The shell of the Earth, within which the lower layers of the atmosphere, the upper parts of the lithosphere, the entire hydrosphere and biosphere mutually penetrate each other and interact, is called geographical envelope(earth shell) All components of the geographic shell interact with each other.

The geographic envelope does not have sharp boundaries. Many scientists believe that its thickness is on average 55 km. The geographic envelope is sometimes referred to as the natural environment or simply nature.

Geographic envelope properties.

Only in the geographic shell are there substances in the solid, liquid and gaseous state, which is of great importance for all processes occurring in the geographic shell, and above all for the emergence of life. Only here, at the solid surface of the Earth, life first arose, and then man and human society appeared, for the existence and development of which there are all conditions: air, water, rocks and minerals, solar heat and light, soils, vegetation, bacterial and animal life. .

All processes in the geographic envelope occur under the influence of solar energy and, to a lesser extent, internal terrestrial energy sources. Thus, geographic envelope properties : integrity, rhythm, zoning .

Civil defense integrity It manifests itself in the fact that a change in one component of nature inevitably causes a change in all the others. These changes can evenly cover the entire geographic envelope and appear in some of its separate parts, influencing other parts.

Rhythm natural phenomena is the repetition of similar phenomena in time. Examples of rhythm: daily and annual periods of the Earth's rotation; long periods of mountain building and climate change on Earth; periods of change in solar activity. The study of rhythms is important for forecasting the processes and phenomena occurring in the geographic envelope.

Zoning – regular change of all GO components from the equator to the poles. It is caused by the rotation of the spherical Earth with a certain inclination of the axis of rotation around the Sun. Depending on the geographic latitude, solar radiation is distributed zonally and causes a change in climates, soils, vegetation and other components of the geographic envelope. The world law of zonality of the geographical shell is manifested in its division into geographical zones and natural zones. On its basis, the physical-geographical zoning of the Earth and its individual sections is carried out.

Simultaneously with the zonal, there are also azonal factors associated with the internal energy of the Earth (relief, height, configuration of the continents). They violate the zonal distribution of GO components. In any part of the world, zonal and azonal factors act simultaneously.

Circulation of matter and energy

The circulation of matter and energy is the most important mechanism of the natural processes of the geographical envelope. There are various cycles of matter and energy: air cycles in the atmosphere, the earth's crust, water cycles, etc.

For the geographical envelope, it is of great importance The water cycle, which is carried out due to the movement of air masses. There can be no life without water.

A huge role in the life of the geographical shell belongs to biological cycle. In green plants, as is known, organic substances are formed from carbon dioxide and water in the light, which serve as food for animals. After death, animals and plants are decomposed by bacteria and fungi to minerals, which are then reabsorbed by green plants.

The leading role in all cycles belongs to air cycle in the troposphere, which includes the entire system of winds and the vertical movement of air. The movement of air in the troposphere draws the hydrosphere into the global circulation, forming the world water cycle.

Each subsequent cycle is different from the previous ones. It does not form a vicious circle. Plants, for example, take nutrients from the soil, and when they die, they give them much more, since the organic mass of plants is created mainly due to atmospheric carbon dioxide, and not due to substances coming from the soil.

The role of living organisms in the formation of nature.

Life makes our planet unique. Life processes consist of three main stages: the creation of primary products as a result of photosynthesis of organic matter; transformation of primary (plant) products into secondary (animal); destruction of primary and secondary biological products by bacteria, fungi. Without these processes, life is impossible. Living organisms include: plants, animals, bacteria and fungi. Each group (kingdom) of living organisms plays a certain role in the development of nature.

Under the influence of living organisms, there was more oxygen in the air and the content of carbon dioxide decreased. Green plants are the main source of atmospheric oxygen. Another was the composition of the oceans. Rocks of organic origin appeared in the lithosphere. Deposits of coal and oil, most limestone deposits are the result of the activity of living organisms.

The earth includes several concentric shells. Geographical shell called a special shell of the Earth, where the upper part of the lithosphere, the lower part of the atmosphere and the hydrosphere come into contact and interact, within the boundaries of which living organisms develop. As already noted, of the planets of the solar system, the geographic shell is characteristic only of the Earth.

The exact boundaries of the geographic shell are not precisely defined. It is generally accepted that it extends upwards to the "ozone screen", that is, to a height of 25 km. The hydrosphere enters the geographic shell as a whole, and the lithosphere - only with its upper layers, to a depth of several kilometers. Thus, within its boundaries, the geographic shell almost coincides with the biosphere.

The specific features of the geographic envelope are a wide variety of material composition and types of energy, the presence of life, the existence of human society.

The existence and development of the geographic envelope is associated with a number of patterns, the main of which are integrity, rhythm and zoning.

Integrity of the geographic envelope due to the mutual penetration into each other of its constituent parts. Changing one of them changes the others. An example is the Quaternary glaciations. The cooling of the climate led to the formation of layers of snow and ice that covered the northern parts of Eurasia and North America. As a result of glaciation, new forms of relief arose, soils, vegetation, and wildlife changed.

Manifestation integrity of the geographic envelope is a circulatory system. All shells of the Earth are covered by a large water cycle. In the process of biological cycle, green plants convert the energy of the Sun into the energy of chemical bonds. From inorganic substances ( CO2 and H2O) are formed organic (starch). Animals, not having this ability, use ready-made organic substances by eating plants or other animals. Microorganisms destroy the organic matter of dead plants and animals to simple compounds. Plants will use them again.

The repetition in time of certain natural phenomena is called rhythm. There are rhythms of different duration. The most obvious daily and seasonal rhythm. The daily rhythm is due to the movement of the Earth around its axis, the seasonal rhythm is due to orbital motion. In addition to daily and annual rhythms, there are also longer rhythms, or cycles. So, in the Neogene-Quaternary time, the eras of glaciations and interglacials repeatedly succeeded each other. In the history of the Earth, several cycles of mountain-building processes are distinguished.

Zoning one of the main regularities of geographic physical shell. It manifests itself in an ordered pattern of natural components as it moves from the poles to the equator. Zoning is based on the unequal amount of solar heat and light received by different parts of the earth's surface. Many components of nature are subject to zonality: climate, land waters, small landforms formed by the action of external forces, soils, vegetation, wildlife. The manifestations of the external forces of the Earth, the features of the movement and structure of the earth's crust and the associated placement of large landforms do not obey the law of zonality.

Do you have any questions? Do you want to know more about the geographic shell of the Earth?
To get the help of a tutor - register.
The first lesson is free!

site, with full or partial copying of the material, a link to the source is required.

The geographic shell is an integral shell of the Earth, where its components (the upper part of the lithosphere, the lower part of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the biosphere) closely interact, exchanging matter and energy. The geographic envelope has a complex composition and structure. It is studied by physical geography.

The upper boundary of the geographic envelope is the stratopause, before which the thermal influence of the earth's surface on atmospheric processes is manifested. The lower boundary of the geographic shell is considered to be the foot of the stratisphere in the lithosphere, that is, the upper zone of the earth's crust. Thus, the geographic envelope includes the entire hydrosphere, the entire biosphere, the lower part of the atmosphere and the upper lithosphere. The greatest vertical thickness of the geographic envelope reaches 40 km.

The geographic envelope of the Earth is formed under the influence of terrestrial and cosmic processes. It contains various types of free energy. The substance exists in any state of aggregation, and the degree of aggregation of the substance is varied - from free elementary particles to chemicals and complex biological organisms. The heat flowing from the Sun is accumulated, and all natural processes in the geographic envelope occur due to the radiant energy of the Sun and the internal energy of our planet. In this shell, a human society develops, drawing resources for its life from the geographical shell and influencing it both positively and negatively.

Elements, properties

The main material elements of the geographic envelope are rocks that make up the earth's crust, air and water masses, soils and biocenoses. Ice massifs play an important role in northern latitudes and high mountains. These shell elements form various combinations. The form of this or that combination is determined by the number of incoming components and their internal modifications, as well as the nature of their mutual influences.

The geographic envelope has a number of important properties. Its integrity is ensured by the constant exchange of matter and energy between its components. And the interaction of all components binds them into one material system, in which a change in any element provokes a change in the rest of the links.

In the geographic shell, the circulation of substances is continuously carried out. At the same time, the same phenomena and processes are repeated many times. Their overall effectiveness is kept at a high level, despite the limited amount of starting materials. All these processes differ in complexity and structure. Some are mechanical phenomena, for example, sea currents, winds, others are accompanied by the transition of substances from one state of aggregation to another, for example, the water cycle in nature, biological transformation of substances can occur, as in the biological cycle.

It should be noted the repeatability of various processes in the geographical shell in time, that is, a certain rhythm. It is based on astronomical and geological reasons. There are daily rhythms (day-night), annual (seasons), intra-secular (cycles of 25-50 years), super-secular, geological (Caledonian, Alpine, Hercynian cycles lasting 200-230 million years each).

The geographic envelope can be considered as an integral continuously developing system under the influence of exogenous and endogenous factors. As a result of this constant development, there is a territorial differentiation of the land surface, sea and ocean floor (geocomplexes, landscapes), a polar asymmetry is expressed, manifested by significant differences in the nature of the geographical shell in the southern and northern hemispheres.

Related content:

The largest natural complex of the Earth is the geographic envelope. It includes the lithosphere and atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere, which interact with each other. Thanks to this, an active cycle of energy and substances occurs in nature. Each shell - gas, mineral, living and water - has its own laws of development and existence.

The main regularities of the geographical shell:

• geographic zoning;
• integrity and interconnection of all parts of the shell of the globe;
• rhythm - repetition of daily and annual natural phenomena.

Earth's crust

The solid part of the earth, containing rocks, sedimentary layer and minerals, is one of the components of the geographic envelope. The composition includes more than ninety chemical elements, which are unevenly distributed over the entire surface of the planet. Iron, magnesium, calcium, aluminum, oxygen, sodium, potassium make up the majority of all rocks in the lithosphere. They are formed in various ways: under the influence of temperature and pressure, during the redeposition of weathering products and the vital activity of organisms, in the thickness of the earth and during precipitation from water. There are two types of the earth's crust - oceanic and continental, which differ from each other in rock composition and temperature.

Atmosphere

The atmosphere is the most important part of the geographic envelope. It affects the weather and climate, the hydrosphere, the world of flora and fauna. The atmosphere is also divided into several layers, and the geographical shell includes the troposphere and stratosphere. These layers contain oxygen, which is required for the life cycles of various spheres on the planet. In addition, the atmosphere layer protects the earth's surface from the ultraviolet rays of the sun.

Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere is the water surface of the earth, which consists of groundwater, rivers, lakes, seas and oceans. The main part of the Earth's water resources is concentrated in the ocean, and the rest - on the continents. The hydrosphere also includes water vapor and clouds. In addition, permafrost, snow and ice cover is also part of the hydrosphere.

Biosphere and anthroposphere

The biosphere is a multishell of the planet, which includes the world of flora and fauna, hydrosphere, atmosphere and lithosphere, which interact with each other. A change in one of the components of the biosphere leads to significant changes in the entire ecosystem of the planet. The anthroposphere, the sphere in which people and nature interact, can also be attributed to the geographic shell of the earth.

Questions before paragraph

1. What geospheres did you study?

In total, the planet Earth has four geospheres - this is the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere. But some scientists began to distinguish also the earth's crust, mantle and core of the Earth.

The atmosphere is the entire air envelope of the Earth.

Lithosphere - the sphere includes the earth's crust and the surface of the mantle.

The hydrosphere is the entire water part of the Earth, all oceans, seas, rivers and lakes.

Biosphere - the totality of all life on Earth, people, animals, birds, fish, bacteria, viruses.

2. What substances make up the shells of the Earth?

The atmosphere is the air-filled shell of the earth. The atmosphere contains nitrogen, oxygen, ozone, and carbon dioxide. Helium, hydrogen and inert gases are contained in the atmosphere in the smallest fractions of a percent. The lithosphere is a hard shell. All known substances can be found in the lithosphere, from rock to gold and silver. The hydrosphere is made up of water. It occupies 70% of the planet's surface. The biosphere consists of living beings and is in close interaction with the hydrosphere and atmosphere. Also contains organic matter.

3. Where are the boundaries of the earth's shells located?

The geographic shells of the Earth are systems of the planet, where all the components inside are interconnected and determined relative to each other. There are four types of shells - atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere.

The first is the atmosphere, its outer shell. It borders five layers: the troposphere (8-15 km high), the stratosphere (the custodian of the ozone layer), the mesosphere, the ionosphere and the uppermost - the exosphere. The second of the shells can be attributed to the lithosphere. The earth's crust consists of it, therefore it is considered a hard shell of the Earth. Water is the hydrosphere. By area it makes up 70% of the Earth and includes all the waters of the planet. Thanks to living organisms, there is another one - the biosphere. Its boundaries: land, soil, hydrosphere and lower atmosphere.

4. What cycles of substances can you tell about?

What is the circulation of substances, you can consider an example. The simplest of them is the transformation of organic substances. Initially, all multicellular living beings consist of them. After completing their life cycle, their bodies are decomposed by special organisms, and organic compounds are converted into inorganic ones. After these compounds are absorbed by other beings and inside their bodies are again restored to organic form. Then the process repeats and continues cyclically all the time. The circulation of substances is carried out with a continuous flow (flow) of the external energy of the Sun and the internal energy of the Earth. Depending on the driving force, with a certain degree of convention, within the circulation of substances, one can distinguish geological, biological and anthropogenic cycles.

5. Give examples of the influence of climate on flora and fauna.

Climate has a key influence on the development of ecosystems. For example, in deserts or on land areas located beyond the Arctic Circle, climatic conditions for the development of living beings are extremely unfavorable, which determines poor biodiversity. As a reverse example, we can cite the equatorial territories, where a comfortable temperature and a sufficient amount of moisture are maintained all year round, which leads to the rapid development and prosperity of the flora and fauna.

6. What influence does a person have on the shells of the Earth?

Huge and, unfortunately, negative. We can say that the activity of people has a direct impact on our entire planet, on all its shells. People change landscapes at their discretion (lithosphere), cut down forests, which also leads to changes on the earth's surface. Without the "support" of the roots, the soil is not protected from the wind, and its top layer simply blows away over time. People drain rivers, create reservoirs and extract minerals from the bowels of the planet. People pollute the water and air shells, which also affects the biosphere.

Questions and tasks

1. Give examples of the relationship between the geospheres of the Earth.

The interaction of the Earth's geospheres consists in the mutual exchange of matter and the mutual influence of the dynamics of their environments. The movement of air masses in the atmosphere affects the movement of water in the hydrosphere. The liquid substance of the mantle penetrates into the earth's crust and the exchange of substances between the mantle and the earth's crust takes place. The biosphere supplies oxygen to the atmosphere. The hydrosphere is water vapor. The atmosphere protects the organic world and the hydrosphere from the sun by retaining moisture and returning it to the earth in the form of precipitation.

2. Define the concept of "geographical shell" and name its main properties.

The geographic shell is a set of interactions of such planetary layers as: lithosphere and hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. The biosphere through photosynthesis affects the atmosphere. The atmosphere helps the soil not to overheat. The biosphere, in turn, affects the hydrosphere (organisms affect the salinity of the oceans and seas). A change in any of the shells entails a change in the others. So the increase in land area during the great glaciation led to a cooling of the climate, and as a result, North America and the northern part of Eurasia were covered with ice and snow. This modified the flora and fauna, as well as the soil.

3. Within what limits is the distribution of the geographic envelope considered?

The boundaries of the geographic shell are still not clearly defined. For its upper limit, scientists usually take the ozone screen in the atmosphere, beyond which life on our planet does not go. The lower boundary is most often drawn in the lithosphere at depths of no more than 1000 m. This is the upper part of the earth's crust, which is formed under the strong joint influence of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and living organisms. The entire water column of the World Ocean is inhabited, therefore, if we talk about the lower boundary of the geographic shell in the ocean, then it should be drawn along the ocean floor. In general, the geographic envelope of our planet has a total thickness of about 30 km.

4. What is the structure of the geographic shell?

The geographic envelope is a complex formation resulting from the interaction and interpenetration of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere.

The hydrosphere and biosphere are completely included in the geographic envelope, while the lithosphere and atmosphere are only partially included (the lithosphere in its upper part, and the atmosphere in its lower part). The interaction of geospheres in the geographic shell occurs under the influence of the energy of the Sun and the internal energy of the Earth.

5. In what part of the world and in what natural conditions did the ancestors of modern man appear?

Man appeared, as scientists suggest, in the peculiar natural conditions of global climate change about 2.6 million years ago in East Africa. Therefore, it is considered the ancestral home of mankind. Deciphering the human genome allowed scientists to make a surprising conclusion. It turns out that all people are distant relatives. We all come from one small tribe.

6. Indicate on the map of the hemispheres in which directions the land was settled by humans.

Today, all habitable land areas are inhabited by humans. But it was not always so. The finds of the last decades show that the areas where a person stood out as Homo sapiens were the eastern and central regions of Africa, Western Asia, South-Eastern Europe. In the future, man gradually settled on the territory of the Earth. Approximately 30 thousand years ago, people settled in the northern regions of Europe, Southeast and Northeast Asia, from where, during periods of sharp expansion of the area of ​​​​glaciers, they penetrated into the New World, Australia and New Guinea. About 10 thousand years ago, having traveled all over America, man reached Tierra del Fuego.

7. Define the concept of "race".

A race is a historically formed human population that is distinguished by certain biological characteristics that appear externally: the shape of the eyes, skin color, hair structure, and so on. Traditionally, humanity is divided into three main races: Mongoloid, Caucasoid and Negroid.