient city of Ashur, the capital of the first Arab state of Hatra, the city of Stesiphon with the imperial palace complex, the ancient capital of the Islamic world Samarra with the Great Mosque of Askaria and the El-Malwiya minaret, as well as many other archaeological sites.

It is also worth mentioning Kurdistan, which is considered an ethnic province of Iraq and has the status of autonomy. Its capital is the city of Erbil, which is also recognized as one of the oldest cities in the world.

Kitchen

In large Iraqi cities, there are many colorful restaurants where you can taste the real national cuisine of this country. It is based on meat and rice, and since Muslims do not eat pork, dishes here are prepared from lamb, beef and poultry. The most popular dishes here include kebabs, tikka (pieces of lamb on skewers), kibbe (meat with raisins, nuts and spices), kuzi (whole fried lamb), dolma and various types of kebabs. Fish dishes are extremely rare, but some establishments serve "masguf" (fish shawarma). As a side dish, traditional dishes of vegetables and rice, as well as beans and lentils, are most often offered. It is worth saying that spices play an important role in the local cuisine, so all the dishes here are spicy and spicy.

Special mention deserves local sweets, which are simply excellent here. First of all, we recommend paying attention to "shirini" (pumpkin pudding), "baklava" (puff pastry with nuts and honey), "g" shur-purtagal "(sweet candied citrus fruits)," plau-ahmar "(red rice with raisins and almonds) and stuffed dates.

Wash down all these delicacies with carbonated drinks, tea or strong coffee with sugar and milk. The only local alcoholic drink is arak aniseed vodka.

Accommodation

In Iraq, for obvious reasons, the hotel business is practically non-existent. Moreover, even before the war, the country was not a tourist center, but after numerous terrorist attacks and armed conflicts, the prospects for the development of tourism were completely postponed for an indefinite period. The only pleasant exception here is Iraqi Kurdistan, which has been relatively stable for a long time.

Here in recent years in a number of cities (Sulemaniya, Erbil, Zakho, Duhok, etc.) numerous hotels and hotels of the most different levels of prices and comfort have been opened. Moreover, they are represented by both luxurious hotels in the mountains (from $300) and simple budget hostels (from $10).

Entertainment and recreation

Due to the acute military-political situation, the entertainment and tourism industry in Iraq is practically absent. Of course, in large cities there are restaurants, gyms, sports clubs and stadiums, but there are not too many of them. The main way to spend leisure time in this country is to visit ancient sights and study its culture. First of all, it is worth making an excursion to the holy cities of the Shiites - Karbala and An-Najaf, where the tombs of Shiite imams are kept. Also, being in Iraq, it is impossible not to see the numerous archaeological sites of ancient Babylonia, Akkad, Persia, Assyria, the Seleucid state and other ancient kingdoms. In addition, a real storehouse of local culture is the colorful street markets that are in every city. Also popular among foreign tourists are such pastimes as fishing and pigeon hunting.

Friday is the official holiday in Iraq. On this day, as well as during religious and national holidays, most shops and institutions do not work here. It is worth noting that the Iraqi calendar is based on the Islamic lunar calendar, as a result of which the dates of many holidays are constantly changing. The main holidays of the country are Eid al-Ada (the feast of sacrifice), Islamic New Year, Revolution Day, Ashura, Mulud (the birthday of the Prophet), Republic Day, Armistice Day and Eid al-Fitr (the end of Ramadan).

Purchases

To buy original oriental souvenirs, tourists are advised to go to the noisy Iraqi markets. Although in big cities (for example, in), they are quite expensive. Therefore, it is better to buy memorable souvenirs in provincial towns. First of all, you should pay attention to fragrant seasonings and spices, the choice of which is simply colossal. Also noteworthy are a variety of earthenware, tea and tobacco. In addition, souvenirs that relate to the regime of Saddam Hussein are very popular, for example, all kinds of goods with the image of the dictator. If you set out to purchase jewelry, then it is recommended to buy them in specialized trade pavilions. Moreover, it is always necessary to specify where they were produced, since there are also imported jewelry on sale.

All shops in Iraq are open from Saturday to Thursday from 09:00 to 19:00, and markets are open early in the morning and late in the evening. Payment is made in Iraqi dinar. Foreign currency can be paid in duty-free shops of the capital, but only with a passport.

Transport

Domestic flights between major cities in Iraq are operated by Iraqi Airways. The country's main airport is located at. Bus service has not yet been restored after the war, so buses run only between the largest cities. In other cases, fixed-route taxis are the only way to travel around the country.

Urban public transport operates in all major Iraqi cities and is represented by old buses without any amenities. Taxis are found everywhere, and in some cities they are the only means of transportation. The average fare within the city is low ($2–$3), but trips to the suburbs are quite expensive.

Car rental is only available in major cities. However, this service is not aimed at tourists, as it is unlikely that a foreigner will be able to move normally through the numerous military posts.

Connection

Telecommunications in Iraq are in a dilapidated state, wired communication lines are mainly used only by government agencies and the military. Civilian communication lines are very unstable, and public telephones are extremely rare. Therefore, international calls here can only be made from hotels.

Cellular communication is carried out in the GSM 900 standard, at the moment it is the most common method of communication. Roaming with Iraqi cellular companies is available to subscribers of major Russian operators only through the networks of other cellular companies in the region.

Internet cafes operate in all more or less large cities, an hour of a session costs from $0.8 to $1.2.

Security

In terms of security in Iraq, the situation is extremely ambiguous. On the one hand, representatives of the coalition forces, as well as the local police and army, are present here in all large settlements. However, they carry out their functions so uncompromisingly that they often pose the same danger as terrorists. On the other hand, they do not provide any protection for tourists, as they control only areas with a military contingent and government buildings. The rest of the cities and rural areas are under the control of ethno-religious groups, which obey only their leaders.

In addition, one of the main dangers in Iraq are mines and unexploded ordnance, as well as explosive devices that are deliberately planted by terrorist groups. In some parts of the country, skirmishes between resistance forces and government forces are not uncommon. All tourists are strongly advised not to approach military bases, government buildings and infrastructure, as they are most often the target of terrorist attacks.

Business

The basis of the Iraqi economy is oil production, and in terms of the number of guaranteed reserves of this natural resource, the country ranks third in the world. The state-owned companies South Oil Company (SOC) and North Oil Company (NOC) have a monopoly on the development of all oil fields in Iraq.

In addition, agriculture, services and industry were previously well developed here. However, after the war, the reconstruction of Iraq is extremely slow, and the revival of its economy is possible only with the help of foreign investment. The processing and construction industries, as well as tourism, have the greatest potential here.

The property

Some time ago, the real estate market in Iraq was completely closed to foreign citizens, but today the situation has changed. Now foreigners, relying on the official decision of the authorities, have the opportunity to buy almost any object here. First of all, the new amendments to the legislation are aimed at the development of the residential sector in Iraq. In addition, non-residents of the country received the right to purchase land.

The procedure for registering the purchase of local real estate is accompanied by the payment of duties and taxes, the amount of which depends directly on the value of the acquired object. The minimum cost of an apartment is $10,000-13,000 and, with rare exceptions, exceeds $40,000. Such a low cost is explained both by external conditions and the low quality of the buildings themselves. Average house prices are about twice as high as apartments.

Since Iraqi legislation is based on the Koran, tourists here are strongly advised to observe the general Islamic norms of culture and morality. Women are required to wear modest clothing that covers the entire body, and men are not allowed to stay in holy places in T-shirts and shorts. Do not openly drink alcohol in public places, and do not smoke in public. In addition, it is not customary to eat while walking or look directly in the face of the person who eats. Moreover, while eating, the soles of the feet should not be directed in any direction.

The official holiday is Friday, on this day nothing works here. If invited to visit local residents, it is advised to buy a small gift (flowers, sweets, etc.).

It is also worth noting that tourists who are not representatives of international humanitarian organizations or journalists are treated quite friendly here and try not to deceive them too much. But for this you will have to constantly demonstrate that you are a simple tourist who just wants to learn about the history and culture of Iraq.

Visa information

To enter the territory of Iraq, Russian citizens will need to obtain a visa, for which they must apply to the Consular Section of Iraq in Moscow (Pogodinskaya st., 12). Moreover, the set of documents and the conditions for issuing visas change quite often, so before applying for passports, you need to consult the embassy.

It must be borne in mind that most often people go to Iraq in organized groups, and the Russian Foreign Ministry does not recommend independent travel around the country, where there was a serious military conflict quite recently.

Politics

According to the 2005 constitution, Iraq is a federal parliamentary republic based on the consensus of the three main ethno-religious communities of the Iraqi people: Shia Arabs, Sunni Arabs and Kurds. Under the regime of Saddam Hussein, the Sunnis were a privileged minority, and after his overthrow they found themselves in opposition.

In the elections to the Constituent Assembly, held in January 2005, almost only Shiite Arabs and Kurds participated. Sunni Arabs boycotted the elections. Naturally, only Shiites and Kurds were represented in the Constituent Assembly, while the Sunnis were practically excluded from the political life of the country.

In the autumn of 2005, the Sunni parties called on their supporters to reject the draft of a new constitution, which is being put to a referendum on 15 October. The Sunnis claimed that the new constitution was imposed on them by the Shiites and Kurds and that this document undermines the state and territorial unity of the country. In their opinion, the federalization of Iraq, enshrined in the project, provides an opportunity for the Kurds in the north and the Shiites in the south to have a virtual monopoly on oil revenues.

Thanks to the intervention of the League of Arab States, the largest Sunni group - the Islamic Party of Iraq - agreed to support the draft constitution. In turn, the Shiites and Kurds promised to create a parliamentary commission to finalize the controversial points of the document.

In the parliamentary elections - the National Assembly, held on December 15, 2005, the Shiite United Iraqi Alliance won (128 seats in the 275-seat parliament). The Shiites, however, failed to become the majority faction as in the previous provisional legislature. The two largest Sunni parties received 55 seats, while the Alliance of Kurdish Parties received 53 mandates. The rest of the seats were distributed among smaller parties of various ethnic and religious affiliations.

The government is formed by the largest parliamentary faction and is headed by the prime minister.

The Shiites believed that they would be able to form a government without taking into account the opinions of other groups of the population, but the United States demanded to form a government of national unity with the following post-separation scheme: the country's prime minister (a key position under the Iraqi constitution) is a Shiite, the president is a Kurd, and the chairman of the parliament is Sunni. Two deputies for these officials should complement their chief. This means, for example, that one vice-presidential post will always be assigned to Shiites and Sunnis.

The American demand displeased the Shiites, especially Prime Minister Ibrahim al-Jaafari - but the Americans managed to convince them of the need for such an approach. And Ibrahim al-Jaafari in April 2006 had to give up his post to Javad (Nuri) al-Maliki, who enjoys the support of Muqtada al-Sadr and the spiritual leader of Iraq, Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani.

Economy

The basis of the Iraqi economy is the export of oil.

The economy of Iraq developed very dynamically and rapidly in the 70s of the XX century. Funds from the sale of oil and gas. that Iraq received were huge. After Saddam Hussein came to power and the start of the Iran-Iraq war, the country's economy began to degrade and quickly fell into decline. At the same time, the standard of living of the ordinary population also decreased. After the Gulf War, the economy deteriorated further. Gradually, the economy began to rise from nothing in the 90s, but the second war with the United States finally undermined the country's economy.

Iraq has the second largest oil reserves in the world. The Iraqi state-owned companies North Oil Company (NOC) and South Oil Company (SOC) have a monopoly on the development of local oil fields. They are subordinate to the Ministry of Oil. The southern fields of Iraq, which are managed by SOC, produce about 1.8 million barrels of oil per day, which is almost 90% of all oil produced in Iraq.

culture

Iraq is home to various ethnic and religious groups whose traditions have influenced Iraqi culture. Muslim worldview and philosophy underlie the life of society.

Education system

The state provides universal free secular education at all stages - from kindergarten to university. Primary schooling is compulsory for all children from the age of six. It lasts for 6 years and ends with exams, on the basis of which students move to secondary school. Secondary education includes two three-year stages. In 1998, approx. 71% of boys and 46% of girls of the corresponding age. After graduating from high school, young people can enter technological institutes or universities. In higher educational institutions, preference is given to liberal arts education. Their graduates often go to work in government agencies. Humanitarian universities also train specialists in creative professions. The language of instruction is Arabic, with the exception of the northern regions, where the first grades of elementary school are taught in Kurdish. English has been taught since the fifth grade. There are six universities in Iraq: three in and one each in Basra, Mosul and Erbil. There are also 19 technological institutes. In 1998, more than 70,000 students studied at the country's higher educational institutions.

As of the beginning of 1998, literate (able to read and write) were approx. 80% of the population.

Literature and art

Poetry is considered the most highly valued genre of creative self-expression in Iraq. This is truly folk literature, addressed not only to the educated or wealthy strata. The fine arts are less popular. The country's painters and sculptors are looking for modern art forms that would reflect the traditions and culture of Iraq. The art of ornamentation and calligraphy are especially developed. Many modern artists create in the style of abstractionism, surrealism, cubism, symbolism, although their works are not without national features. One of the most famous innovative artists of recent times is Javad Salim, whose work has received international recognition.

Dramatic performances usually carry a socio-political load. Most often, plays by Iraqi playwrights are staged, although performances based on scripts and European authors (both classical and modern) are regularly staged. There are several thriving theatres, the Modern Theater enjoys particular success. Certain efforts are being made to revive folk music and dance. In the mass audience, songs in colloquial Arabic are the most popular. Jalil Bashir and some other composers write music for such traditional Arabic instruments as udd (lute) and qanun (zither).

Museums and libraries

The Iraqi Museum houses the rarest archaeological collections. Together with its large library, this institution is the main center of scientific archaeological and historical research. In addition, the capital has the Museum of Arab Antiquities, museums of modern art, ethnographic and natural history. There are libraries in all major cities of Iraq. The Public Library in. has the largest collections. There are also mass rural libraries.

is a state located between Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. The southeastern part of the country borders on the Persian Gulf. Like neighboring countries, Iraq boasts large gas and oil reserves. The capital of Iraq - - very often was at the center of various historical events. Today, there are events in the country that do not contribute to the development of the tourism industry. Constant military conflicts and the presence of terrorism greatly affect the image of the country and the capital.

General information

Baghdad is a huge city with more than six million people. Many cultural institutions are concentrated here. The capital is located in the heart of the state. The city was founded on the banks of the Tigris River. These areas have a hot climate with little rainfall. The capital is characterized by a long summer, which begins in May and ends in October. Due to this climate, Baghdad cannot boast of lush vegetation. These are mainly date palms, as well as reeds and reeds in the coastal zone.

Development of the capital

The first settlement was formed on the site of Baghdad in the ninth century BC. The city itself was founded only in 762. Within a few centuries, the city became a center of trade. There was a huge market here. Baghdad gradually became the economic center of the entire Middle East.

The fifteenth century was tragic for the city. It was then that Tamerlane came here with his army. Baghdad was sacked and many buildings destroyed. Later it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire, under whose rule it remained until the beginning of the nineteenth century. In the 20s of the 20th century, the Iraqi Museum was founded here, where they began to collect collections illustrating the history of Assyria and Ancient Babylon.

In the early 70s, mass nationalization took place in the capital. Everything came under the power of the state, except for oil producing and oil refineries. The 80s were a difficult period for both the capital and the country as a whole. The state was embroiled in a conflict in the Persian Gulf. At the beginning of the 21st century, the Iraqi war took place in the state, which led to the overthrow of the regime of Saddam Hussein. Despite the fact that the city is gradually recovering, the situation is still tense.

Literally every extreme tourist dreams of getting to Iraq, if only for the reason that not everyone succeeds in doing this. Well, stories about a trip to this notorious country can then amaze for many years. However, Iraq attracts not only desperate adrenaline junkies. The fact is that this is one of the most ancient and remarkable places in the world. It was here that the most ancient civilizations of the Earth were born, here the legendary rivers flow Tiger and Euphrates, the famous Babylon was built (and then destroyed) here. Moreover, the great conqueror Alexander the Great visited this place, and then, many years later, the Arab peoples created their own unique and mysterious world here. And if earlier only military journalists on the armor of American tanks could get to Iraq, today tourists can already afford to visit this unique country and touch the ancient secrets of the East.

Capital	Baghdad
Population	31,234,000 people (2009)
Population density	71 people/km²
	Arabic and Kurdish
Religion
Form of government	parliamentary republic
	Iraqi dinar (IQD)
Timezone
International dialing code
Internet domain zone
Electricity

Climate and weather

In the north of Iraq, a subtropical climate dominates, and in the south - a tropical one. Due to the fact that the climate here is sharply continental, summers in the country are extremely hot, and winters are cold (especially in the north). On average, in the summer season the air temperature is about +40 °C, but often reaches +50 °C. In winter, the average temperature most often fluctuates between +4 ... +16 °С, although in the north it sometimes drops to -10 °С.

Precipitation mainly falls in the northeast of the country (November - February). In the summer season, there is practically no rain, but the humidity is quite high. In addition, sand and dust storms sometimes occur in summer.

Nature

Iraq lies in southwest Asia, in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which is called Mesopotamia. In the southeast of Iraq, a narrow strip of the mouth of the river Shatt al Arab out to the Persian Gulf. Most of the country is a flat area in the Mesopotamian lowland, where the main cities and agricultural areas are concentrated. river plains shatt al arab are quite swampy and abound in many lakes (the largest is El Hammar).

The western regions of the country are occupied by sandy, pebbly and gravelly deserts and semi-deserts, which are separated from Mesopotamia by a tectonic ledge. There are plateaus and hills everywhere, as well as dry riverbeds. In the north of the country, the Tigris River flows and the El Jazeera plateau rises, and a mountain range stretches a little to the east. Hamrin. To the west of the Tigris Valley is a narrow ridge Sinjar. Peak is the highest point in the country Chik-Dar, which is located near the border with Turkey, but the mountains are officially the highest points in Iraq Kuh-i Hadji-Ibrahim and Gundakh-Zhur.

Almost all areas suitable for vegetation are occupied by agricultural crops, or are saline and deserted. Therefore, the natural environment has been preserved here only in some desert and foothill regions of the country.

Attractions

The territory of modern Iraq is one of the centers of the formation of the entire civilization, where the legendary cultures of Parthia, Mesopotamia, Assyria, Sumer, Persia and Akkad were born. In addition, the old city still stands here. Baghdad(XIX-XVIII centuries BC), as well as sacred cities Karbala and An-Najaf. Therefore, it is not surprising that Iraq is a very interesting and unexplored place, the sights of which deserve special attention.

The main archaeological monument of Iraq are the ruins of Babylon, which is recognized as the oldest city on the planet. During its highest dawn, huge temples and palaces were built here, as well as other structures, including the famous Hanging Gardens and the Tower of Babel. Only a few fragments of the former grandeur of Babylon have survived to this day: the Winter and Summer Palaces of Nebuchadnezzar II, Procession Street with the world's first asphalt road, a seven-tiered ziggurat, gates Ishtar and the famous Babylon Lion. Unfortunately, ruthless time turned all other buildings and houses into dust. By the way, around the ruins of the city there is a monumental country residence Saddam Hussein.

In addition, many other remarkable places are scattered on the territory of Iraq: the Sumerian city Ur, ancient city Ashur capital of the first Arab state Hatra, city Stesiphon with the complex of the imperial palace, the ancient capital of the Islamic world Sanbenito with the Great Mosque Askaria and minaret El Malviya, as well as many other archaeological sites.

It is also worth mentioning Kurdistan, which is considered an ethnic province of Iraq and has the status of autonomy. Its capital is the city Erbil, which is also recognized as one of the oldest cities in the world.

Nutrition

In large Iraqi cities, there are many colorful restaurants where you can taste the real national cuisine of this country. It is based on meat and rice, and since Muslims do not eat pork, dishes here are prepared from lamb, beef and poultry. The most popular dishes here are kebabs. , "tikka"(pieces of lamb on skewers), "kibbe"(meat with raisins, nuts and spices), "kuzi"(whole fried lamb) dolma and different types kebab. Fish dishes are extremely rare, but some establishments serve "masguf"(fish shawarma). As a side dish, traditional dishes of vegetables and rice, as well as beans and lentils, are most often offered. It is worth saying that spices play an important role in the local cuisine, so all the dishes here are spicy and spicy.

Special mention deserves local sweets, which are simply excellent here. First of all, we recommend to pay attention to "width"(pumpkin pudding) baklava(puff pastry with nuts and honey), "g" shur-purtagal "(sweet candied citrus fruits), "Plau-ahmar"(red rice with raisins and almonds) and stuffed dates. Well, they wash down all these delights with carbonated drinks, tea or strong coffee with sugar and milk. The only local alcoholic drink is aniseed vodka "arak".

Accommodation

In Iraq, for obvious reasons, the hotel business is practically non-existent. Moreover, even before the war, the country was not a tourist center, but after numerous terrorist attacks and armed conflicts, the prospects for the development of tourism were completely postponed for an indefinite period. The only pleasant exception here is Iraqi Kurdistan, which has been relatively stable for a long time.

Here in recent years in a number of cities ( Sulemania, Erbil, Zakho, Duhok etc.) were opened numerous hotels and hotels of different levels of prices and comfort. Moreover, they are represented by both luxurious hotels in the mountains (from $300) and simple budget hostels (from $10).

Entertainment and recreation

Due to the acute military-political situation, the entertainment and tourism industry in Iraq is practically absent. Of course, in large cities there are restaurants, gyms, sports clubs and stadiums, but there are not too many of them. The main way to spend leisure time in this country is to visit ancient sights and study its culture. First of all, it is worth making an excursion to the holy cities of the Shiites - Karbala and An Najaf where the tombs of Shia imams are kept. Also, being in Iraq, it is impossible not to see the numerous archaeological sites of the ancient Babylonia, Akkad, Persia, Assyria, the state of the Seleucids and other ancient kingdoms. In addition, a real storehouse of local culture is the colorful street markets that are in every city. Also popular among foreign tourists are such pastimes as fishing and pigeon hunting.

Friday is the official holiday in Iraq. On this day, as well as during religious and national holidays, most shops and institutions do not work here. It is worth noting that the Iraqi calendar is based on the Islamic lunar calendar, as a result of which the dates of many holidays are constantly changing. The main holidays of the country are Eid al-Ada (the festival of sacrifice), New Year according to the Islamic calendar, Revolution Day, Ashura, Mulood(the birthday of the Prophet), Republic Day, Armistice Day and eid al-fitr(end of Ramadan).

Purchases

To buy original oriental souvenirs, tourists are advised to go to the noisy Iraqi markets. Although in big cities (for example, in Baghdad), they are quite expensive. Therefore, it is better to buy memorable souvenirs in provincial towns. First of all, you should pay attention to fragrant seasonings and spices, the choice of which is simply colossal. Also noteworthy are a variety of earthenware, tea and tobacco. In addition, souvenirs that relate to the regime of Saddam Hussein are very popular, for example, all kinds of goods with the image of the dictator. If you set out to purchase jewelry, then it is recommended to buy them in specialized trade pavilions. Moreover, it is always necessary to specify where they were produced, since there are also imported jewelry on sale.

All shops in Iraq are open from Saturday to Thursday from 09:00 to 19:00, and markets are open early in the morning and late in the evening. Payment is made in Iraqi dinar. Foreign currency can be paid in duty-free shops of the capital, but only with a passport.

Transport

Domestic flights between major cities of Iraq are carried out by the airline Iraqi Airways. The country's main airport is located in Baghdad. Bus service has not yet been restored after the war, so buses run only between the largest cities. In other cases, fixed-route taxis are the only way to travel around the country.

Urban public transport operates in all major Iraqi cities and is represented by old buses without any amenities. Taxis are found everywhere, and in some cities they are the only means of transportation. The average fare within the city is not high ($2-3), but trips to the suburbs are quite expensive.

Car rental is only available in major cities. However, this service is not aimed at tourists, as it is unlikely that a foreigner will be able to move normally through the numerous military posts.

Connection

Telecommunications in Iraq are in a dilapidated state, wired communication lines are mainly used only by government agencies and the military. Civilian communication lines are very unstable, and public telephones are extremely rare. Therefore, international calls here can only be made from hotels.

Cellular communication is carried out in the GSM 900 standard, at the moment it is the most common method of communication. Roaming with Iraqi cellular companies is available to subscribers of major Russian operators only through the networks of other cellular companies in the region.

Internet cafes operate in all more or less large cities, an hour of a session costs from $0.8 to $1.2.

Security

In terms of security in Iraq, the situation is extremely ambiguous. On the one hand, representatives of the coalition forces, as well as the local police and army, are present here in all large settlements. However, they carry out their functions so uncompromisingly that they often pose the same danger as terrorists. On the other hand, they do not provide any protection for tourists, as they control only areas with a military contingent and government buildings. The rest of the cities and rural areas are under the control of ethno-religious groups, which obey only their leaders.

In addition, one of the main dangers in Iraq are mines and unexploded ordnance, as well as explosive devices that are deliberately planted by terrorist groups. In some parts of the country, skirmishes between resistance forces and government forces are not uncommon. All tourists are strongly advised not to approach military bases, government buildings and infrastructure, as they are most often the target of terrorist attacks.

Business climate

The basis of the Iraqi economy is oil production, and in terms of the number of guaranteed reserves of this natural resource, the country ranks third in the world. State companies South Oil Company(SOC) and North Oil Company(NOC) have a monopoly on the development of all oil fields in Iraq.

In addition, agriculture, services and industry were previously well developed here. However, after the war, the reconstruction of Iraq is extremely slow, and the revival of its economy is possible only with the help of foreign investment. The processing and construction industries, as well as tourism, have the greatest potential here.

The property

Some time ago, the real estate market in Iraq was completely closed to foreign citizens, but today the situation has changed. Now foreigners, relying on the official decision of the authorities, have the opportunity to buy almost any object here. First of all, the new amendments to the legislation are aimed at the development of the residential sector in Iraq. In addition, non-residents of the country received the right to purchase land.

The procedure for registering the purchase of local real estate is accompanied by the payment of duties and taxes, the amount of which depends directly on the value of the acquired object. The minimum cost of an apartment is $10,000-13,000 and, with rare exceptions, exceeds $40,000. Such a low cost is explained both by external conditions and the low quality of the buildings themselves. Average house prices are about twice as high as apartments.

Since Iraqi legislation is based on the Koran, tourists here are strongly advised to observe the general Islamic norms of culture and morality. Women are required to wear modest clothing that covers the entire body, and men are not allowed to stay in holy places in T-shirts and shorts. Do not openly drink alcohol in public places, and do not smoke in public. In addition, it is not customary to eat while walking or look directly in the face of the person who eats. Moreover, while eating, the soles of the feet should not be directed in any direction.

The official holiday is Friday, on this day nothing works here. If invited to visit local residents, it is advised to buy a small gift (flowers, sweets, etc.).

It is also worth noting that tourists who are not representatives of international humanitarian organizations or journalists are treated quite friendly here and try not to deceive them too much. But for this you will have to constantly demonstrate that you are a simple tourist who just wants to learn about the history and culture of Iraq.

Visa information

To enter the territory of Iraq, citizens of the Russian Federation will need to obtain a visa, for which they must apply to the Consular Section of Iraq in Moscow (Pogodinskaya st., 12). Moreover, the set of documents and the conditions for issuing visas change quite often, so before applying for passports, you need to consult the embassy.

It must be borne in mind that most often people go to Iraq in organized groups, and the Russian Foreign Ministry does not recommend independent travel around the country, where there was a serious military conflict quite recently.