Capabilities- these are very complex personal formations that have such properties as content, level of generalization, creativity, level of development, psychological form. There are a number of classifications of abilities. Let's reproduce the most significant of them.

Natural (or natural) abilities Basically, they are biologically determined by innate inclinations, they are formed on their basis in the presence of elementary life experience through the mechanisms of learning.

Specific human abilities have a socio-historical origin and provide life and development in a social environment (general and special higher intellectual abilities, which are based on the use of speech, logic; theoretical and practical; educational and creative). Specific human abilities, in turn, are divided into:

§ on the general, which determine the success of a person in a wide variety of activities and communication (mental abilities, developed memory and speech, accuracy and subtlety of hand movements, etc.), and special, which determine the success of a person in certain types of activity and communication, where a special kind of inclinations and their development are needed (mathematical, technical, artistic and creative, sports abilities, etc.). These abilities, as a rule, can complement and enrich each other, but each of them has its own structure; The success of any specific and specific activity depends not only on special, but also on general abilities. Therefore, in the course of professional training of specialists, one should not be limited to the formation of only special abilities;

§ theoretical, which determine a person's tendency to abstract-logical thinking, and practical that underlie the propensity for concrete-practical actions. Unlike general and special abilities, theoretical and practical abilities most often do not combine with each other. Most people have either one or the other type of ability. Together they are extremely rare, mainly among gifted, diversified people;

§ educational that affect the success of pedagogical influence, the assimilation of knowledge, skills, skills, the formation of personality traits, and creative associated with success in creating objects of material and spiritual culture, the production of new, original ideas, discoveries, inventions, creativity in various areas of human life. They are the ones who drive social progress. The highest degree of creative manifestations of a person is called genius, and the highest degree of a person's abilities in a certain activity (communication) is called talent;

§ abilities, manifested in communication, interaction with people. They are socially conditioned, as they are formed in the course of a person's life in society and involve the possession of speech as a means of communication, the ability to adapt in a society of people, i.e. correctly perceive and evaluate their actions, interact and establish good relationships in various social situations, etc. and subject-activity abilities, associated with the interaction of people with nature, technology, symbolic information, artistic images, etc.

Abilities ensure the success of a person's social existence and are always included in the structure of various types of activity, determining its content. They seem to be the most important condition for achieving the heights of professional excellence. According to the classification of professions by E.A. Klimov, all abilities can be divided into five groups:

1) the abilities necessary for specialists in the field "man is a sign system". This group includes professions related to the creation, study and use of various sign systems (for example, linguistics, mathematical programming languages, methods of graphical representation of observation results, etc.);

2) the abilities necessary for specialists in the field "man - technology". This includes various types of labor activity in which a person deals with technology, its use or design (for example, the profession of an engineer, operator, driver, etc.);

3) the abilities necessary for specialists in the field " man - nature". This includes professions in which a person deals with various phenomena of inanimate and living nature, for example, a biologist, geographer, geologist, chemist and other professions related to the category of natural sciences;

4) the abilities necessary for specialists in the field " man is a work of art". This group of professions represents various types of artistic and creative work (for example, literature, music, theater, fine arts);

5) the abilities necessary for specialists in the field " man - man". This includes all types of professions involving the interaction of people (politics, religion, pedagogy, psychology, medicine, law).

Abilities are a set of mental qualities that have a complex structure. In the structure of the ability to a certain activity, one can single out the qualities that occupy a leading position, and those that are auxiliary. These components form a unity that ensures the success of the activity.

General abilities- a set of potential (hereditary, innate) psychodynamic characteristics of a person that determine his readiness for activity.

Special abilities- a system of personality traits that help to achieve high results in any field of activity.

Talent - a high level of development of abilities, especially special ones (musical, literary, etc.).

Talent is a combination of abilities, their totality (synthesis). Each individual ability reaches a high level, it cannot be considered a talent if it is not associated with other abilities. The presence of talent is judged by the results of a person's activity, which is distinguished by its fundamental novelty, originality, perfection and social significance. A feature of talent is a high level of creativity in the implementation of activities.

Genius- the highest level of talent development, which allows to carry out fundamentally new in a particular field of activity. The difference between genius and talent is not so much quantitative as qualitative. One can speak about the presence of genius only if a person achieves such results of creative activity that constitute an era in the life of society, in the development of culture.

The totality of a number of abilities that determine a particularly successful activity of a person in a certain area and distinguish him from other persons performing this activity in the same conditions is called giftedness.

Gifted people are distinguished by attentiveness, composure, readiness for activity; they are characterized by perseverance in achieving the goal, the need to work, as well as intelligence that exceeds the average level.

The stronger the abilities are expressed, the fewer people possess them. In terms of the level of development of abilities, most people do not stand out in any way. There are not so many gifted, much less talented, and geniuses can be found in every field about once a century. These are simply unique people who constitute the heritage of mankind, and that is why they require the most careful attitude.

Excellence in a specific activity that requires a lot of hard work is called skill.

Mastery is revealed not only in the sum of skills and abilities, but also in the psychological readiness for the qualified implementation of any labor operations that will be necessary for the creative solution of the problems that have arisen.

The structure of abilities for a certain activity is individual for each person. The lack of abilities does not mean that a person is unsuitable for performing activities, since there are psychological mechanisms for compensating for missing abilities. Compensation can be carried out through acquired knowledge, skills, through the formation of an individual style of activity or through a more developed ability. The ability to compensate for some abilities with the help of others develops the inner potential of a person, opens up new ways to choose a profession and improve in it.

In the structure of any ability there are individual components that make up its biological foundations or prerequisites. This may be the increased sensitivity of the senses, the properties of the nervous system and other biological factors. They are called assignments.

Makings- these are congenital anatomical and physiological features of the structure of the brain, sensory organs and movement, which form the natural basis for the development of abilities.

Most of the makings are predetermined genetically. In addition to innate inclinations, a person also has acquired inclinations, which are formed in the process of maturation and development of the child in the first years of life. Such inclinations are called social. By themselves, natural inclinations do not yet determine the successful activity of a person, i.e. are not abilities. These are only natural conditions or factors on the basis of which the development of abilities takes place.

The presence of certain inclinations in a person does not mean that he will develop certain abilities, since it is difficult to predict what kind of activity a person will choose for himself in the future. Therefore, the degree of development of inclinations depends on the conditions of individual development of a person, the conditions of training and education, and the characteristics of the development of society.

The assignments are multi-valued. On the basis of one deposit, a wide variety of abilities can be formed, depending on the nature of the requirements imposed by the activity.

Abilities are always associated with the mental functions of a person: memory, attention, emotions, etc. Depending on this, the following types of abilities can be distinguished: psychomotor, mental, speech, volitional, etc. They are included in the structure of professional abilities.

When evaluating professional abilities, one should take into account the psychological structure of this profession, its professiogram. When determining the conformity of a person to a certain profession, it is necessary not only to study this person by scientific methods, but also to know his compensatory capabilities.

In the most generalized form of pedagogical ability were presented by V.A. Krutetsky, who gave them the corresponding general definitions.

1. Didactic ability- the ability to convey educational material to students, making it accessible to children, to present material or a problem to them clearly and understandably, to arouse interest in the subject, to arouse active independent thought in students.

2. Academic Ability– ability in the relevant field of science (mathematics, physics, biology, literature, etc.).

3. Perceptual abilities- the ability to penetrate the inner world of the student, pupil, psychological observation associated with a subtle understanding of the personality of the student and his temporary mental states.

4. Speech abilities- the ability to clearly and clearly express their thoughts and feelings through speech, as well as facial expressions and pantomime.

5. Organizational skills- these are, firstly, the ability to organize a student team, rally it, inspire it to solve important problems and, secondly, the ability to properly organize one's own work.

6. Authoritarian abilities- the ability to direct emotional and volitional influence on students and the ability to achieve authority on this basis (although, of course, authority is created not only on this basis, but, for example, on the basis of excellent knowledge of the subject, sensitivity and tact of the teacher, etc. .).

7. Communication skills- the ability to communicate with children, the ability to find the right approach to students, to establish with them expedient, from a pedagogical point of view, relationships, the presence of pedagogical tact.

8. Pedagogical imagination(or, as they would be called now, predictive abilities) is a special ability, expressed in anticipation of the consequences of one’s actions, in the educational design of the personality of students, associated with the idea of ​​​​what the student will become in the future, in the ability to predict the development of certain student qualities.

9. The ability to distribute attention simultaneously between several activities is of particular importance for the work of the teacher.

As can be seen from the above definitions of pedagogical abilities, in their content, firstly, they include many personal qualities and, secondly, they are revealed through certain actions and skills.

21. Age periodization of the human life cycle. Social situation of development, leading activities, neoplasms

The creation of a periodization of the formation of personality is one of the urgent problems of developmental psychology.

Despite the fact that the study of the problem of periodization of human life has a long history, it remains undeveloped. In any case, there is no universally recognized differentiation of the periods of personality formation in domestic and foreign psychology.

Before considering the psychological foundations of periodization, let's define the basic concepts.

Obviously, one must distinguish differentiation and periodization. periodization(from the Greek. periodos - rotation) - the division of the phenomenon into certain periods of time, covering any complete process.

Differentiation(from lat. diferentia - distinction) - the division of the whole into various forms and steps.

It is also useful to separate period and stage. Period- this is a period of time covering any completed process; stage- a certain stage in development.

The problems of development, socialization and formation of the personality are complex and debatable, in the psychological literature there are no unambiguous definitions of these processes, their sources and driving forces are interpreted differently.

The most general concept is development- consistent, progressive (although including regression at certain points), in general, irreversible quantitative and qualitative changes in the psyche.

Mental development is always the emergence of something new, the transition to which is of a spasmodic nature, it invariably includes breaks in gradualness. The stability and stability of the personality is constantly accompanied by its change, enrichment. Development is the main mode of existence of a person.

The development of the psyche is the main factor in the development of the personality, which occurs in the process of performing multifaceted activities and communication. Personal development is influenced by the social environment.

Differentiation of human ontogenesis is determined by the socio-historical conditions of his life and is of a conventional nature. In human life as a biosocial being, biological processes, patterns of maturation of the organism and the course of involutional processes are of great importance.

The formation of personality- this is a process of purposeful progressive personality change under the influence of social influences and one's own activity aimed at self-improvement and self-fulfillment.

Becoming necessarily implies a need for development, the possibility and reality of its satisfaction.

The central problem of the formation of personality is the disclosure of the patterns of transition from a lower level of development to a higher one. In the formation of personality, periods and stages can be distinguished.

Except stages of development, there is also a functional, i.e. carried out within a certain stage and leading to a quantitative accumulation of qualitatively new elements, which form a potential reserve. The creation of these internal development potentials is the result of the active interaction of the individual with the outside world in the form of activity, which is a constant source of enrichment of the psyche. The result of an activity, if it really is the realization of the goal, is always richer, more meaningful than it.

The problem of periodization of the formation of personality and man was already analyzed in the ancient world. In domestic psychology, it was dealt with by B.G. Ananiev, L.I. Bozhovich, L.S. Vygotsky, Art. Vlad. Petrovsky, D.B. Elkonin and others. In foreign psychology, Z. Freud, E. Erikson, K. Horney, and others paid attention to the problems of personality and human development.

The main difficulty in considering this issue was to identify criteria for periodization.

So, for example, in the ancient world Hippocrates as criteria for the classification of human life, he singled out the so-called. watershed years, based on the idea of ​​digital symbolism. According to the philosopher, every 7 years a radical restructuring takes place in the human body, which is dangerous for his health and life. In accordance with these ideas, a person's life was divided into 10 periods of 7 years each.

According to Z. Freud, the differentiation of the stages of personality development should be carried out taking into account in which area of ​​the human body the libido energy is concentrated.

According to E. Erickson, the transition from one stage of personality development is due to the willingness of the personality to move in the direction of further growth, expanding the perceived social outlook and the radius of social interaction (the epigenetic principle of personality development).

Domestic psychologists reveal the qualitative originality of each period (stage) of personality development on the basis of such concepts as the social situation of development and leading activity.

Idea social development situation was formulated by L. S. Vygotsky to characterize the system of relations between the child and social reality. “The social situation of development,” he wrote, “represents the starting point for all the dynamic changes that take place in development during a given period. It determines wholly and completely those forms, and the path, following which the child acquires new and new personality traits, drawing them from social reality, as from the main source of development, the path along which the social becomes individual.

Thus, considering the periods (stages) of the formation of the personality, one should analyze the social situation of development, which is characterized primarily by the system of relationships between the individual and others. Entering various formal and informal groups, a person determines his attitude to group norms and values, learns new social roles. An important moment in the development of a personality at a certain stage is its attitude towards itself. Awareness of their properties and qualities leads the individual to the formation of the need to be a person. "The need to be a person, the need for personalization ensures the active inclusion of the individual in the system of social ties and, at the same time, is determined by these social ties."

concept leading activities disclosed in the works of A. N. Leontiev. “This is such an activity,” he points out, “the development of which determines the most important changes in mental processes, the psychological characteristics of a person at a given stage of its development.” Each stage of formation is characterized by a variety of activities; by implementing them, the personality develops in many ways. But there is always one activity that performs a defining, leading function in the development of personality. A special role in the transformation of this or that activity into a leading one is played by the attitude of the individual towards it. If the activity is carried out willingly, with interest, if it has acquired a special personal meaning for the individual, then the main development is initiated primarily by it.

Leading activity has the following characteristics:

§ the main psychological neoplasms of each stage of personality formation depend on it;

§ in its form, new types of activity arise and develop;

§ private mental processes arise and form in it.

Each stage of development has its own special significance for the human psyche and is characterized by unique psychological neoplasms , which, being included in the composition of genetically later stages, do not dissolve in them, but, on the contrary, are significantly enriched, because a new, more complex system endows with its systemic quality the forms of the psyche, behavior, and activity that arose at the previous stages. At the same time, the more fully the genetically early forms of the psyche develop, the richer the potentialities are created for its subsequent progress.

The integrity of the process of personality development is ensured by the unity of continuity and discontinuity. Continuity in development expresses relative stability within one social situation. Discontinuity characterizes qualitative changes in the transition from one stage to another. Thus, in the mental development of a person, one can single out periods of accumulation of opportunities, new development potentials and phases of disorganization of the existing psychological system of the individual, its restructuring and the formation of a new integrity, the center of which becomes a psychological neoplasm other than before. These periods are called critical. They are characterized by a change in the leading activity, the pace of development; increased vulnerability, internal confusion, throwing, reassessment of oneself and others.

22. Age periodization of personality development.

Psychology of adolescence

One of the most complex and interesting problems in psychology is the problem of individual differences. The central point in the individual characteristics of a person is his ability. Abilities are the individual psychological characteristics of a person that meet the requirements of this activity and are a condition for its successful implementation. .

Individual abilities of a person do not yet guarantee the successful completion of complex activities. For the successful mastery of any activity, a certain combination of separate, particular abilities is necessary, forming a unity, a qualitatively unique whole, a synthesis of abilities. In this synthesis, individual abilities are united around a certain, core personality formation, a kind of central ability.

Distinguish abilities of different levels - educational and creative. Learning abilities are associated with the assimilation of already known ways of performing activities, the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities. Creative abilities in everyday consciousness are very often identified with the ability for various types of artistic activity, with the ability to draw beautifully, compose poetry, write music, etc. It is obvious that the concept under consideration is closely connected with the concept of "creativity", "creative activity".

Consider the concept of creativity in the interpretation of various authors.

Druzhinin V.N. defines the act of creativity as a real transformation of objective activity, culture and myself.

The Soviet neuropathologist, psychiatrist, psychologist, physiologist and morphologist V. I. Bekhterev interprets creativity from a reflexological point of view as “creating something new” in a situation where an irritant problem causes the formation of a dominant, around which the stock of past experience necessary for solving is concentrated.

In the psychological dictionary, creativity is interpreted as a process of human activity that creates qualitatively new material and spiritual values ​​or the result of creating a subjectively new one.

Thus, in general terms, the concept of creativity is as follows. Creativity is any practical or theoretical human activity in which new results arise.

If we carefully consider the behavior of a person, his activity in any area, then we can distinguish two main types of actions. Some human actions can be called reproducing or reproductive. This type of activity is closely connected with our memory and its essence lies in the fact that a person reproduces or repeats previously created and developed methods of behavior and actions.

In addition to reproductive activity, there is creative activity in human behavior, the result of which is not the reproduction of impressions or actions that were in his experience, but the creation of new images or actions. Creativity is at the core of this activity.

Doctor of Psychology, Professor, Academician of the Russian Academy of Education Dubrovina I. V. defines creativity as the ability through which a person creates something new, original.

Doctor of Psychology V. A. Krutetsky connects creativity with the creation of something new, with finding new ways to perform activities.

In the psychological dictionary, the concept of creative abilities is interpreted as follows: "creative abilities are the individual characteristics of a person's qualities that determine the success of his performance of various creative activities."

Thus, in its most general form, the definition of creative abilities is as follows: creative abilities are the abilities of a person that give rise to something qualitatively new, which has never been before, has not existed.

Creativity is an amalgamation of many qualities. And the question of the components of human creativity is still open, although at the moment there are several hypotheses concerning this problem. Many psychologists associate the ability to creative activity, first of all, with the peculiarities of thinking. In particular, the well-known American psychologist Guilford, who dealt with the problems of human intelligence, found that creative individuals are characterized by the so-called divergent thinking. People with this type of thinking, when solving a problem, do not concentrate all their efforts on finding the only correct solution, but begin to look for solutions in all possible directions in order to consider as many options as possible. Such people tend to form new combinations of elements that most people know and use only in a certain way, or form links between two elements that at first glance have nothing in common.

The divergent way of thinking underlies creative thinking, which is characterized by the following main features:

1. Speed ​​- the ability to express the maximum number of ideas (in this case, it is not their quality that matters, but their quantity).

2 . Flexibility is the ability to express a wide variety of ideas.

3. Originality - the ability to generate new non-standard ideas (this can be manifested in answers, solutions that do not coincide with generally accepted ones). 4. Completeness - the ability to improve your "product" or give it a finished look.

A well-known domestic researcher of the problem of creativity A.N. Luk, based on the biographies of prominent scientists, inventors, artists and musicians, identifies the following creative abilities:

1. The ability to see the problem where others do not see it.

2. The ability to collapse mental operations, replacing several concepts with one and using symbols that are more and more capacious in terms of information.

3. The ability to apply the skills acquired in solving one problem to solving another.

4. The ability to perceive reality as a whole, without splitting it into parts.

5. The ability to easily associate distant concepts.

6. The ability of memory to give out the right information at the right moment.

7. Flexibility of thinking.

8. The ability to choose one of the alternatives for solving a problem before checking it.

9. The ability to incorporate newly perceived information into existing knowledge systems.

10. The ability to see things as they are, to distinguish what is observed from what is brought in by interpretation.

11. Ease of generating ideas.

12. Creative imagination.

13. The ability to refine the details, to improve the original idea.

Candidates of Psychological Sciences V.T. Kudryavtsev and V. Sinelnikov, based on a wide historical and cultural material (the history of philosophy, social sciences, art, individual areas of practice), identified the following universal creative abilities that have developed in the process of human history:

1. Imagination realism - a figurative grasp of some essential, general trend or pattern of development of an integral object before a person has a clear idea about it and can enter it into a system of strict logical categories.

2. The ability to see the whole before the parts.

3. The supra-situational-transformative nature of creative solutions is the ability, when solving a problem, not just to choose from alternatives imposed from the outside, but to independently create an alternative.

4. Experimentation - the ability to consciously and purposefully create conditions in which objects most clearly reveal their essence hidden in ordinary situations, as well as the ability to trace and analyze the features of the "behavior" of objects in these conditions.

Scientists and teachers involved in the development of programs and methods of creative education based on TRIZ (theory of inventive problem solving) and ARIZ (algorithm for solving inventive problems) believe that one of the components of a person’s creative potential is the following abilities: the ability to take risks, divergent thinking, flexibility in thinking and actions, speed of thinking, the ability to express original ideas and invent new ones, rich imagination, perception of the ambiguity of things and phenomena, high aesthetic values, developed intuition.

Thus, analyzing the points of view presented above on the issue of the components of creative abilities, we can conclude that, despite the difference in approaches to their definition, researchers unanimously single out creative imagination and the qualities of creative thinking as essential components of creative abilities. Therefore, the conditions for the maximum manifestation of creative abilities involve the activation of not only the emotional, volitional and intellectual spheres, but also the spheres of imagination, intuition, and thinking.

Lecture: Human abilities

General characteristics of human abilities

Usually abilities are understood as such individual characteristics that are the conditions for the successful implementation of any one or more activities. However, the term "abilities", despite its long and widespread use in psychology, is interpreted by many authors ambiguously. If we sum up all possible variants of currently existing approaches to the study of abilities, then they can be reduced to three main types. In the first case abilities are understood as the totality of various mental processes and states. This is the broadest and oldest interpretation of the term "ability". From the point of view of the second approach abilities are understood as a high level of development of general and special knowledge, skills and abilities that ensure the successful performance of various types of activities by a person. This definition appeared and was adopted in the psychology of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. and is fairly common today. Third Approach based on the assertion that abilities are something that does not come down to knowledge, skills and abilities, but ensures their rapid acquisition, consolidation and effective use in practice.

In domestic psychology, experimental studies of abilities are most often built on the basis of the latter approach. The greatest contribution to its development was made by the well-known domestic scientist B. M. Teplov. He singled out the following three main features of the concept of “ability”.

First, abilities are understood as individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another; no one will talk about abilities where we are talking about properties in respect of which all people are equal.

Secondly, abilities are not called any individual characteristics in general, but only those that are related to the success of performing an activity or many activities.

Thirdly, the concept of "ability" is not limited to the knowledge, skills or abilities that a given person has already developed.

Abilities can be classified into:

Natural (or natural) abilities, basically biologically determined, associated with innate inclinations, formed on their basis in the presence of elementary life experience through learning mechanisms such as conditioned reflex connections (for example, such elementary abilities are perception, memory, the ability to elementary communication);

Specific human abilities that have a socio-historical origin and ensure life and development in the social environment. Specific human abilities, in turn, are divided into:

A) general which determine the success of a person in a wide variety of activities and communication (mental abilities, developed memory and speech, accuracy and subtlety of hand movements, etc.), and special that determine the success of a person in certain types of activity and communication, where a special kind of inclinations and their development are needed (mathematical, technical, literary and linguistic, artistic and creative, sports, etc.).

B) theoretical, determining a person's propensity for abstract-logical thinking, and practical, underlying propensity for concrete-practical actions. The combination of these abilities is characteristic only of versatile gifted people;

B) educational which influence the success of pedagogical influence, the assimilation of knowledge, skills, skills, the formation of personality traits, and creative associated with success in creating works of material and spiritual culture, new ideas, discoveries, inventions;

D) the ability to communicate, interact with people and subject-activity abilities, associated with the interaction of people with nature, technology, symbolic information, artistic images, etc.

Ability Development Levels and Individual Differences

In psychology, the following classification of levels of development of abilities is most often found: ability, giftedness, talent, genius.

All abilities in the process of their development go through a series of stages, and in order for some ability to rise in its development to a higher level, it is necessary that it was already sufficiently formed at the previous level. But for the development of abilities, there must initially be a certain basis, which is makings. The inclinations are understood as the anatomical and physiological features of the nervous system, which constitute the natural basis for the development of abilities. For example, the features of the development of various analyzers can act as innate inclinations. Thus, certain characteristics of auditory perception can act as the basis for the development of musical abilities.

It should be noted that the innate anatomical and physiological features of the structure of the brain, sensory organs and movement, or innate inclinations, determine the natural basis of individual differences between people. According to IP Pavlov, the basis of individual differences is determined by the predominant type of higher nervous activity and the peculiarities of the correlation of signal systems. Based on these criteria, three typological groups of people can be distinguished: the artistic type (the predominance of the first signal system), the mental type (the predominance of the second signal system) and the average type (equal representation).

The typological groups identified by Pavlov suggest the presence of various innate inclinations in representatives of a particular group. Thus, the main differences between the artistic type and the mental type are manifested in the sphere of perception, where the "artist" is characterized by a holistic perception, and for the "thinker" - its fragmentation into separate parts; in the sphere of imagination and thinking, “artists” have a predominance of figurative thinking and imagination, while “thinkers” are more characterized by abstract, theoretical thinking; in the emotional sphere, persons of the artistic type are distinguished by increased emotionality, and for representatives of the thinking type, rational, intellectual reactions to events are more characteristic.

It should be emphasized that the presence of certain inclinations in a person does not mean that he will develop certain abilities. For example, an essential prerequisite for the development of musical abilities is a keen ear. But the structure of the peripheral (auditory) and central nervous apparatus is only a prerequisite for the development of musical abilities. The structure of the brain does not provide for what professions and specialties related to musical ear may arise in human society. It is also not foreseen what area of ​​activity a person will choose for himself and what opportunities will be provided to him for the development of his inclinations. Consequently, to what extent a person's inclinations will be developed depends on the conditions of his individual development.

Thus, the development of inclinations is a socially conditioned process that is associated with the conditions of education and the characteristics of the development of society. Inclinations develop and transform into abilities, provided that there is a need in society for certain professions, in particular, where a keen ear for music is needed. The second significant factor in the development of inclinations are the features of education.

The assignments are non-specific. The fact that a person has the inclinations of a certain type does not mean that on their basis, under favorable conditions, some specific ability must necessarily develop. Based on the same inclinations, different abilities can develop depending on the nature of the requirements imposed by the activity. Thus, a person with a good ear and a sense of rhythm can become a musical performer, conductor, dancer, singer, music critic, teacher, composer, etc. At the same time, one cannot assume that inclinations do not affect the nature of future abilities. So, the features of the auditory analyzer will affect precisely those abilities that require a special level of development of this analyzer.

The next level of development is abilities. These are individual psychological characteristics of a person that ensure success in activities, in communication and ease of mastering them.

Abilities are largely social and are formed in the process of specific human activity. Depending on whether there are or are not conditions for the development of abilities, they can be potential and relevant.

Potential abilities are understood as those that are not realized in a particular type of activity, but are able to be updated when the relevant social conditions change. Actual abilities, as a rule, include those that are needed at the moment and are implemented in a particular type of activity. Potential and actual abilities are an indirect indicator of the nature of the social conditions in which a person's abilities develop. It is the nature of social conditions that hinders or promotes the development of potential abilities, ensures or does not ensure their transformation into actual ones.

It should be noted that no single ability alone can ensure the successful performance of an activity. The success of any activity always depends on a number of abilities. Observation alone, no matter how perfect, is not enough to become a good writer. For a writer, observation, figurative memory, a number of qualities of thinking, abilities associated with written speech, the ability to concentrate and a number of other abilities are of paramount importance.

On the other hand, the structure of any particular ability includes universal or general qualities that meet the requirements of various types of activity, and special qualities that ensure success in only one type of activity. For example, studying mathematical abilities, V. A. Krutetsky found that for the successful implementation of mathematical activity, it is necessary:

1) an active, positive attitude towards the subject, a tendency to engage in it, turning into a passionate enthusiasm at a high level of development;

2) a number of character traits, primarily diligence, organization, independence, purposefulness, perseverance, as well as stable intellectual feelings;

3) the presence during the activity of mental states favorable for its implementation;

4) a certain fund of knowledge, skills and abilities in the relevant field;

5) individual psychological characteristics in the sensory and mental spheres that meet the requirements of this activity.

While the first four categories of listed properties should be considered as general properties necessary for any activity, and not be considered as components of abilities, since otherwise the components of abilities should be considered interests and aptitudes, character traits, mental states, as well as skills and abilities.

The next level of ability development is giftedness. Giftedness is a kind of combination of abilities that provides a person with the opportunity to successfully perform any activity.

In this definition, it is necessary to emphasize that it is not the successful performance of an activity that depends on giftedness, but only the possibility of such successful performance. The successful implementation of any activity requires not only the presence of an appropriate combination of abilities, but also the acquisition of the necessary knowledge and skills. No matter how phenomenal mathematical talent a person has, if he has never studied mathematics, he will not be able to successfully perform the functions of the most ordinary specialist in this field. Giftedness determines only the possibility of achieving success in a particular activity, while the realization of this opportunity is determined by the extent to which the corresponding abilities will be developed and what knowledge and skills will be acquired.

Individual differences of gifted people are found mainly in the direction of interests. Some people, for example, dwell on mathematics, others on history, and still others on social work. Further development of abilities occurs in a specific activity.

It should be noted that two groups of components can be distinguished in the structure of abilities. Some occupy a leading position, while others are auxiliary. So, in the structure of visual abilities, the leading properties will be the high natural sensitivity of the visual analyzer - a sense of line, proportion, shape, chiaroscuro, color, rhythm, as well as the sensorimotor qualities of the artist’s hand, highly developed figurative memory, etc. The auxiliary qualities include properties artistic imagination, emotional mood, emotional attitude to the depicted, etc.

The leading and auxiliary components of the abilities form a unity that ensures the success of the activity. However, the ability structure is a highly flexible entity. The ratio of leading and auxiliary qualities in a particular ability varies from person to person. Depending on what quality is the leading one in a person, the formation of auxiliary qualities necessary for the performance of an activity takes place. Moreover, even within the same activity, people can have a different combination of qualities that will allow them to equally successfully perform this activity, compensating for shortcomings.

It should be noted that the lack of abilities does not mean that a person is unsuitable for performing a particular activity, since there are psychological mechanisms for compensating for missing abilities. Often, not only those who have the ability for it, but also those who do not have them, have to engage in activity. If a person is forced to continue engaging in this activity, he will consciously or unconsciously compensate for the lack of abilities, relying on the strengths of his personality. According to E. P. Ilyin, compensation can be carried out through acquired knowledge or skills, or through the formation of an individual-typical style of activity, or through another, more developed ability. The possibility of a wide compensation of some properties by others leads to the fact that the relative weakness of any one ability does not at all exclude the possibility of successful performance of the activity most closely related to this ability. The missing ability can be compensated within a very wide range by others that are highly developed in a given person. Probably, this is what ensures the possibility of successful human activity in various fields.

Characterizing the abilities of a person, they often single out such a level of their development as skill, i.e. excellence in a particular activity. When people talk about the skill of a person, they first of all mean his ability to successfully engage in productive activities. However, it does not follow from this that mastery is expressed in the corresponding sum of ready-made skills and abilities. Mastery in any profession implies a psychological readiness for creative solutions to emerging problems. No wonder they say: “Skill is when “what” and “how” come at the same time”, emphasizing that for a master there is no gap between the awareness of a creative task and finding ways to solve it.

The next level of development of human abilities - talent. The word "talent" is found in the Bible, where it means the measure of silver that the lazy slave received from the master during his absence and preferred to bury it in the ground, instead of putting it into circulation and making a profit (hence the saying "bury your talent in the ground" ). At present, talent is understood as a high level of development of special abilities (musical, literary, etc.). Just like abilities, talent manifests itself and develops in activity. The activity of a talented person is distinguished by a fundamental novelty, originality of approach.

The awakening of talent, as well as abilities in general, is socially conditioned. What talents will receive the most favorable conditions for full-fledged development depends on the needs of the era and the characteristics of the specific tasks that the given society faces.

It should be noted that talent is a certain combination of abilities, their totality. A single isolated ability, even a very highly developed one, cannot be called a talent. For example, among outstanding talents one can find many people with both good and bad memories. This is related to , that in the creative activity of a person, memory is only one of the factors on which its success depends. But the results will not be achieved by the inflexibility of the mind, rich imagination, strong will, deep interest.

The highest level of ability development is called genius. O Genius is said to be when a person's creative achievements constitute an entire epoch in the life of society, in the development of culture. There are very few brilliant people. It is generally accepted that in the entire five thousandth history of civilization there were no more than 400 of them. A high level of giftedness, which characterizes a genius, is inevitably associated with originality in various fields of activity. Among the geniuses who have achieved such universalism, one can name Aristotle, Leonardo da Vinci, R. Descartes, G. V. Leibniz, M. V. Lomonosov. For example, M. V. Lomonosov achieved outstanding results in various fields of knowledge: chemistry, astronomy, mathematics, and at the same time was an artist, writer, linguist, and knew poetry perfectly. However, this does not mean that all the individual qualities of a genius are developed to the same degree. Genius, as a rule, has its own "profile", some side dominates in it, some abilities are more pronounced.

Capabilities

Capabilities- these are individual personality traits, which are subjective conditions for the successful implementation of a certain type of activity. Abilities are not limited to the individual's knowledge, skills and abilities. They are found in the speed, depth and strength of mastering the methods and techniques of some activity and are internal mental regulators that determine the possibility of acquiring them. In Russian psychology, B. M. Teplov made the greatest contribution to experimental research on special (musical) abilities. Artistic (pictorial) abilities are to some extent reflected in the works of A.A. Melik-Pashaeva and Yu.A. Poluyanov, literary - in the works of E.M. Torshilova, Z.N. Novlyanskaya, A.A. Adaskina and others. Sports abilities were studied by A.V. Rodionov, V.M. Volkov, O.A. Sirotin and others. Information on general abilities is most fully presented in the works of V.N. Druzhinina, M.A. Cold, E.A. Sergienko.

On the question of defining

The definition of abilities considered at the beginning of the article is generally recognized. This definition of abilities can be clarified and expanded in the part "Abilities are not reduced to the knowledge, skills, abilities that an individual has." These signs (ZUN) undoubtedly characterize abilities, but do not fully determine them. What turns knowledge, skills and abilities into abilities? ON THE. Reinwald believes that abilities are, in fact, a continuation of the development of character traits and belong to the highest levels of personality organization, which acts as a condition for success, putting knowledge, skills and abilities at the service of activity.

There is a need to separate abilities from mental processes (functions). For example, it is obvious that memory is expressed differently in different people, memory is necessary for the successful performance of certain activities, but memory is not considered an ability in itself. To distinguish between mental function and ability, the following point of view is most appropriate: if we are talking about the level of development, about the success of an activity that is ensured by the degree of expression of this quality (intensity and adequacy of the course of the mental process), then we mean ability, and if only the specifics of the course and purpose, then processes (functions) are usually characterized in this way. Therefore, memory, attention, thinking, imagination are mental processes. And their special organization (cognitive styles, cognitive schemes), specificity (focus on the type of activity) and mobilization of forces (the role of the individual) to perform a certain activity, which together ensure the achievement of the desired result at the cost of minimal costs, are perceived by us as a result as an ability (intelligence) .

Otherwise, the semantic relations of the concepts "temperament" and "abilities" are built. People differ in the type of temperament, while the severity of one or another temperament can contribute to or hinder the performance of certain activities (for example, it will be difficult for a choleric person to engage in activities that require perseverance), temperament is not knowledge, skill or skill. Obviously, temperament is not an ability in itself, but acts as a psychophysiological basis for most abilities, both special and general, that is, temperament is included in the structure of inclinations. At the same time, it is also known that strength, as a characteristic of temperament, is an important condition for performing most types of activities.

Conditions for the formation of abilities

BM Teplov points out some conditions for the formation of abilities. Abilities themselves cannot be innate. Only inclinations can be congenital. The makings of Teplov understood as some anatomical and physiological features. Inclinations underlie the development of abilities, and abilities are the result of development. If the ability itself is not innate, therefore, it is formed in postnatal ontogenesis (it is important to note that Teplov separates the terms "innate" and "hereditary"; "innate" - manifested from the moment of birth and formed under the influence of both hereditary and and environmental factors, "hereditary" - formed under the influence of heredity factors and manifested both immediately after birth and at any other time in a person's life). Abilities are formed in activity. Teplov writes that "... the ability cannot arise outside the corresponding specific objective activity" . Thus, ability refers to that which arises in the activity corresponding to it. It also affects the success of this activity. Ability begins to exist only together with activity. It cannot appear before the implementation of the activities corresponding to it has begun. Moreover, abilities are not only manifested in activities. They are created in it./

Ability and individual differences

Each person has a different "set" of abilities. An individual-peculiar combination of abilities is formed throughout life and determines the originality of the individual. The success of the activity is also ensured by the presence of one or another combination of abilities that works for the result. In activity, some abilities can be replaced by others - similar in manifestation, but different in origin. The success of the same activity can be provided by different abilities, so the absence of one ability can be compensated by the presence of another or even a whole complex. Therefore, the individual originality of the complex of individual abilities that ensure the successful performance of activities is commonly called "individual style of activity." In modern psychology, they began to talk more often about competencies as integrative qualities (abilities) that are aimed at achieving results. We can say that competencies are abilities through the eyes of employers. In fact, the employer does not care about the internal composition of the abilities that ensure the fulfillment of the task, the very fact of its implementation is important for them. Therefore, competencies are even named after the task: "the ability to perform such and such a task." And at the expense of what internal resources it will be fulfilled - this is the problem of the applicant (or the psychologist who studies the activity).

Abilities and aptitudes

Another term used by Teplov is propensity. Inclinations are certain attitudes of a person to activity. “... Abilities do not exist outside of a certain relationship of a person to reality, just as relations are realized only through certain inclinations.” The above quotation indicates that inclinations and abilities are closely interrelated. Inclinations are the motivational component of activity. Therefore, without the presence of an inclination, a certain activity may not begin, and the ability, accordingly, will not be formed. On the other hand, if there is no successful activity, the inclinations of a person will not be objectified.

Ability and talent

Giftedness is a complex phenomenon. It is associated with the performance of a certain activity by a person, that is, giftedness consists of various abilities. Giftedness is "a qualitatively peculiar combination of abilities, on which the possibility of achieving greater or lesser success in the performance of one or another activity depends" . Giftedness does not provide success in any activity, but only the possibility of achieving this success.

Ability types

Abilities are divided into general and special. There are the following types of special abilities:

1. educational and creative
2. mental and special
3. mathematical
4. structural and technical
5. musical
6. literary
7. artistic and visual
8. physical ability

Educational and creative abilities differ from each other in that the former determine the success of training and education, the assimilation of knowledge, skills, and the formation of personality traits by a person, while the latter determines the creation of objects of material and spiritual culture, the production of new ideas, discoveries and works. , in a word - individual creativity in various fields of human activity.

The nature of general abilities (intelligence, creativity and search activity) is determined by the special organization of cognitive functions and individual experience (including knowledge, skills and abilities). These abilities are called general because they are necessary to perform all types of activities, regardless of their degree of complexity. At the same time, different variants are observed in the intellect (see the works of M.A. Kholodnaya).

The nature of special abilities. Studying specifically - the psychological characteristics of abilities, one can also distinguish more general qualities that meet the requirements of not one, but many types of activity, and special qualities that meet a narrower range of requirements for this activity. In the structure of the abilities of some individuals, these general qualities can be extremely pronounced, which indicates that people have versatile abilities, about general abilities for a wide range of different activities, specialties and occupations. On the other hand, for each individual type of activity, it is possible to single out such a general basis that will combine individual private skills into an integral system, and without which this ability will not take place at all. Specific examples: It is not enough for a mathematician to have a good memory and attention. What distinguishes people capable of mathematics is the ability to grasp the order in which the elements necessary for a mathematical proof should be located. The presence of this kind of intuition is the main element of mathematical creativity, and it relies not only on knowledge and experience, but on spatial imagination as the main condition for mathematical thinking (this means not only geometry and stereometry, but all mathematics as a whole). For an athlete, such a common basis is the will to win, the desire to be the first at all costs. For an artist (in any field of art) it is an aesthetic attitude to the world. Musical abilities in the existing general psychological classification are classified as special, that is, those that are necessary for successful practice and are determined by the very nature of music as such. They are based, as the basis of abilities for any kind of art, is an aesthetic attitude to the world, the ability to aesthetically perceive reality, but in the case of music it will be sound or auditory reality, or the ability to transform the aesthetic experience of reality into sound reality (thanks to synesthesia). The technological component of musical abilities can be divided into two groups:

1. actually technical (the technique of playing a given musical instrument or voice control in singing);
2. compositional (for composing music);
3. controlling, auditory (musical ear - pitch, timbre or intonation, etc.).

In extreme conditions, when it becomes necessary to solve a super-task, a person can recover or sharply increase certain abilities due to a stress reaction.

It is customary to distinguish levels of development of abilities, which are sometimes mistaken for stages:

1. Capabilities

Separately, the concept of giftedness should be considered. The origin of this term is based on the idea of ​​a "gift" - high inclinations with which nature rewards certain people. The inclinations are based on heredity or on the characteristics of intrauterine development. Therefore, giftedness should be understood as an indicator of a high level of abilities based on natural predisposition. However, N.S. Leites notes that in reality it is difficult to track whether abilities are more the result of purposeful upbringing (self-development) or whether they are predominantly the embodiment of inclinations. Therefore, in science, to a greater extent, such an understanding of this term has been established, which simply indicates a higher level of development of some abilities than most people, especially when it comes to children. And actually the levels of this giftedness are talent and genius. The co-authors I. Akimov and V. Klimenko spoke very well and figuratively about the difference between talent and genius. They examined these variants of giftedness in detail, emphasizing that between talent and genius there is not a quantitative, but a qualitative difference. They have a different sense of the world. The product of the activity of talent is originality; the product of genius is simplicity. However, I. Akimov and V. Klimenko believe that genius does not appear suddenly; it is born from talent; is born as a result of many years of talent work on quality. According to another point of view, talent and genius are not stages, they are quite different psychological qualities, and if a talented person may or may not use his talent, then a brilliant person is actually a hostage to his genius, he may not work in that direction. in which he is gifted, for him the punishment is to deprive him of the opportunity to create. It is no coincidence that giftedness is called "deviation", albeit a positive one.

Traditionally, it is also customary to distinguish levels of development of abilities:

• reproductive
• reconstructive
• creative

However, practice (results of empirical research) shows that creative abilities and reproductive abilities are of a rather different nature, therefore they develop independently of each other, in each of them it is possible to identify independent levels of development.

Notes

see also

Links

• Methodology for the study of the makings of abilities "Verbal portrait" online
• Igor Akimov, Viktor Klimenko. About the boy who could fly, or THE WAY TO FREEDOM

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Synonyms:

See what "Abilities" are in other dictionaries:

capabilities- individually psychological characteristics of a person, which are a condition for the successful implementation of a particular productive activity. The subject of a special psychological study of S. became in the 19th century, when the works of F. Galton were supposed to ... ... Great Psychological Encyclopedia

Individually expressed opportunities for the successful implementation of a particular activity. They include both individual knowledge, skills, and readiness to learn new ways and methods of activity. To classify abilities ... ... Psychological Dictionary

Data, talent, talent; parenka, couples Dictionary of Russian synonyms. ability data see also talent, talent Dictionary sinon ... Synonym dictionary

Individual personality traits, which are subjective conditions for the successful implementation of certain. kind of activity. S. are not reduced to the knowledge, skills, abilities that an individual has. They show up primarily in speed, ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

Modern Encyclopedia

Individual personality traits, which are subjective conditions for the successful implementation of a certain kind of activity. Not limited to knowledge, skills and abilities; are found in the speed, depth and strength of mastering the methods and ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

CAPABILITIES- CAPABILITIES. Individual psychological characteristics of people on which their acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities depends. S. determine the success of a particular activity. Allocate S. to the language, mathematical, musical, ... ... A new dictionary of methodological terms and concepts (theory and practice of teaching languages)

Capabilities- ABILITIES, individual characteristics of a person, which are subjective conditions for the successful implementation of a certain kind of activity. Not limited to knowledge, skills and abilities; are found in the speed, depth and strength of mastery ... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

capabilities- outstanding abilities exceptional abilities outstanding abilities extraordinary abilities extraordinary abilities enormous abilities amazing abilities amazing abilities fantastic abilities ... ... Dictionary of Russian Idioms

CAPABILITIES- individually psychological personality traits that are the conditions for the successful implementation of certain activities C, allocated in accordance with those ... Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia Read more

Studies show that in everyday consciousness there is a differentiation of the concepts of "success" and "success". The concept of "success" fixes, rather, objective achievements in specific activities and in life in general, and the concept of "success" reflects the subjective experience and conditions for achieving success. At the same time, personal rather than external resources act as conditions for achieving success for most of the subjects.

The image of the ideal successful person. Psychological research makes it possible to identify the stereotypical ideas that exist in society about success and a successful person, the prototypes of a successful person that exist in culture.

According to the study by N.V. Leifrid, conducted on a sample of different ages, the ideal successful person in the view of other people has such features as: purposefulness, sociability, intelligence, material security, responsibility.

When describing the ideal successful person, the emphasis is primarily on personal characteristics and ways to achieve success than on specific performance and other manifestations of success.

The image of a truly successful person. The study of ideas about a real successful person revealed that a successful person is characterized by: material security, family, career growth, achievement of goals, prestigious work, high social status, the status of the head of an enterprise, his own business.

The main criteria for assessing a successful person in a real situation are more often external, socially significant achievements. Leifrid explains this fact by the fact that external indicators are objectively more accessible to the individual, which significantly reduces the process of social cognition, interpretation of reality and the assignment of a particular person to a particular group.

Prototypes of a successful personality. There are various prototypes of a successful personality in the public consciousness. N.V. Leifrid identifies two of the most common prototypes of a successful person, opposite in their characteristics:

• the first is described exclusively external, socially recognized indicators of success, which reflect the most common values ​​of people in modern society;
• the characteristic features of the second are exclusively personal characteristics, which, apparently, reflects the peculiarities of the ideas of people who flexibly take into account modern requirements and the realities of Russian society.

Typology of perceptions of success depending on the type of responsibility

Leifrid makes an interesting comparison of ideas about success depending on the personal type of responsibility. The developed typology can be useful for diagnostics and subsequent consulting of business representatives.

Based on a comparison of indicators of responsibility (locus of control, cognitive, emotional and behavioral-resulting component), he distinguishes the following types:

1. optimally responsible;
2. performing;
3. situational;
4. egoistic;
5. functional.

1. Optimal-responsible personality type connects success and the conditions for achieving it with internal personal resources- the ability to take responsibility, the realization of one's abilities and capabilities in the process of achieving the set goals, despite the presence of difficulties.

People of the optimal type name internal, personal characteristics, such as self-realization, satisfaction, independence, as success criteria. At the same time, their definitions of success are not generally accepted and do not contain stereotypical statements. They reflect the desire to realize their abilities and opportunities, to be active and independent, and also to feel satisfaction with their lives. A comparative analysis of the age characteristics of ideas about the success of people of this type showed that with age, the role of personal criteria increases compared with external: social status and material criteria. Achieving success, according to representatives of the optimal type, depends, first of all, on the personality itself, the availability of the necessary knowledge, skills and personal resources, on the ability to realistically assess one's own capabilities in the process of achieving the set goals, and in the presence of difficulties, find means of overcoming. They think that it is a responsibility is the main factor influencing success. This is due to the fact that responsibility implies the ability of a person to correlate the necessary and desirable in terms of their individual characteristics and thereby achieve success in their activities and life. The external criterion for assessing a successful personality is professionalism as an indicator of high professional achievements, which implies high-quality performance of activities.

The specificity of the subjects' representations of this type of responsibility is expressed in the predominance of personal characteristics in the prototypes, and, despite externally oriented factors (for example, "social status" and "work and family"), each of them contains a personal criterion of success. A successful person in the ordinary minds of people of this type is a person who achieves results in different areas. The main characteristics of ideas about a successful person are awareness, radicalism (dynamics of ideas), harmony, rationalism, individuality.

2. People of the performing type associate ideas of success and successful personality with dominance of external, socially recognized, criteria. The conditions for achieving success are both external factors (luck, a favorable set of circumstances) and personal resources that ensure success in the absence of interest and voluntariness in activities (diligence, patience).

The most common definitions of the concept of "success" among the subjects of the performing type of responsibility are (64.2%), dream come true(49.1%) and (40.6%). The largest percentage of the subjects, without showing independence, give a generally accepted definition of success, due to the traditions existing in society and the cultural characteristics of the country.

For people of the performing type, it is typical to define success as an effort (48.1%), which reflects the specifics of this type of responsibility: on the one hand, thanks to the effort, the quality and timeliness of the work is ensured (which can be assessed as success), on the other hand, effort in the absence independence and refusal to work in the presence of difficulties and obstacles will not lead a person to success.

When describing a successful person, people of the performing type most often indicate only external signs success achieved (with the exception of purposefulness), which can be grouped into three groups:

• the first is related to professional achievements - a prestigious job, career growth, professionalism;
• the second combines status characteristics - high social status, the head of the enterprise and, as a result, respect for other people and material security;
• the third is the socially significant values ​​of modern society - the family, children and education.

If individuals of the optimal type integrate and modify social information that exists in culture and individual groups in accordance with beliefs and personal characteristics, individuals of the performing type reflect passive attitude to social reality, unwillingness to meaningfully approach the formation of ideas and the use of external, social and status indicators in determining the criteria for a person's success. It is noteworthy that this trend manifests itself regardless of the age of the representatives of the performing type.

Women of this type are more likely to note such descriptors as family and children, responsiveness, caring, kindness, sociability, willingness to help another, attention to other people and attractiveness. For men, the main characteristics of a successful personality are a prestigious job, their own firm, business, career achievements, material security, high social status, and a leadership position.

Responsibility as a criterion of personal maturity in people of the performing type does not apply to stable personality traits, which is reflected in the idea of ​​success and a successful person. Views are more about traditional for this society view of success and do not take into account current trends and changes. The content of the representations of responsibility testifies to the attitude to rely on ready-made judgments accepted in the group (society as a whole).

3. For representatives of the situational type success is achievement of goals (78,3%), favorable turn of events (76,7%), public acceptance(70%). They often give a generally accepted definition of success, not distinguished by originality and originality. The understanding of success as luck (favorable set of circumstances) is associated with the predominance of the external locus of control in the subjects of this group. With age, the ideas of a successful person in the subjects of the situational type do not change meaningfully. This fact can be explained by the peculiarities of this type: responsibility is not a stable property of a person, but acts only as responsible attitude to a certain kind of responsible situations and tasks. Ideas about the success of men and women reflect gender stereotypes existing in society. Men more often give such definitions of success as material security, career growth, and the presence of a prestigious job. Typically "feminine" are the definitions of success as well-being in the family and happiness.

Representatives of the situational type do not differentiate the concepts of "success" and "success". In general, both in defining success and success, they are focused on external, socially recognized, criteria. Of the most important conditions for achieving success for persons of a situational type, one can single out: a favorable combination of circumstances, support from loved ones, purposefulness, and help from other people. The main characteristics of a successful person include material security, high social status, family, career growth, leadership position. These characteristics are objective, clearly defined, which makes it possible to unmistakably attribute a person to a group of successful or unsuccessful people, this manifests a tendency characteristic of people of this type to avoid failures.

4. Persons of an egoistic type in ideas of success and success dependent on a sphere or situation that is significant for a particular person vital activity. Partial acceptance of responsibility determines the indication of both external and internal, personal, resources as conditions for achieving success. The main indicators of success for subjects of the egoistic type are well-being in everything, achievement of goals, satisfaction yourself and your life. For people of this type, satisfaction, even in the absence of initial interest and the quality of the work performed, is an important characteristic, which, in our opinion, explains the definition of success as well-being and satisfaction.

Specific to the subjects of early adulthood is the definition of success as the achievement of goals. In this case, objective achievements in a particular activity and life activity and a subjective assessment of success are recorded. Subjects of middle adulthood more often define success as well-being in everything, satisfaction with life, the ability to solve emerging problems, high social status, having a prestigious job, luck. The importance increases with age subjective assessment of success(well-being, satisfaction), number of outward signs of success(status, prestigious job). The contradictory nature of the responsibility of people of this type is reflected in the content of ideas about the success of the subjects of middle adulthood: 22% define success as the ability to solve problems, emphasizing the role of the individual in achieving it, and 16% as luck.

The definition of "success" contains indications of the subjective experience of success; objective indicators of achievements and its subjective assessment; conditions for success; on the consideration of success as a personality trait. In the minds of people of the egoistic type, ideas about success blurry, not specific, are dependent on the aspect of life activity that is significant for a particular person. As conditions for achieving success, people of the egoistic type equally name external and internal personal resources, which is due, on the one hand, to their independence, a clear presentation of the results of their activities and the ability to overcome obstacles and difficulties, and on the other hand, to partial acceptance of responsibility.

In the most common ideas about a successful person, subjects of an egoistic type of responsibility are dominated by external, socially recognized characteristics: material security, family, career growth. With age, there is an awareness of the role of personal contribution in achieving success. Women of this type equally associate success with family and work, while men are more focused on social positions, the ability to win them, and personal conditions for achieving success. In general, it can be said that the contradictory nature of responsibility, the dependence of selfish subjects on the group and the specific situation determines the content of ideas about success and a successful personality.

5. Functional type of responsibility is characterized by the fact that in the content of ideas about success, success, the conditions for achieving it, people of this type are dominated by external social criteria demonstrating the lack of independence, awareness in their formation, the desire to act strictly according to the model, in accordance with the instructions.

As a result of studying the ideas about the success of the subjects of the functional type, the following pattern was revealed: out of 12 definitions of success, the last descriptor in the hierarchy was named by 32.2% of the subjects, therefore, on the one hand, we can talk about the clarity of the idea, on the other hand, the presence of a desire to act strictly according to exemplary, not showing creativity and noting the stereotypical characteristics of success. The group of high frequency of occurrence included the following definitions of success: respect for other people, well-being in the family, achievement of the goal, career growth, material security, high social status. Comparative analysis of gender peculiarities of notions of success has shown that the understanding of success as well-being in the family is typical for women, while career growth, material security, and the presence of a prestigious job are typical for men.

According to the subjects of the functional type, the achievement of success is associated primarily with opportunities and abilities subject - perseverance as the ability to carry out activities for a long time and achieve success in it and sociability as the ability to establish contacts and, as a result, have social support to achieve success. Also, the conditions for achieving success are beauty and higher education as external, independent of the individual, resources. When describing a successful person, the subjects of the functional type of responsibility name both external and internal personal characteristics, which corresponds to the phenomenological description of this type: dependence on the group, appeal to socio-psychological support, orientation to instructions, samples, ready-made solutions.

It should be noted that psychological research helps to see the most typical ideas about the personality of business people, the ratio of success and the reasons for their success. This may be the cognitive basis of individual counseling, work on the image and personal growth, in the social self-determination of business entities.

Natalya Lvovna Ivanova, Doctor of Psychology, Professor of the Department of Organizational Psychology, State University Higher School of Economics.