Formation of an industrial society in Russia. Features of the industrialization of Russia in the late XIX - early XX century

Introduction 3

Chapter I. Reforms of the beginning - the middle of the XIX century -

the first attempts to improve the Russian economy 4

Chapter II. Beginning of industrialization in Russia. Program

industrialization (N.Kh. Bunge, S.Yu. Witte, I.A. Vyshnegradsky). 6

Chapter III. Reformatory activity of S.Yu. Witte. nine

Chapter IV. Results of industrialization in Russia. 12

Conclusion. fourteen

Bibliography. fifteen

Applications. sixteen

Introduction

Throughout its history, Russia has known several rises of its power - the Moscow kingdom in the first period of the reign of Ivan IV, the empire of Peter I, the era of the young Catherine II, the "industrial revolution" of Alexander III,

Soviet Russia at the end of the Great Patriotic War. Of greatest interest, in my opinion, is the "industrial breakthrough" of 1885-1914, when Russia, in terms of productive forces and the general civilization of the country, came close to the level of the leading Western countries (for the first time in its history). If it were not for the fateful external and internal circumstances, our country might have taken a leading position in the world.

The purpose of this work is to study and analyze the activities

reformers of the period of the industrial revolution in Russia at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. In the course of the work, the events and reforms of the beginning-middle of the 19th century that preceded the first industrialization of Russia were also considered, the features and differences of the Russian model of economic and industrial development from Western models were noted.

The following sources were used in the preparation of the abstract:

monograph by V.T. Ryazanov "Economic Development of Russia, XIX-XX centuries" materials from the collection of works of the Moscow branch of the Russian Science Foundation and the conference "Reforms and reformers in Russia: history and modernity", historical and biographical reference book "Business World of Russia",

magazine articles “The Drama of Russian Industrialization” and “King of Diplomats”, as well as the book “Great Reformers of Russia”.

ChapterIEarly-Middle ReformsXIXc - the first attempts to improve the Russian economy.

From the 9th-12th centuries until the second half of the 19th century, agrarian colonization remained the leading strategy for the development of the state in Russia. But, as the historical experience of Western Europe shows, in a successfully developing society, trade and market relations can become a stable entity only as a result of the completion of the process of extensive external agrarian colonization. Then the development of the state is already due to the development of high technologies, skilled labor and the accumulation of own capital, and not due to the expansion of the territory with a primitive culture of agriculture. The autocratic feudal order strongly restrained the economic development of Russia.

In his monograph (1) V.T. Ryazanov identifies three waves of economic reforms in the 19th century:

The period 1801-1820 was determined by the reform activities of Alexander I;
The second half of the 50s to the mid-70s - the era of the "Great Reforms" of Alexander II;

3. Economic reforms by S. Yu. Witte in the mid-late 90s. XIX century.

With the coming to power of Alexander I, the ruling environment first appeared

understanding of the inextricable relationship between the two key issues facing

before Russia: the liberation of the peasantry and the political reformation of the country, associated with the transformation of autocratic power. In this direction, Alexander I and his entourage took the following steps.

In 1803, the decree "On Free Plowmen" was issued, although it did not give the expected effect, it served as a test of the landowners' readiness for radical changes. The closest adviser to the king, M.M. Speransky and his entourage in 1809 prepared essentially the first general plan for large-scale state reforms - "Introduction to the Code of State Laws", meaning the transformation of the monarchy from autocratic to constitutional. The project was not accepted, although it was approved by the emperor. After the victory in the Patriotic War of 1812, in an atmosphere of secrecy, several plans for economic and political reforms are being developed:

1817-18 - the beginning of work on a plan for the elimination of serfdom (under the leadership of Arakcheev)
1818-1819 - project for the liberation of the peasants, Minister of Finance Guryev
1819 - development of the draft constitution of N.N. Novosiltseva (Charter of the Russian Empire)

The secrecy led to the detachment of society from these activities, depriving them of social support, and none of these projects was carried out.

The first wave of reforms in Russia was characterized not only by

measures and projects, but also direct actions that weakened the political reaction and the system of serfdom in the country, launching mechanisms for transforming the economy and the political system. During the period of 1816. to 1819 serfdom was practically abolished in Estonia, Courland and Livonia. The peasants were freed from serfdom, but without land, turning into tenants from the landlords. In 1815 a constitution was granted to the Kingdom of Poland.

But the country did not enter a period of large-scale reforms for various reasons: firstly, it was not possible to induce the bulk of the nobility to a voluntary agreement on the emancipation of the peasants and to interest them economically in this; secondly, the memories of the events of the 70s of the 18th century, the Pugachev rebellion (actually a civil war), were still alive, and thirdly, the revolutionary uprisings in the early 20s, shaking Europe (Italy, Spain, Greece) convinced Alexander I in the untimeliness of any transformation in Russia.

The period of 1820-1855 is the phase of counter-reforms. But this time cannot be unequivocally assessed as years of open reaction. In the field of economics

there was not only an increase in serf management, but also measures were taken to weaken it. According to V.T. Ryazanov (1) from 1837 to 1842 during the ongoing P.D. Kiselyov's reform of the state peasants improved the position of 18 million people. At the same time (30-40s), the beginning of an industrial revolution was noted in the country: the number of factories increased from 5.2 thousand (1825) to 10 thousand (1854), the number of workers from 202 thousand to 460 thousand (respectively by years), the volume of production from 46.5 million rubles. up to 160 million rubles (Ryazanov V.T. (1)).

The second wave of reforms - from the mid-50s to the mid-70s. The central event in Russia in the 19th century was the 1961 Manifesto, which abolished 300 years of serfdom. Together with the Manifesto, a whole series of reforms took place, affecting all aspects of public life. Summarizing, we can say that the result of the "liberal" 1860s by the end of the 19th century was:

The rapid development of commodity-money relations,

Progress in many sectors of the Russian economy,

Active railway construction,

joint stock business,

Growth in the number of employment in industry,

The emergence of strong kulak farms in the countryside (but also the ruin of the middle peasants).

According to V. Lapkin and V. Pantin (6, p. 16) “if by the beginning of 1861 there were 1488 km. Railways, then further their growth over five years: 1861-1865. - 2055 km, 1866-1870 - 6659 km, 1871-1875 - 7424 km. Coal mining steadily increased (from 18.3 million poods in 1861 to 109.1 million poods in 1887)”.

At the same time, there were a number of problems that were not solved at one time and two decades later played their tragic role: the impoverishment of the countryside, the great dependence of the emerging bourgeois class on the state and, as a result, the destabilization and rupture of social ties.

But, one way or another, the potential and prerequisites for a radical restructuring of the country's economy were created.

ChapterIIBeginning of industrialization in Russia.Industrialization program (N. Kh. Bunge, I. A. Vyshnegradsky, S. Yu. Witte)

The defeat in the Crimean War of 1853-1856 and the bloody victory over Turkey in the Balkans in 1876-1878 showed the obvious technical backwardness of Russia. The industrial revolution in England and the transition to large-scale machine production made further “competition” between traditional agrarian economy and capital meaningless. The Russian government came to understand the need to create a modern large-scale industry in the country at all costs.

The road to capitalism was opened by the reforms of the 1960s and 1970s. In the middle of 1881, Nikolai Khristoforovich Bunge, a scientist-economist, a former Kyiv professor, became the head of the Ministry of Finance, which at that time largely regulated the economic life of the country.

His views on the arrangement of Russia largely coincided with the views of M.Kh. Reintern *: normalization of finances, stabilization of the ruble exchange rate, intervention of the treasury in all areas of the economy (V. Lapkin, V. Pantin (6, p. 11). Having become the Minister of Finance, N. Kh. Bunge began to pursue a course towards: strengthening the state railway construction, the nationalization of railways, which were mainly in private hands until 1881, the purchase of private roads and the creation of a unified system of transportation and tariffs.The growth of government orders generated by this course and customs restrictions was the first step towards the industrialization of the country.

At the same time, the government is taking measures, with the active participation of the Minister of Finance, to resolve the agrarian issue. On May 18, 1882, the Peasant Land Bank was established to facilitate the acquisition of land ownership by peasants, and a law was issued on the gradual abolition of the poll tax, one of the most difficult for peasants. The implementation of these projects would inevitably lead to the abolition of mutual responsibility in the community and, in the future, to serious changes in community life. But this did not happen, because. Minister of the Interior D.A. Tolstoy led a course towards isolation, guardianship of the peasants.

External economic complications of the mid-1880s (tension around Afghanistan and the threat of war with Austria-Hungary, despite the fact that military spending of this period absorbed up to 1/3 of the budget) jeopardize all efforts to stabilize finances. Russia was forced to resort to foreign loans. N.Kh. Bunge admits that "all the resources of the state are depleted, and he sees no sources for increasing revenues."

In 1888, a new Minister of Finance was appointed - Ivan Alekseevich Vyshnegradsky. He was a financier of a new type, a professor at the St. Petersburg Institute of Technology, a mechanic, and the founder of the theory of automatic control.

The main characteristic of I.A. Vyshnegradsky to improve finances was to increase the export of grain. The export of bread, already inflated in the previous era, is being forced to the limit, to the fatal, as it turned out in 1891, the line - from 15% of the all-Russian collection in the early 1880s to 20-22% in 1888-1891. This made it possible to improve the balance of foreign trade unheard of (tab. 1.2). The record positive trade balance of 1888 (+ 398 million rubles) will improve

but only in 1903.

Huge harvests in Russia in 1887-1888 and the associated increase in Russian exports and the excess of exports over imports (Table 1) strengthened the confidence of European financiers in Russia. The French Stock Exchange decides in 1887 to finance the construction of the Siberian Railway, which begins construction in 1891.

However, an increase in the volume of exported marketable grain was achieved by emergency measures of a financial and police nature. The peasantry was forced to pay taxes immediately after the harvest at the most unfavorable for them low prices for grain. The peasant did not always have the opportunity to provide himself until spring not only with bread, but also with grain for sowing. The crop failure of 1891, the largest in the second half of the 19th century, confirmed the perniciousness of the policy of forcing grain exports. The famine swept nineteen producing provinces, carried off a million inhabitants of Russia. Emergency measures required the cost of 161 million rubles. for food, absorbed almost all the free funds of the treasury. Confidence in the financial obligations of the government and the course towards stabilizing Russian finances as a whole were under threat. In 1892, at the suggestion of Vyshnegradsky, Alexander III appointed Sergei Yulievich Witte as Minister of Finance.

The name of this man is associated with the powerful economic breakthrough that Russia made in the mid-late 90s of the XIX century. As V.T. Ryazanov in his monograph (1): “Witte proved with his policy the incredible: viability, feudal in nature, power in the conditions of industrialization, the ability to successfully develop the economy without changing anything in the system of economic relations and public administration.” Witte's financial policy was characterized by increased indirect taxation, the introduction of a wine monopoly on the sale of vodka, and unlimited use of state intervention in the country's economic life. All these measures and an effective financial policy made it possible to accelerate economic modernization and increase the pace of industrialization, including by attracting foreign capital.

Back in 1883, as a member of the board of the "Society of Southwestern Railways", Witte in his book (outwardly purely special) "Principles of railway tariffs for the transport of goods" essentially develops the concept of industrial modernization of Russia, where railways are

circulatory system of the market, an incentive for the development of industry and trade in the "bear corners" of the country. In 1889, Witte outlined a comprehensive program for the restructuring of the country's economy in the pamphlet The National Economy and Friedrich List*. The essence of this program:

Solid gold ruble,

Industrialization, protectionism with significant government intervention in the market economy,

Active foreign trade (its own powerful merchant fleet).

Foreign loans and attraction of foreign capital,

Modernization of agriculture.

Becoming the Minister of Finance in 1892, and until the resignation in August 1903, S.Yu. Witte tried to put into practice his plan for the revival of Russia.

So, we can say the following: N.Kh. Bunge and I.A. Vyshnegradsky, differing in many respects, basically had two main principles for the successful transformation of the economy. This is the stabilization of finances, which makes it possible to attract foreign capital, and an extensive network of railways, which speeds up the exchange of goods in domestic and foreign trade. But only S.Yu. Witte, with the success of his monetary reform, managed to achieve qualitative changes in industry and the economy.

ChapterIIIReformatory activity S. Yu. Witte.

The appointment of Sergei Yulievich Witte as Minister of Finance took place after the terrible famine of 1891, when the treasury was exhausted. In order to increase incomes and a positive balance in the balance of the country, Witte went by increasing taxes on the population, 80% of whom were peasants. Without increasing direct taxes (13.4% of income to the budget), he introduced a whole series of indirect taxes, which by the beginning of the 20th century provided almost half of the budget revenues. Indirect taxes were imposed on kerosene, sugar, vodka. The wine monopoly (a ban on the private sale of vodka) was first introduced in the form of an experiment in 1893-1894 in four eastern provinces - Perm, Ufa, Orenburg and Samara, by 1902 - in the entire European part of Russia, and from June 1, 1904 - and in Eastern Siberia. In 1894, the entire drinking income amounted to 297.4 million rubles, in 1899 - already 421.1 million rubles. In the early 1900s, the share of drinking income was 28% of budget revenues.

In the program of modernization of the economy, Witte assigned a special place to trade and financial relations with the southern and Far Eastern neighbors of the Russian Empire. In April 1893, before a special meeting of the Ministry, Sergei Yulievich outlined the essence of this program, which included two main parts:

Creation of mixed Russian-Asian banks (with the participation of Western capital),
Accelerated construction of the railway through Siberia and the Far East.

During the reforms, this plan was successfully carried out.

In 1894, the Persian Accounting and Loan Bank was organized with a residence in Tehran, which by the end of the century became the main center of Russian-Iranian trade.

In 1895, the Russian-Chinese Bank was established in the Far East with the active participation of the Russian government. Through it, Witte accelerated the completion of the Trans-Siberian Railway and began in 1900 the construction of two railways in China - the CER and the South-Manchurian Railway (South Manchurian Railway).

In 1897, an attempt was made to create a Russian-Korean bank, which ended in failure due to the aggravation of Russian-Japanese relations. The resistance of the British and Americans, who controlled the "kerosene" market in India, prevented the creation of the Russian-Indian Bank, because through this bank Witte intended to supply India from Baku with kerosene in exchange for rice.

The increase in revenues to the treasury from indirect taxes, customs policy, the successful development of banking allowed S.Yu. Witte to carry out his great monetary reform.

The stability of the ruble was achieved by maintaining a strict surplus in the budget, when, thanks to the appropriate financial policy of the government, the gold reserves of the State Bank exceeded the cash supply in circulation.

The monetary reform was introduced in stages during 1895-1897. It was finally put into effect by a decree of August 29, 1897.

According to L. Ruseva (7), in 1888 Russia's gold reserves amounted to 45.8% of the nominal amount of credit notes in circulation, by 1892 - increased to 81.2%, by 1896 it was already 103, 2%. According to Sirotkin V.G. (2) on the eve of the First World War, 1,630 million rubles worth of paper money was circulating in the country, and gold (golden ten with the image of Nicholas II) was stored in the vaults of the State Bank for 1,749 million rubles, i.e., a surplus was maintained.

The introduction of gold coins instead of paper banknotes helped to attract foreign capital to Russia and strengthen the country's monetary system. (The Bolsheviks pursued the same policy under the NEP: first they stabilized the ruble, then applied for loans.)

In 1898, at the insistence of Witte, the law "On trade tax" was issued, which led to the rapid democratization of business relations in Russia. (Baryshnikov M.N. (3, p. 11). Now a person from the common people, in order to engage in commercial activities, no longer needed to sign up as a merchant. Before the First World War, about 40% of the co-owners of trading houses belonged to the estates of peasants and bourgeois, By 1914, only one in three of the leaders of joint-stock companies belonged to the merchant class, and about half were from the social lower classes and representatives of the engineering and technical intelligentsia.

The 1990s - the years of Witte's rise as Minister of Finance - were a real boom in railway construction in Russia. For ten years, the length of railways has increased by 70%. Strengthening the country's finances allowed Witte to buy railways from private unprofitable companies, and by the end of the century, 60% of Russia's roads turned out to be "state-owned".

Speaking about the economic reforms of Sergei Yulievich Witte, it is impossible not to mention his diplomatic activities. An effective commercial and industrial policy and a brilliant talent as a diplomat made this person an outstanding statesman, this is described in article (7) by L. Ruseva.

Witte's debut in the diplomatic field took place in 1892 - 1894, and was called the "customs war" with Germany. In the early 1990s, the German government set two tariffs: minimum rates were applied to most powers - (primarily those that competed with Russia) and maximum rates were charged on all products coming from Russia. Witte also proposed to introduce a double tariff: minimum and maximum. Maximum - against German goods. The Russian finance minister suggested that Germany start negotiations on lowering rates, which refused. Then he introduced the maximum tariff. Germany immediately raised duties on Russian agricultural products. Witte doubled the maximum tariff. Such a strategy threatened with great political and economic complications. The ministers were afraid of defeat. He was especially attacked by landlords and trading firms, for whom Germany was the main export market. But thanks to the support of Alexander III and the perseverance of the Minister, peace was nevertheless achieved. Germany yielded, and in 1894 the countries signed an agreement that was very beneficial for Russian agriculture and German industry. Witte's customs policy yielded positive results. If in 1891 the customs income was 140 million rubles. per year, then in 1899 it amounted to 219 million rubles, and in 1903, by the end of the ten-year Russian-German treaty, 241 million rubles, which amounted to 14% of the state budget revenue. Witte's second appearance in international politics was obtaining a concession for the construction of the East China Railway. He wanted to lead the Siberian road from Transbaikalia not through Russian possessions, where it would make a big circle along the Amur, but through Chinese territory, that is, through Northern Manchuria.

After the Sino-Japanese war, the Liaodong Peninsula was supposed to go to Japan. Witte intervened and insisted that Russia support the "principle of the integrity of the Chinese Empire" and demanded that Japan give up the peninsula. Russia was supported by Germany and France, Japan conceded. Witte then arranged for China to borrow money on the Paris money market under a Russian guarantee. Relations with China have established the most friendly. The Minister of Finance began negotiations on the construction of the railway, which were crowned with complete success. For its part, Russia pledged to defend China from Japanese attack. Mutual interest was evident.

The pinnacle of success for the Russian diplomat was the Treaty of Portsmouth signed by him in 1905. At the conclusion of peace between Russia and Japan, Witte negotiated with art, which aroused the admiration of all sworn diplomats: he immediately yielded on issues on which he could not help but yield (gave Japan the Kwantung Peninsula and Korea, already occupied by it), but led a stubborn struggle over the question of Sakhalin and the indemnity. He managed to defend the northern half of Sakhalin, which Russia could not defend by military means. On August 16, 1905, a peace treaty was signed. Witte himself believed that he saved the empire of Nicholas II from collapse (and was not far from the truth).

“His diplomatic activity,” the historian Tarle wrote about Witte, “began with brilliant success in Berlin in 1894, in the year of the Russian-German trade agreement, and ended with brilliant success in Paris in 1906, in the year of a billion-dollar loan, and for all 12 years separating these two dates, whenever Russian policy did not go along the path indicated by Witte, the matter ended in failures and most dangerous complications ...”, op. according to (7, p. 39).

In March 1915, when Sergei Yulievich Witte died, the business press, expressing deep regret for the great reformer, reminded everyone of his merits: monetary reform and the wine monopoly, the Peace of Portsmouth and the October 17 Manifesto, the development of industry and the construction of railways, customs tariffs and joining Russia to the world economy.

ChapterIVresults of industrialization.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the external economic situation in Russia looked like this: the state railway construction program, supported by appropriate customs and financial measures, did the impossible - a colossal breakthrough was made in the development of Russian industry, and above all in heavy industry. According to V.A. Melyantseva (4, p. 14) “In the last 25-30 years before the First World War, the growth rate of fixed capital in Russia was very significant - about 3.5% per year. If we take into account that the growth rate of employment in 1885-1913 was approximately 1.5-1.6% per year, then the average annual growth rate of capital-labor ratio reached 1.9-2.0%. According to this indicator, tsarist Russia surpassed other large Western countries during their industrial breakthrough (in Great Britain in 1785-1845 0.3%, in France in 1820-1869 1.2%, in Germany in 1850-1900 1.3 %, in the USA in 1840-1890 1.7%), with the exception of Italy (in 1895-1938 1.9%) and Japan (in 1885-1938 2.9%)."

Despite the high degree of monopolization of the domestic economy and the predominance of state orders in the domestic market, classes of the national bourgeoisie and the private entrepreneur began to form in Russia. The factory and mining industry, which occupied a leading place on the whole, provided a gross output of 7.3 million rubles. with the number of enterprises 29.4 thousand. Small industry produced products worth 700 million rubles. The number of establishments is 150 thousand (data from Baryshnikov M.N. (3, p. 10)). Despite this, in the modernization of the economy (especially at first, up to the events of 1905), a huge role was played not so much by "pure market relations" as by state military-technical orders, the transition from the policy of free trade (1960-1981) to the system of protectionism.

Thus, while investing in the development of heavy industry, the state did not have a clearly developed program of action in the agricultural sector. The government followed the events, and did not anticipate them, which led to the revolution of 1905. According to a number of authors, “in the period from 1881 to 1904, the entire future fate of Russia was a foregone conclusion. All the upheavals of the 20th century in our country were the result of the unrealized potential of reforming in the late 19th - early 20th centuries in the agrarian issue”, I.V. Skuratov, (5, p. 73). "After the monetary reform of the late 1990s, it was more justified to focus not on accelerating the industrialization of the country, but on finding acceptable options for completing the agrarian reform with the subsequent deployment of processes in the agrarian sector", V.T. Ryazanov, (1).

After the Manifesto of October 17, 1905, which equalized the rights of the peasants with other estates and abolished the dependence of the peasant economy on the community, the second round of economic and social transformations begins. The rate of economic growth was also influenced by the receipt by S. Yu Witte in 1906 of a billion-dollar loan from France, and also by the beginning in 1906 of Stolypin agrarian reform, the main provisions of which Witte developed in 1903-1904. Agriculture began to develop more intensively. For the first time in the history of Russia, the growth rate of production overtook the rate of population growth: in 1885-1900 the corresponding figures were 2.6-1.4% and in 1900-1913 3.0-2.0%, V.A. Melyantsev, (4 ).

Against this background, the dynamics of industrial production grew. In the 1990s, industrial production doubled and the production of capital goods tripled. Smelting of cast iron almost tripled, steel production sixfold, engineering output quadrupled, and steam locomotive production tenfold.

At the same time, by 1913 the gap in the level of economic development between Russia and the leading Western countries increased. In terms of per capita GDP, Russia is significantly ahead of China, India and Brazil, almost caught up with Japan, but almost three times behind the leading Western countries (Table 3). This may be due to the fact that the Russian "industrial market"

wok” barely lasted two decades, while the leading Western countries had a similar period of almost a century. For the restructuring of the economy

ki in Russia was also influenced by the dominance of autocratic-bureaucratic orders, the low level of industrial and general culture, the backwardness of agriculture, and the colossal stratification in society.

Nevertheless, with all the difficulties of modernization that unfolded in the empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Russia on the eve of the First World War was not an underdeveloped, semi-colonial country, but a relatively rapidly industrializing power. It was a society,.

actively "gaining bourgeois", in need of extremely literate

nom, competent management.

Conclusion.

In the course of this work, we can come to the following conclusions: the Russian modernization of the economy was strikingly different from similar periods of industrial development in Western countries. In Russia, industrialization began when the clan of the bourgeoisie practically did not yet exist. Since the state initiated the reforms, the bourgeoisie, gaining strength in the course of the transformations, sought protection from competitors and crisis phenomena in it. The market was replaced by the struggle for state orders, for protectionism and the favor of the monarchy.

The classic version of industrialization for the Western powers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries is when the country's internal resources are used to the maximum, mobilizing and using capital and technology, while the external colonial system provides cheap raw materials and human resources. In Russia, the dominance of foreign capital, encouraged by the state, while maintaining archaic agrarian relations, turned the Russian village into an "internal colony" that ensured the development of industry.

The land reform launched by the government under the leadership of P.A. Stolypin after the revolution of 1905, stabilized the internal situation and had a high economic and social performance. But despite this policy and the high dynamics of industrial development by 1914, Russia entered the First World War unprepared for protracted hostilities. Those twenty years for a calm evolutionary transformation of the country, which P.A. Stolypin was gone. The internal crisis of the state developing during the World War, the intensification of confrontation in society, and then the coup on October 25, 1917, deprived Russia of the chance to take the place of the world industrial leader.

Bibliography.

1. Ryazanov V. T. Economic development of Russia: reforms and the Russian economy in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. St. Petersburg. : Nauka, 1998.

2.Sirotkin VG Great reformers of Russia. Moscow: Knowledge, 1991.

3. Baryshnikov MN Business world of Russia. M.,: 1998 .

4. Melyantsev V. A. Questions of the history of economic and political relations in Russia in the 18th-early 20th centuries // Collection of works of the Moscow branch of the Russian Science Foundation. M.: 1996.

5. Skuratov I. V. The problem of agrarian reform in Russia in the late XIX - early XX centuries // Conference "Reforms and reformers in Russia: history and modernity" of the Orenburg State University, 1997.

6. Lapkin V., Pantin V. The drama of Russian industrialization // Knowledge is power. 1993, no. 5.

7. Ruseva L. King of Diplomats // Change. 1999, No. 3.

APPS

Table 1

Average annual (for five years) indicators of Russia's foreign trade

Export Import Balance Export of bread

Years _________________________________________________

In million rubles million rubles million poods

1861-1865 226 207 + 19 56,3 79,9

1866-1870 317 318 - 1 95,1 130,1

1871-1875 471 566 - 95 172,4 194,1

1876-1880 527 518 + 9 281,7 287,0

1881-1885 550 494 + 56 300,1 301,7

1886-1890 631 392 +239 332,1 413,7

1891-1895 621 464 +157 296,7 441,1

1896-1900 698 607 + 91 298,8 444,2

table 2

Grain export of Russia in the period 1886-1895

Bread export Other export Total export Import

Year _______________________________________________________________________

Million poods % of the harvest Million rubles Million rub.

1886 274 228 256 484 427

1887 386 15,2 285 332 617 400

1888 541 21,1 434 350 784 386

1889 462 22,5 371 380 751 432

1890 413 18,4 334 348 692 407

1891 385 21,9 348 359 707 372

1892 184 8,7 161 315 476 400

1893 398 13,4 289 310 599 450

1894 630 21,2 373 296 669 554

1895 608 22,7 312 377 689 526

_____________________________________________________________________________

For the tables V. Lapkin and V. Pankin in (6) used the statistical data given in the following publications: "A Brief Outline of Foreign Trade and Customs Revenues of Russia for 1884-1894" edited by V.I. Pokrovsky, St. Petersburg, 1896; encyclopedic dictionary "Granat", volume 36, article "Russia", 1913; A.F. Yakovlev,”Economic crises of Russia.”, M., 1955.

The industrial revolution began in England in the 60s. 18th century This country had a dense network of manufactories that functioned on the basis of the principle of division of labor: the organization of production here reaches a high degree of development, which contributed to the utmost simplification and specialization of individual production operations. The replacement and displacement of manual labor by machines, which is the essence of the industrial revolution, is taking place for the first time in light industry. The introduction of machines in this area of production required less capital investment and brought quick financial returns. In 1765, the weaver D. Hargreaves invented a mechanical spinning wheel, in which 15-18 spindles worked simultaneously. This invention, repeatedly modernized, soon spread throughout England. An important milestone in the process of improvements was the invention by D. Watt in 1784 of a steam engine that could be used in almost all industries. New technology required a different organization of production. The manufacture begins to be supplanted by the factory. Unlike manufactory, which was based on manual labor, the factory was a large machine enterprise, designed to produce a huge amount of standard products. The development of industry has resulted in the growth of transport infrastructure: new canals and highways are being built; from the first quarter XIX in. rail transport is actively developing. By the middle of the century, the length of railway lines in England amounted to more than 8000 km. Sea and river trade was also modernized with the introduction of steam engines in the fleet. The successes of England in the industrial sector were impressive: at the end of the 18th - the first half of the 19th centuries. it began to be called the "workshop of the world."

Industrial development of the XIX century. characterized by the expansion of machine production, the transfer of technological knowledge, commercial and financial experience from England to other European countries and the United States. In continental Europe, one of the first countries affected by industrialization was Belgium. As in England, there were rich reserves of coal and ore; large trading centers (Ghent, Liege, Antwerp, etc.) flourished due to the convenient geographical position between France and Germany. The ban on the import of English goods during the Napoleonic Wars contributed to the flourishing of cotton production in Ghent. In 1823, the first blast furnace was built in the Liege coal basin / The independent existence of Belgium since 1831 favored the acceleration of its industrial development: over the next 20 years, the number of machines used increased six times, and the level of coal production increased from 2 to 6 million tons in year. In France technological innovations penetrated, first of all, into large industrial centers such as Paris and Lyon, as well as into areas of development of the textile industry (the northeast and the center of the country). Of great importance for French industry was the fact that banks and financial institutions were actively investing their capital in the construction of new enterprises and the improvement of technology. The French economy was developing especially actively during the era of the Second Empire (1852-1870), when the volume of exports increased 400 times, and energy production - five times.

A significant obstacle to the process of industrialization in Germany was the political fragmentation of this country. The situation improved significantly after the unification of German lands in 1871. The largest industrial region in Germany is the Ruhr region, where there were significant deposits of high quality coal. Subsequently, the Krupp company was founded here, which was the leading steel manufacturer in Germany. Another "industrial center of the country was located in the valley of the Wupper River. At the beginning of the century, it gained fame due to the production of cotton fabrics, the extraction of coal and iron ore. It was in this region of Germany that coke was first used instead of charcoal for the production of iron.

Industrialization in Austria-Hungary, Italy, Spain affected only certain regions, without having a significant impact on the economic development of these countries as a whole.

AT USA industrial production begins to develop at an especially rapid pace from the 40s. XIX century. The most important industrial region of the country was the northeastern states (Pennsylvania, New York, etc.), where by the middle of the 19th century there were large enterprises for the production of iron, agricultural machines, working on coal fuel. The ever-increasing size of the country (by 1848, the US borders stretched from the Atlantic to the Pacific Oceans) contributed to the rapid development. means of communication - railway lines and highways. The industrial development of the United States was carried out in the conditions of a constant influx of cheap labor - emigrants from Europe and Asia. Technical innovations also penetrate the south of the United States, where in the first half of the 19th century. plantation agriculture developed, based on the use of the labor of black slaves: the cotton gin, invented in 1793, is being introduced more and more widely; enterprises for the processing of agricultural products are being built. In general, the industrial development of the United States proceeded at the fastest pace since the second half of the 19th century, when internal socio-political contradictions (the conflict between the southern and northern states) were overcome.

The Industrial Revolution had significant social consequences^ associated with the formation of two main classes of industrial society: the industrial bourgeoisie and wage workers. These two social groups had to find common ground and develop an effective system of relationships. This process was extremely difficult. At the first stage of industrial development, which can be conditionally designated as the era of "wild capitalism", the degree of exploitation of workers was extremely high. Entrepreneurs sought to reduce the cost of producing goods at any cost, in particular by lowering wages and increasing the length of the working day. In conditions of low labor productivity, the complete absence of elementary safety measures, as well as legislation protecting the rights of employees, the position of the latter was very difficult. Such a situation could not but cause spontaneous protest, which had various manifestations: from the destruction of machines (the Luddite movement in England) to the creation of trade unions and the formation of ideological concepts in which the proletariat was given a decisive role in the development of society. The nature of the relationship between industrialists and state power has also changed. The capitalists were no longer satisfied with the mere fact that the state took into account their interests - they gradually began to openly claim power.

Industrialization
Industrialization is the creation of basic industries.
1. The need for industrialization
Russia lagged behind the world powers in terms of qualitative indicators of the economy, labor productivity, and the technical equipment of enterprises. Elements of industrial production were weakened first by World War I and then by civil wars.
2. Purposes of industrialization:
a) elimination of the technical and economic backwardness of the country;
b) achieving economic independence;
c) creation of a powerful defense industry;
d) development of basic industries.
3.Sources of industrialization
a) the transfer of funds from agriculture to heavy industry;
b) compulsory loans from the population;
c) export of goods (consumption by the population is limited), sale of works of art;
d) unpaid labor under the slogan of competition;
e) inclusion of prison labor in the planned economy;
f) sale of wine and vodka products.
4.Features of industrialization:
a) the development of heavy industry to the detriment of light industry (defense interests);
b) sources of industrialization - internal reserves;
c) centralized distribution of resources;
d) fast pace (10-15 years);
e) significant role of the state.
5.Personnel of industrialization
To fulfill the established production plan, a large amount of labor was required, so unemployment was eliminated in a short time, but there was a shortage of engineering and technical personnel. The number of higher and secondary technical educational institutions was increased, and in a few years 128.5 thousand specialists were trained. Also, the labor of prisoners was included in the planned economy.
7. Results of industrialization
a) in just 10 years, the growth rate of heavy industry increased by 2-3 times, the USSR took second place in absolute volumes of industrial production and first place in average annual growth rates of industrial production;
b) the USSR became an industrial, economically independent state that could do without the import of basic consumer goods; industry has become diversified;
c) many plants and factories were revived, a large number of jobs appeared, so unemployment was eliminated;
d) The created economic potential made it possible to deploy a diversified military-industrial complex.
8. Cost of industrialization
The leap in the development of heavy industry led to the lag in other sectors of the economy (light industry, the agricultural sector), the over-centralization of economic life, the limiting limitation of the scope of market mechanisms, the complete subordination of the manufacturer to the state, and the widespread use of non-economic coercion measures. The standard of living of the population remained one of the lowest among developed countries.

By the second half of the XVIII century. in the socio-economic field of development of the countries of Western Europe and the United States, all conditions were created for the start of the industrial revolution. The destruction of the old feudal order, the economic and political strengthening of the bourgeois strata of society, the growth of manufacturing production - all this testified to the maturing of global changes in the sphere of production. Of great importance for the beginning of the industrial revolution were the results of the agrarian revolution of the 18th century, which led to the intensification of agricultural labor and at the same time to the reduction of the rural population, some of which began to leave for the city. Industrialization, which swept from the end of the eighteenth - nineteenth centuries. throughout Europe, developed extremely unevenly and had its own characteristics in each region. The most rapid growth was typical for areas with a long industrial tradition, as well as for areas rich in coal, iron ore and other minerals.
The Industrial Revolution began in England in the 1960s. 18th century This country had a dense network of manufactories that functioned on the basis of the principle of division of labor: the organization of production here reaches a high degree of development, which contributed to the utmost simplification and specialization of individual production operations. The replacement and displacement of manual labor by machines, which is the essence of the industrial revolution, is taking place for the first time in light industry. The introduction of machines in this area of production required less capital investment and brought quick financial returns. In 1765, the weaver D. Hargreaves invented a mechanical spinning wheel, in which 15-18 spindles worked simultaneously. This invention, repeatedly modernized, soon spread throughout England. An important milestone in the process of improvement was the invention by D. Watt in 1784 of a steam engine that could be used in almost all industries. New technology required a different organization of production. The manufacture begins to be supplanted by the factory. Unlike manufactory, which was based on manual labor, the factory was a large machine enterprise, designed to produce a huge amount of standard products. The development of industry has resulted in the growth of transport infrastructure: new canals and highways are being built; from the first quarter of the 19th century. rail transport is actively developing. By the middle of the century, the length of railway lines in England amounted to more than 8,000 km. Sea and river trade was also modernized with the introduction of steam engines in the fleet. The successes of England in the industrial sector were impressive: at the end of the 18th - the first half of the 19th centuries. it began to be called the "workshop of the world." Industrial development of the XIX century. characterized by the expansion of machine production, the transfer of technological knowledge, commercial and financial experience from England to other European countries and the USA. In continental Europe, one of the first countries affected by industrialization was Belgium. As in England, there were rich reserves of coal and ore; large trading centers (Ghent, Liege, Antwerp, etc.) flourished due to the convenient geographical position between France and Germany. The ban on the import of English goods during the Napoleonic Wars contributed to the flourishing of cotton production in Ghent. In 1823, the first blast furnace was erected in the Liège coal basin / Independent existence of Belgium since 1831. favored the acceleration of its industrial development: over the next 20 years, the number of machines used increased six times, and the level of coal production increased from 2 to 6 million tons per year. In France, technological innovations penetrated, first of all, into large industrial centers such as Paris and Lyon, as well as into areas of development of the textile industry (northeast and center of the country). Of great importance for French industry was the fact that banks and financial institutions were actively investing their capital in the construction of new enterprises and the improvement of technology. The French economy was developing especially actively during the era of the Second Empire (1852-1870), when the volume of exports increased 400 times, and energy production - five times.
A significant obstacle to the process of industrialization in Germany was the political fragmentation of this country. The situation improved significantly after the unification of German lands in 1871. The largest industrial region in Germany is the Ruhr region, where there were significant deposits of high quality coal. Subsequently, the Krupp company was founded here, which was the leading steel manufacturer in Germany. Another ‘industrial center of the country was located in the valley of the Wupper River. At the beginning of the century, he gained fame through the production of cotton fabrics, coal mining and iron ore. It was in this region of Germany that coke was first used to produce iron instead of charcoal.
Industrialization in Austria-Hungary, Italy, Spain affected only certain regions, without having a significant impact on the economic development of these countries as a whole.
In the United States, industrial production begins to develop at an especially rapid pace from the 1940s. XIX century. The most important industrial region of the country was the northeastern states (Pennsylvania, New York, etc.), where already by the middle of the 19th century there were large enterprises for the production of iron, agricultural machines, working on coal fuel. The ever-increasing size of the country (by 1848, the US borders stretched from the Atlantic to the Pacific Oceans) contributed to the rapid development. means of communication - railway lines and highways. The industrial development of the United States was carried out in the conditions of a constant influx of cheap labor - emigrants from Europe and Asia. Technical innovations also penetrate the south of the United States, where in the first half of the 19th century. plantation agriculture developed, based on the use of the labor of black slaves: the cotton gin, invented in 1793, is being introduced more and more widely; enterprises for the processing of agricultural products are being built. In general, the industrial development of the United States proceeded at the fastest pace since the second half of the 19th century, when internal socio-political contradictions (the conflict between the southern and northern states) were overcome. The industrial revolution had significant social consequences associated with the formation of two main classes of industrial society: the industrial bourgeoisie and wage workers. These two social groups had to find common ground and develop an effective system of relationships. This process was extremely difficult. At the first stage of industrial development, which can be conditionally designated as the era of "wild capitalism", the degree of exploitation of workers was extremely high. Entrepreneurs sought to reduce the cost of producing goods at any cost, in particular by lowering wages and increasing the length of the working day. In conditions of low labor productivity, the complete absence of elementary safety measures, as well as legislation protecting the rights of employees, the position of the latter was very difficult. Such a situation could not but cause spontaneous protest, which had various manifestations: from the destruction of machines (the Luddite movement in England) to the creation of trade unions and the formation of ideological concepts in which the proletariat was given a decisive role in the development of society. The nature of the relationship between industrialists and state power has also changed. The capitalists were no longer satisfied with the mere fact that the state took into account their interests - they gradually began to openly claim power.
By the end of the 70s. 19th century the most developed countries of continental Europe (France, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland) caught up with the UK in terms of key economic indicators. The period of British economic dominance was gradually drawing to a close. The rapidly developing Germany, which by the end of the 19th century achieved significant success in the development of “new industries” of production (electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, and the chemical industry), became a particularly serious competitor to England in the European market. England was also seriously competing with the United States, which actively introduced the latest European technologies. The rapid development of industry begins to require additional markets for European goods. The crises of overproduction, which had a cyclical nature, became more and more serious and prolonged towards the end of the 19th century. The raw material base of European industry is also gradually depleted. All this prompts the most developed industrial countries to seize colonies. The least developed regions of the world (Africa, Asia, Oceania) became the objects of colonial expansion. These lands, which did not have their own industry, but possessed significant material and human resources, became the most important sources of raw materials and markets for European industry. By the end of the XIX century. whole colonial empires were created, the largest of which was the British Empire. This stage in the development of Western civilization is characterized as the era of imperialism. This era was not only the period of the highest power of the European industrial powers, but also the time when serious contradictions arose between them, which later acquired an insoluble character. Economic rivalry, the struggle for colonial sources of raw materials and markets became the main reasons for the growing international tension.
Thus, by the end of the 19th century, the process of the formation of an industrial capitalist society in Western and Central Europe and North America was generally completed. The countries of the West became a zone of accelerated, "advanced" development of capitalism, its "first echelon". Southeast and Eastern Europe, as well as some countries in Asia (Japan) have also embarked on the path of reform. At the end of the XIX century. finally formed the system of the world economy. The export of goods and capital connected many regions of the world with European centers of industry and banks. Industrialization contributed to a profound revolution in the development of world civilization. It affected all spheres of society without exception, solving and, at the same time, giving rise to many problems. The second half of the 19th century was the time when optimistic moods prevailed in European society. Europeans believed in progress, in the omnipotence of technology and human genius, and looked to the future with confidence.

2/1 political development of the Western world in the 19th century
Political events in Western countries in the 19th century became a reflection of the processes that took place in the socio-economic sphere. The industrial revolution, which radically changed the social structure of society, led to large-scale political transformations. The 19th century in the history of European countries was the era of the formation of parliamentarism, the disintegration and final liquidation of feudal-absolutist regimes. The most widespread political trend was liberalism, which expressed the interests of the industrial bourgeoisie. Supporters of this direction advocated limiting the rights of monarchs by constitutions, demanded the creation of parliaments (based on the principle of election), the establishment of political freedoms (speech, press, meetings, demonstrations, etc.). Another important phenomenon in the life of Europe was the strengthening of national feelings, the desire to unite peoples and liberate them from the yoke of foreign states. In the second half of the century, a number of new nation-states were created.
The first quarter of the 19th century is the stage of the gradual fading of the revolutionary wave as an echo of the events of the Great French Revolution. The creation by the major European powers of the "Holy Alliance" in 1815 to maintain the feudal-absolutist regimes in Europe and suppress revolutionary uprisings led to an intensification of the repressive policy and temporary stabilization of the existing system. However, the protest movement in subsequent years acquires new features: an ever-increasing layer of hired workers is actively included in it.
The first surge of revolutions in Europe occurs in 1830-1831. Its main reason was dissatisfaction with the existing political regimes and their policies. The most significant events took place in France. After the brother of the deceased Louis XVIII, Charles X, came to power in 1824, the noble reactionary movement, which began as early as 1814-1815, reached its culmination. A law was passed on the payment of huge monetary compensation to the nobles who lost their property during the years of the revolution, the new king took steps to restore large noble land ownership. All this caused sharp dissatisfaction among broad sections of the "new" nobility, the industrial bourgeoisie, and the prosperous peasantry, who sought to maintain their economic and socio-political positions. The social confrontation in July 1830 escalated into an open revolution when Charles X illegally dissolved the Chamber of Deputies and changed the electoral law in favor of large landowners. During the "three glorious days" (July 27-30, 1830), violent clashes took place in Paris between the royal troops and the rebels, who eventually managed to capture the Tuileries Palace and all the most important urban centers. The Bourbon dynasty was overthrown. The representative of the Orleans dynasty came to power - Louis Philippe, known for his liberal views. In July, the government set a course for the establishment of a constitutional monarchy in the country, oriented not to the old aristocracy, but to the interests of the commercial, financial and industrial bourgeoisie. The rights of the Chamber of Deputies were expanded, the property qualification was reduced, local self-government was introduced, and the rights of the press were restored. Thus, the monarchy of the nobility in France was replaced by the bourgeois monarchy, which received the name of July. The revolution in France inspired many liberals in Europe. The rulers of a number of German states were forced to abdicate, and constitutions are being adopted here that ensure civil rights. At the same time, a wave of national liberation protests took place throughout Europe. As a result of a long struggle in 1830, Greece achieved independence, which in 1843 became a constitutional monarchy. In 1831, Belgium gained independence, overthrowing the power of the Dutch king.
England, which managed to preserve its traditional political institutions and avoid revolution, is a vivid example of the evolutionary model of the development of European society, although here, in the 1930s and 1940s, social problems reached extraordinary severity. During the industrial revolution, the economic power of the bourgeoisie, primarily the industrial one, increased sharply, but its political weight still remained insignificant. The parliament was dominated by large landowners (landlords), the commercial and financial bourgeoisie. The political struggle unfolded around the reform of the parliamentary system in accordance with the changes taking place in society. The first major parliamentary reform was carried out in 1832 under the influence of the revolutionary events that took place in continental Europe and the activation of opposition forces. For the first time, large industrial cities received the right to parliamentary representation, and all land owners, tenant farmers, and homeowners with the required level of income achieved voting rights. The number of voters increased to 652 thousand people. The industrial bourgeoisie acquired the opportunity to participate in the political life of the country. However, not all problems have been solved. In particular, the labor issue was extremely acute. At the end of the 1930s, the workers, whose financial situation remained extremely difficult, embarked on the path of creating their own organizations that put forward demands for broad democratic reforms: the introduction of universal suffrage, the abolition of property qualifications for parliamentarians, secret ballot, etc. All these requirements in 1836 were consolidated into a single document - the charter. A mass movement for the adoption of this charter unfolded throughout England. Its supporters began to be called "chartists" (from "charter" - charter). In 1840, they established the National Chartist Association, which soon became a branched organization that had its own charter and funds. However, the activities of the Chartists were not revolutionary, they were limited to filing petitions with the government, peaceful demonstrations, and ideological polemics. The position of the government also played an important role, which, under the threat of a surge of radicalism, was able to take the path of compromise. As early as the 1930s, a number of laws were passed that partly improved the position of factory workers; in 1846, the conservative government of R. Peel, under pressure from the industrial bourgeoisie, abolished export duties on English goods, as well as the "Corn Laws" of 1815. , which sharply limited the import of bread into England. The most significant act passed by Parliament in 1847 was the law limiting the working day to 10 hours. By pursuing a policy of free trade, English industry was able to flood the world market with its goods, which led to huge profits for the industrial bourgeoisie, part of which was directed to improving the conditions of the workers. In general, a balanced policy of mutual concessions and compromises allowed the main social groups of society in England to avoid open conflict and solve pressing problems through peaceful evolutionary reform. The unresolved nature of many political problems, the further polarization of social groups in society, the lack of rights and the difficult financial situation of the ever-growing working class - all these phenomena became the basis for a new, much more powerful revolutionary surge in Europe in 1848 than in the 1830s. Objective factors were added to social tension, such as crop failure and famine in 1847 in a number of European countries, the economic crisis of overproduction, which led to mass unemployment and poverty, which occurred precisely in this year. Although the revolutionary events in each country had their own specifics, the general thing was that the speeches were led mainly by the liberal intelligentsia, inspired by the ideas of the French Revolution. The working class becomes the main driving force of revolutions.
The beginning of the revolutionary events was laid by the uprising in Paris, where the rebels overthrew the Guizot government, which pursued an extremely tough and uncompromising policy that absolutely did not take into account the political and economic interests of broad petty-bourgeois and working circles. King Louis-Philippe abdicated, and on February 25, 1848, France again became a republic. The interim government that came to power adopted a number of radical laws: universal suffrage for men over 21 years of age was introduced, and the labor issue was put on the agenda. For the first time, the government undertook to "guarantee the existence of the worker through labor." The problem of unemployment was actively solved. National workshops were created, giving work to 100 thousand unemployed; public works were organized. The government regulated working conditions and food prices. However, many of these measures were populist in nature, since they could not be financed. The rise in taxes and the closure of the National Workshops became the reasons for a new uprising that took place in Paris in June 1848. However, this time the government showed firmness: regular troops led by the uncompromising General Cavaignac were introduced into the city, who brutally suppressed the speech. All these events, political instability, the lack of a clear development program for most parties discredited the republican system in the eyes of the majority of the French. In the presidential elections in December 1848, Napoleon Bonaparte's nephew, Louis Napoleon, won a landslide victory, whose program was based on the ideas of stabilization and firm order. In 1851, he carried out a coup d'état, and in 1852 he proclaimed himself Emperor of France, which, on the whole, was perceived by society quite calmly. Events developed in a similar scenario in the German Confederation, where the Frankfurt Parliament was created as a result of the March uprising in Berlin and other cities, and in the Austrian Empire, which was shocked not only by the uprising in Vienna, but also by large-scale national liberation demonstrations that swept through such developed provinces like Hungary, the Czech Republic and northern Italy. Although the revolutions, which acquired more and more democratic features in their development, were suppressed by armed means in most countries, they were of great importance for the subsequent development of Western civilization.
As a result of the revolutions of the middle of the 19th century, liberal values penetrated and became widespread in the political life of Western society. However, many social problems remained unresolved: the growth in the welfare of wage workers, whose number was constantly growing, lagged behind the enrichment of the financial and industrial oligarchy, the workers were still politically disenfranchised; social security was at an extremely low level. Under these conditions, a new socio-political trend is emerging, which has seriously competed with liberalism. By the name of the main ideologist of this doctrine - K. Marx - it was called Marxism. This trend was a radical reaction to the rapid development of bourgeois relations. Marxists believed that antagonistic contradictions are immanent in capitalism, which sooner or later will blow up the existing system. Unlike liberals, supporters of Marxism were convinced of the impossibility of improving the capitalist system in an evolutionary way. Marxism thus advocated revolutionary methods of struggle; the main driving force of the future revolution was to be the working class, organized into political parties. The key provisions of Marxist theory are set forth in the "Manifesto of the Communist Party", written in 1848 by K. Marx and F. Engels, who developed them in a number of other fundamental works. The founders of Marxism carried out not only theoretical, but also active propaganda activities. In 1864, the First International was created, which had sections in almost all European countries and the USA. Later, on their basis, national social-democratic parties arose, united in 1889 in the Second International. By the end of the century, the party turned into mass organizations that played a significant role in political life in a number of countries (such as Germany, France, Italy).
Along with political and party building, in the last third of the 19th century, the labor movement followed the path of creating trade unions that defended the rights of workers and fought to improve the living and working conditions of workers. Trade union organizations are especially active in England, where already in 1868 an association of trade unions was created - the British Congress of Trade Unions (TUC), as well as in France, Germany and the USA. Given the massive nature of these organizations, the authorities were forced to combine repressive measures with certain concessions to the labor movement. In the second half of the XIX century. in all the industrialized countries of Europe and the United States, laws are being passed that improve working conditions, limit the working day, introduce compulsory insurance, and so on. In the second half of the 19th century, the process of formation of nation-states continued in Europe. During this period, states were formed that later played a fatal role in the development of Western civilization. We are talking about Germany and Italy.
From the middle of the XIX century. noticeably strengthened Prussia persistently sought to unite the German lands, which were a huge conglomerate of small states, under its auspices. The solution to this problem is largely associated with the name of the largest German politician of that era - O. von Bismarck, who in 1862 took the post of Chancellor of Prussia. The most important rival of Prussia in the unification of the German lands was the Austrian Empire, which also claimed leadership in the German Confederation. Although both of these countries participated as allies in the war against Denmark in 1864, conflict between them was inevitable. In 1866, a short-term Austro-Prussian war began, which quickly led to the defeat of Austria. According to the Treaty of Prague on August 23, 1866, she permanently withdrew from the German Confederation and renounced her claims to hegemony in Germany. The North German Confederation was formed, in which Prussia played the main role. The last enemy of the German Empire in the person of France was eliminated as a result of the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871. This conflict led to the fall of the regime of Louis Napoleon III in France. On January 18, 1871, the Prussian King Wilhelm I was proclaimed German Kaiser at Versailles. The centuries-old fragmentation of Germany was overcome.
The problem of eliminating political fragmentation was also on the agenda in the Italian lands. The situation here was complicated by the fact that some of the most developed countries
Italy was controlled by Austria, which was extremely uninterested in the formation of a national state on the Apennine Peninsula. The Sardinian kingdom, the most politically and economically developed region of Italy, became the center of the unification of the country. The process of creating a unified Italy takes place in the late 50s - early 70s. XIX century. Internal tendencies towards centralization were complicated by active interference in Italian affairs by Austria and France. The head of the Sardinian government, K. Cavour, deftly took advantage of the contradictions between European states for his own purposes. By the end of the 60s. Sardinian troops, with the active support of the masses, led by D. Garibaldi, managed to crush the Kingdom of Naples, whose head, Francis II of Bourbon, was an opponent of a united Italy, and drive out the Austrian and French interventionists. The accession of Rome to Italy and the liquidation of the Papal States in 1870 marked the completion of the unification process. The turbulent processes of changing the political map of Europe, which took place from the very beginning of the 19th century, stopped for a while by its last quarter.
A common phenomenon in the development of Western civilization in the 19th century was the formation of the foundations of civil society. This process, which took place in a complex struggle, developed in different countries far from the same way: if in England and the USA it took an evolutionary path, then many other Western countries (primarily France) experienced numerous revolutionary upheavals along this path. Political development consolidated the rapid socio-economic changes that took place in the countries of the West, and also led to the formation of a completely new political, legal and social picture of society.

item 1 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph p. 91

Question. Fill in the table and draw conclusions about the significance of technical achievements of the second half of the 19th century.

item 2 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph p. 93

Question. Analyze the characteristics of different types of monopolies and explain what distinguishes them from each other. How did the degree of centralization of management determine a particular type of monopoly?

Types of monopolies from a cartel to a concern differ in the enlargement of their positions: if in a cartel entrepreneurs agree on prices and volumes, then a concern unites enterprises of different industries that are under the same control and management.

p.3 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph p. 96

Question 1. Make a logical diagram showing the causes of economic crises in the 19th century. and their social consequences.

Question 2. What were the positive and negative consequences of the monopolization of markets and areas of production? Why in the second half of the XIX century. entrepreneurs became more profitable export of capital, rather than goods from industrialized countries?

Entrepreneurs quickly increased the output of goods for which there was a demand, however, having had enough of the goods, a decline in production began. Moreover, the recession, which began in one industry, covered the entire economy.

item 4 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph p. 97

Question 1. What changes took place in the composition of employees in the process of industrialization?

In the composition of hired workers there is a stratification: administrative personnel, employees, skilled workers, unskilled.

Question 2. How did the position of employees?

These strata differed in terms of income and education.

item 5 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph p. 98

Question. What new features did the trade union movement acquire in industrialized countries at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries? Name four or more differences.

Trade unions united on a national scale. Ties developed between the trade unions of different countries. The International Secretariat of Trade Unions was created, which ensured cooperation and mutual support of trade union centers in different countries.

They united mainly highly skilled workers of the same profession. Subsequently, there was an association at the level of industries and the inclusion of unskilled workers in their organizations.

Questions and tasks for paragraph page 98

Question 1. Which of the following characterized the industrial and social development of the countries of Europe and the USA in the first half of the 19th century, and which - in the second:

1) export of machinery and equipment; 2) export of capital; 3) completion of the industrial revolution; 4) industrialization; 5) conveyor production; 6) concentration of production; 7) modernization of production; 8) monopolization of production and markets; 9) the first crisis of overproduction; 10) the transformation of trade unions into an influential political force; 11) stratification of employees; 12) merger of banking capital with industrial capital; 13) the formation of the labor movement; 14) formation of the working class; 15) centralization of production?

Completion of the industrial revolution; the formation of the working class; the formation of the labor movement; modernization of production; conveyor production; concentration of production; centralization of capital; merger of banking capital; overproduction crisis; monopolization of production and the market; export of capital; industrialization; stratification of hired workers; the transformation of trade unions into an influential political force.

Question 2. From this list, make pairs of concepts that mean the causes and consequences of the economic and social processes of the 19th century; explain your answer. Example: industrialization is the stratification of employees.

industrialization - stratification of hired workers;

completion of the industrial revolution - modernization of production - assembly line production;

the formation of the working class - the formation of the labor movement;

concentration of production - centralization of capital;

monopolization of production and the market - the merger of banking

capital - the export of capital;

crisis of overproduction - monopolization of markets.

Question 3. Think about why in the second half of the XIX century. in the industrial countries there were no longer such mass social movements as Chartism.

There were no mass social movements in the industrial countries, as the trade union movement developed, which fought for the rights of workers.

Question 1. What in the situation of society, and specifically the workers, worried the head of the Catholic Church at the end of the 19th century?

The Church wants the poor to live better, calls people to virtue and educates them morally.

Question 2. Why does the Pope offer workers to organize trade unions? What should be their activity?

The activities of trade unions should consist (in the opinion of the Pope) in turning to God, engaging in religious instruction, teaching what constitutes duties to God, what he believes, what he hopes for and what leads him to eternal salvation.

Question 3. Whose interests did the Church take care of by proposing the creation of Catholic trade unions?

Analyzing these statements, you understand that the Church does not care in the interests of the working class.

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