and a clear system of terms denoting the main anthropocentric coordinates of the functional representation of a person in the language, is intended to concretize the rather abstract and rather general problem of anthropocentricity in the language. It should lead to a refinement of many conclusions that have become scientific axioms, and in some cases even a revision of existing concepts and theories. Taken together, this should lead to the creation of a unified concept of the representation of the subject of cognition in language in all linguistic science as a whole.

Bibliography

1. T. L. Verkhoturova, “Conceptualization of the observer in linguistics,” Vestn. Novosib. state

university Ser. Linguistics and intercultural communication. 2006. Vol. 4. Issue. 1. S. 14-22.

2. Love, N. Cognition and linguistic myth // Studia Linguistica Cognitiva. Issue. 1. Language and cognition: Methodological problems and perspectives. M. : Gnosis, 2006. S. 105-134.

3. Magirovskaya, O. V. Representation of the subject of knowledge in language. M.; Tambov: TGU Publishing House. G. R. Derzhavina, 2008. 223 p.

4. Jackendoff, R. Semantics and Cognition. Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: The MIT Press, 1983. 283 p.

5. Langacker, R. W. Foundations of Cognitive Grammar. Vol. 1: Theoretical Prerequisites. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987. 516 p.

6. Langacker, R. W. Concept, Image, and Symbol: The Cognitive Basis of Grammar. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1991. 383 p.

Bulletin of the Chelyabinsk State University. 2011. No. 24 (239). Philology. Art criticism. Issue. 57. S. 37-40.

L. A. Mesenyashina

GENRES OF SPEECH OR GENRES OF COMMUNICATION?

The article attempts to analyze the problem of systemic relations between speech genres, taking into account the ways of fixing speech. It is argued that attention to extralinguistic factors leads not only to the identification of new speech genres, but to new principles for their classification.

Key words: speech genre, speech interaction, genre system, dialogue, text.

Between linguists studying speech genres (GG), sharp disagreements remain on the question of how to relate to the heritage of M. M. Bakhtin, whether it is in full a “guide to action” in solving this problem in modern conditions. The purpose of this article is to find an answer to this question based on the analysis of the heritage of M. M. Bakhtin. The scope of the concept of "speech genre" in modern linguistics is very blurred. At first glance, the main reason for such vagueness seems to be inconsistency in relation to the legacy of M. M. Bakhtin. However, there is another reason: M. M. Bakhtin himself was not always consistent in relation to this category. So, in the textbook work “The Problem of Speech Genres”, the author unequivocally speaks of “stable genre forms of utterance” [emphasis added by the author. - L. M.] . But just below, he talks about "genres of oral speech communication", citing as

examples of “genres of salon conversations”, “genres of table conversations”, etc., from which it just as clearly follows that M. M. Bakhtin does not exclude the possibility that stable forms of speech communication can also be considered genres, i.e. "dialogical genres" are possible, consisting of a sequence of statements belonging to different speech subjects; moreover, each of these statements, in turn, is built in one genre or another and is limited to a “change of speech subjects” . At the same time, it is impossible to accept the assumption that the scientist refers these “dialogical genres” to the so-called. "secondary speech genres", since, according to M. M. Bakhtin, secondary genres are formed on the basis of primary ones, while the latter, being part of secondary ones, lose "direct relation to reality and real other people's statements", which is by no means impossible in real dialogue.

Thus, it remains either to inherit this inconsistency from M. M. Bakhtin, which we observe in et al., or to become “holier than the pope”, i.e., to prove oneself more consistent “Bakhtinists” than M. M. Bakhtin himself, and to admit that by “genres of oral speech communication”, etc., he meant what in the above work of V. N. Voloshinov is called “types and forms of speech interaction”, really characterized by certain sets and combinations of those or other speech genres in the strict sense of the word - that is, stable forms of utterance.

The latter approach seems to be more productive, since it allows to keep the problem of stomach cancer exclusively within the linguistic framework. According to the linguistic approach to this problem, the term “dialogical genre” should be understood only as a purely secondary, in the terminology of M. M. Bakhtin, type of RJ: Platonic dialogue, Galilean dialogue, etc., i.e. such a type of RJ in which the author (addresser) - the only person who is fully responsible for this text, draws someone else's speech into the creation of this text, giving it a form that is as close as possible to the source. Narrative is also among the secondary speech genres - a presentation in one's own statement of the content of someone else's speech.

However, upon mature reflection, it becomes clear that such an approach is designed for the opposition between direct and indirect speech interaction (RT) only in relation to a very specific type of civilization, namely, one in which only one alternative to direct RT is possible - written speech. Moreover, even without taking into account the features of mediation that typography brings with it (multi-circulation increases not only the number, but also the structure of the addressees of the text, and this is very relevant to the genre and certainly leads to the emergence of new ones in comparison with those that existed in the pre-press era of RJ).

Thus, the opposition of primary RJ to secondary ones, as genres of direct RW, and genres of mediated RW is built, so to speak, on the basis of the conditions of paper-printed civilization. The most, in our opinion, the most successful definition of the text given by V. G. Admoni is based on the same material foundations: a statement intended for repeated reproduction.

With this understanding, all RJ are automatically divided into two classes: text and non-text. The last class automatically includes all primary RJ, because as soon as a statement, even if it originally belonged to the primary RJ, is used repeatedly, it automatically loses "direct relation to reality and real other people's statements", passes into the composition of secondary ones, and therefore, text RJ. At the same time, it is quite obvious that not any statement is suitable for such “repeated reproduction”, but only “potentially textual”, i.e., having such features due to which it can be used outside the primary consituation and primary context.

The emergence of electronic means of recording speech creates real prerequisites for a radical change in the genre system of the language, just as many centuries ago the emergence of writing created the conditions for the formation of two fundamentally different ways of developing culture and language: one is based on writing, the other is the path of non-written language development. and culture. Electronic means of capturing speech made it possible to capture real dialogues completely, literally. This opportunity, in particular, gave rise to interactive forms of RT: live dialogue, talk shows, reality shows, etc. We see in them precisely an attempt at the civilizational assimilation of the new material conditions of RT. Television and radio directly call these forms genres, since these are really “typical forms of utterance”, representing a kind of “replica” in a dialogue with the viewer (listener),

and, as a rule, are designed for response statements of a mass audience, and the response remarks of listeners (viewers) are often a compositionally provided element of the genre.

Indeed, these are not just new types of RW - these are precisely new RJ, because, despite the potentially unlimited number of participants in the dialogue, these genres also have an author responsible, according to M. M. Bakhtin, for speech, as for an act - this is the leader. However, in this capacity, he does not quite coincide with the image of the author in the traditional secondary genres of printed speech. The latter has the opportunity (and obligation) to be responsible, if not for the content, then for the form of the replicas included in his text. The moderator is only responsible for the overall

the evaluation frame of the ongoing dialogue and its relative compositional completeness.

The emergence of electronic means of fixing speech makes it necessary to reconsider the definition of the text. In the changed conditions, for "repeated reproduction" statements can be used that were not originally intended for this at all. The possibility or impossibility of reproducing an utterance ceases to depend on the author's intention and begins to depend on the technical capabilities of any of the addressees of this utterance - and even on those who, according to the author's intention, were not and should not be among the addressees of this utterance. Among such "texts contrary to the author's intention", in particular, there may be any recordings of dialogues. Such dialogues do not have any signs of the text - neither semantic (modal-evaluative unity), nor compositional. Well, do the newest conditions of the RW really allow the appearance of texts of “no genre”, texts in spite of everything? But the paradox is that in RW there are no such statements as "no genre". Everything that becomes a replica in dialogue (and our "recent texts" can be such replicas and become so) should work as an utterance of a certain genre. Recall that M. M. Bakhtin spoke about the activity of the addressee. In such cases, the addressee himself chooses to which genre he will attribute the given text, and responds to it in accordance with the genre features that he finds in it - or attributes to him - as, in essence, he does in any type of RT (except " institutional discourse”, in the terminology

V. I. Karasik, because only institutional discourse is characterized by a relatively certain set of genres and their sequence, which relieves the addressee of the need to "guess" the genre of a particular statement).

So, it turns out that dialogue is not a genre (but a type of RT) for its participants, but a genre for those who perceive it in a "removed form from the direct RT." It is the addressee, faced with a speech work of a not quite stable genre form, who seeks to correlate it with the genre paradigm already known to him, treating it either as a violation of the norm, or as a “potential genre”. The latter is possible provided that such a RV does not come into conflict with the existing genre system.

my. As a result, we get the so-called. “dialogical genres”, i.e. not just secondary RJ, but specifically RJ of “secondary textuality”, the textual nature of which and the genre nature itself will be determined by the activity of the addressee, acting in relation to this sequence of statements already as an author, rethinking these sequences of statements , attributing a certain author's intention to this set of statements.

Today, many scientists talk about the dynamism, instability of the genre system (language or communication), but it is important to point out that the level of dynamism of the genre system varies greatly - from very low in such conservative types of RT as direct communication or institutional discourse - to really high - in RV, due to the continuous updating of gadgets that ensure the emergence of more and more new forms of RV. In these types of RT, new genres are replaced by more and more new ones, really just not having time to form as stable ones, and, apparently, the prospect here is that in these areas of communication genre forms will remain only a speech, but not a linguistic phenomenon.

Bibliography

1. Admoni, V. G. System of forms of speech utterance / RAS. Institute of Linguistics. research. SPb. : Nauka, 1994.

2. Arutyunova, N. D. Genres of communication // Human factor in language. Communication, modality, deixis. M. : Nauka, 1992. S. 52-79.

3. Bakhtin, M. M. The problem of speech genres // Aesthetics of verbal creativity. M. : Art, 1986. S. 250-296.

4. Voloshinov, VN Marxism and Philosophy of Language. M. : Labyrinth, 1993.

5. Danilov, S. Yu. Speech genre of study in totalitarian culture: author. dis. ... cand. philol. Sciences. Yekaterinburg, 2001.

6. Dementiev, VV Heart-to-heart conversation // Anthology of speech genres. M. : Labyrinth, 2007. S. 231-245.

7. Dementiev, VV Flirt // Anthology of speech genres. M. : Labyrinth, 2007. S. 269-283

8. Dyakova, L. N. Genre of heart-to-heart talk and Russian author's song / L. N. Dyakova, I. A. Sternin // Genres of speech. Saratov, 2005. Issue. 4. S. 196-204.

9. Karasik, V. I. The structure of institutional discourse // Problems of speech communication. Saratov: Sarat Publishing House. un-ta, 2000. S. 25-33.

10. Lazutina, GV Genres of journalistic creativity: textbook. manual for university students / G. V. Lazutina, S. S. Raspopova. M. : AspectPress, 2011. 320 p.

11. Lotman, Yu. M. Semiosphere. Inside the thinking worlds. SPb. : Art-SPb, 2000.

12. Panchenko, N. N. Gossip as a genre of everyday communication // Genres of speech. Saratov, 2007. Issue. 5. S. 224-232.

13. Rytnikova, Ya. T. Family conversation: Justification and rhetorical interpretation of the genre: author. dis. ... cand. philol. Sciences. Yekaterinburg, 1996.

14. Sedov, K. F. Conversation // Anthology of speech genres. M. : Labyrinth, 2007. S. 220-230.

15. Sedov, K. F. Quarrel // Anthology of speech genres. M. : Labyrinth, 2007. S. 259-268.

16. Fenina, V.V. Speech genres of small talk and secular conversation in the Anglo-American and Russian cultures: author. dis. ... cand. philol. Sciences. Saratov, 2005.

17. Khisamova, G. G. Study of dialogue from the standpoint of speech genres // Vestn. Chelyab. state unta. Ser. Philology. Art criticism. Issue. 23. 2008. No. 21 (122). pp. 164-169.

18. Shmeleva, T.V. Model of speech genre // Genres of speech. Saratov, 1997. Issue 1. P. 88-98.

19. Donninghaus, S. Sprechact und Kommunika-tionsgenre (Theoretische Aspekte der sprachlicher Interaktion) // Bottger K., Donninghaus S., Marzari R. (Hrsg.) Beitrage der Europaischen Slavistischen Linguistik (POLISLAV) 4. Mtinchen, 2001.

Bulletin of the Chelyabinsk State University. 2011. No. 24 (239). Philology. Art criticism. Issue. 57. S. 40-43.

S. L. Mishlanova

SEMIOTIC ASPECTS OF TERMINOLOGIZATION

The article is devoted to the methodology of terminology processes research. It is shown that in the process of terminology, a linguistic unit consistently forms relations of mono-semy, polysemy, homonymy, disintegration of homonymy with the loss of one homonym. Lexico-semantic variation and the dynamics of semantic relations in the development of a linguistic sign are considered as a condition for its self-preservation and development.

Key words: terminology, semantic relations, medical discourse, verbalization of concepts.

Anthropocentric linguistics is characterized by the possibility of studying the development of linguistic signs in the speech and thinking activity of a person. Since speech activity itself, as a rule, is included in some special (professional, cognitive) activity, and the linguistic sign develops in a certain professional area (from the stage of its formation to the current state), the priority in the study of the development of a linguistic sign belongs to terminology, in features of its modern concepts, such as cognitive, or cognitive-discursive terminology.

The object of cognitive terminology is discourse. Discourse is a verbally mediated activity in a special area in which the development of a professional language personality takes place. All changes in the linguistic sign in the discourse are due to the laws of activity and development of the individual.

The subject of cognitive terminology is terminology, i.e., the development of a linguistic sign in discourse.

The main postulate of cognitive terminology is that language is directly related to the construction, organization and improvement of information and ways of its representation in discourse. Discourse is an integrative object that allows you to study the language in a "broad extralinguistic context" . In the cognitive aspect, the discourse appears as a verbally mediated activity in a special area. Each special/professional area is formed by a hierarchy of increasingly complex activities

and, accordingly, the complex structure of private scientific knowledge. At the same time, an operational mental unit, correlated with all types of knowledge about a phenomenon, is defined in cognitive linguistics as a concept. Since knowledge is

genres of speech. The genres of speech are monologue, dialogue and polylogue. A monologue is a genre that is formed as a result of the active speech activity of the speaker and is not designed for an active simultaneous reaction of the listener.

For a monologue, segments of text of considerable size are typical, consisting of structurally and meaningfully related statements. A monologue is typical for scientific and official communication, it is possible in fiction and journalistic speech. In colloquial speech, a monologue is rare, usually in the communication of educated people. Monologue speech consists of three parts: introduction, main part and conclusion.

Dialogue is a genre of speech consisting of a regular exchange of utterances-replicas, the linguistic composition of which is influenced by the direct perception of the speech activity of the speaker by the interlocutor. Sufficient information content of replicas is important for the dialogue (both insufficiency and redundancy of what is reported make communication unsuccessful), the need for communication, the observance by the participants of the dialogue of cause-and-effect relationships in speech actions, in choosing a topic, the presence of a common memory and common language knowledge.

The main types of dialogue are everyday conversation, business conversation, negotiations. Everyday dialogue is characterized by: unplannedness; a wide variety of topics and language tools discussed; frequent deviations from the topic, jumping from one topic to another; the absence, as a rule, of targets and the need to make a decision; self-presentation of the personality; colloquial speech style. A business conversation has the following characteristic features: a differentiated approach to the subject of discussion, taking into account the communicative purpose and partners and in the interests of a clear and convincing presentation of opinion; quick response to partners' statements; critical evaluation of opinions, proposals and objections of partners; analytical approach to accounting and evaluation of all factors of the problem; a sense of self-importance and an increase in the competence of partners as a result of analyzing other points of view on this issue; a sense of ownership and responsibility in solving the problem raised in the conversation.

Negotiations in many ways are similar to a business conversation.

Additional signs of negotiations are the differences in the initial knowledge and attitudes, if it is necessary to make a joint decision and the equality of the parties. Polylogue is a genre of speech that arises from the direct communication of several persons. Situational connectedness, spontaneity, non-linearity receive the maximum reflection in the content-semantic structure of the polylogue.

The semantic and formal connection of the replicas of the polylogue has a greater amplitude of fluctuations than in the dialogue. 4. The qualities of speech and ways to achieve them. The qualities of speech are the properties of speech that ensure the effectiveness of communication and characterize the level of speech culture of the speaker. Professor B.N. Golovin attributed correctness, accuracy, purity, clarity, consistency, richness, expressiveness and relevance of speech to the main qualities of speech. The correctness of speech is the quality of speech, consisting in the correspondence of its sound (spelling), lexical and grammatical structure to the literary norms accepted in the language.

Correctness is the basic quality of speech, which provides speech with other, more complex qualities, such as expressiveness, richness, logic. The correctness of speech is achieved through knowledge of the norms of the literary language and their careful application in the construction of speech. The accuracy of speech is the communicative quality of speech, which consists in the correspondence of its semantic side to the reflected reality and the communicative intention of the speaker.

The accuracy of speech depends on the correctness of word usage, the ability to choose the necessary synonym, taking into account polysemy and homonymy, the correct combination of words. The reasons for the violation of the accuracy of speech: syntactic homonymy unnoticed by the speaker, the use of long grammatical constructions of the same type, violation of the order of words in a sentence, cluttering up the sentence with separate turns and plug-in constructions, speech redundancy and insufficiency.

The accuracy of speech is achieved on the basis of clear ideas about the meanings of words, the ability to accurately use synonyms, to distinguish between contexts for the use of a polysemantic word. The relevance of speech is a strict correspondence of the structure and stylistic features of speech to the conditions and tasks of communication, the content of the information expressed, the chosen genre and style of presentation, and the individual characteristics of the author and addressee.

The relevance of speech implies the ability to use the stylistic resources of the language in accordance with the situation of communication. Allocate appropriateness stylistic, contextual, situational and personal-psychological. The relevance of speech is ensured by a correct understanding of the situation and knowledge of the stylistic features of words and stable turns of speech. The richness of speech is a set of linguistic means (lexical, grammatical, stylistic) that an individual person owns and skillfully uses in accordance with the situation.

The richness of speech is determined by the ability of a person to express the same thought, the same grammatical meaning in different ways. The richness of speech is associated with a variety of used speaking means of expressing thoughts, synonyms, ways of constructing an utterance, organizing a text. To achieve this quality, it is necessary to replenish your vocabulary by reading literature, periodicals, pay attention to the grammatical and stylistic features of the texts you read, think about the shades of the meanings of words, notice clichés and hackneyed phrases.

The expressiveness of speech is the quality of speech, which consists in the choice of such language means that make it possible to enhance the impression of the statement, to arouse and maintain the attention and interest of the addressee, to influence his mind and feelings. The conditions for the expressiveness of speech are the independence of the speaker's thinking and his inner conviction in the significance of the statement, as well as the ability to choose original ways of conveying the content of his thoughts.

The expressiveness of speech is achieved by using artistic techniques, speech figures and tropes, proverbs, phraseological turns, catch phrases. The purity of speech is the absence of superfluous words, weed words, non-literary words (slang, dialect, obscene words) in it. The purity of speech is achieved on the basis of a person’s knowledge of the stylistic characteristics of the words used, the thoughtfulness of speech and the ability to avoid verbosity, repetition and weed words (meaning, so to speak, so, in fact, as it were, type). The logic of speech is the logical correlation of statements with each other.

Logic is achieved through careful attention to the whole text, the coherence of thoughts and a clear compositional intent of the text. Logical errors can be eliminated when reading the finished written text; in oral speech, it is necessary to remember well what has been said and consistently develop the thought. Clarity of speech is the quality of speech, which consists in the fact that speech requires the least effort in perception and understanding with the complexity of its content.

Clarity of speech is achieved by its correctness and accuracy, together with the speaker's attention to the awareness and speech skills of the interlocutor. Clarity of speech is associated with the desire of the speaker to make his speech convenient for perception by a communication partner. Clarity is very important for effective speech. 2. Listening in the course of a business conversation, negotiation. Without exception, all entrepreneurs and production managers have to enter into a business conversation with business partners - suppliers of raw materials, components or finished products, as well as with consumers.

The success of his business, his reputation depends on how well an entrepreneur or plant director can organize and negotiate. The art of negotiation is specially trained all over the world. A person who is properly prepared for negotiations will be able to achieve his goal without offending his partner and leaving a favorable impression of himself.

Preparation for negotiations includes two main areas of work: solving organizational issues and working out the main issue of negotiations. The business style of communication is focused on a positive (constructive) result. Business style excludes the suppression of someone else's position. The main question of the business style of communication can be formulated as follows: the positions of the parties are determined by the attitude towards the problem under discussion (disputed position) or the attitude towards the opponent.

In everyday life, each person in the process of communication asserts his own "I", his assessment of certain phenomena, his attitude towards them. Thanks to experience, knowledge, and abilities, people develop personal principles and rules that differ in depth and degree of development, allowing them to consider something proven, and something doubtful. But this happens until the dispute meets an opponent who owns the theory and practice of argumentation, its entire arsenal, or when one's own argumentation does not become the object of criticism, refutation or simply serious consideration.

The practice of argumentation is, of course, richer and more varied than any theory, but theory must carry out an element of systematic and predictable results. One of the laws of communication says: ceteris paribus, the point of view of a person who is personally prettier, more pleasant, gives the impression of "his own" is most readily accepted. What is needed for this? A lot, but, first of all, to be able to identify the interlocutor by psychotype, adapt to him, use his lexical turns, manners.

Then he will subconsciously assume that he is dealing with a person who is close to him in many ways. The success of communication depends not only on the ability to speak, but also to no lesser extent on the ability to listen. In order to develop effective listening skills, you need to be able to answer the following questions for yourself: what are the factors for effective listening and how to listen? The factors for effective listening are: The attitude of the listener.

Successful communication requires an objective, open-minded, cooperative attitude of the listener. listener interest. It has been observed that people show more interest in familiar things than in unfamiliar ones, and are also interested in practically useful and new ideas. Listener motivation. The attention of the listeners is enhanced if the speech touches on issues related to the basic needs of a person. Emotional condition. Unwanted emotions that interfere with uninterrupted attention may come from the listener's state of depression, his attitude towards the interlocutor, his objections to statements.

How to listen? In order for listening in the process of a business conversation to be beneficial, it is necessary to develop the following skills in oneself: the ability to concentrate; ability to analyze content; The ability to concentrate allows you to constantly monitor the progress of the presentation of thoughts and all the details of what is being reported. This skill involves the following techniques: Take an objective and cooperative position in relation to the speaker. Remember what you already know about the subject of speech. Think of a topic and try to guess how the speaker will develop it. Think about how the content of the speech can help you. The ability to analyze the content is necessary, first of all, for listening to public speeches, because. they contain different ideas, and if one of them is missed, then the connection between parts of the text will be broken.

The ability to analyze is based on the following techniques: determining the purpose of speech; determination of the composition of speech; definition of the main topic of speech; definition of forms of argumentation; definition of forms of summary and final conclusions.

Scientists have found a significant gap between the amount of information expressed in the course of a business conversation and the amount of information perceived by the listener. It has been experimentally established that when perceiving speech by ear, a person on average achieves only a 25% level of efficiency in 10 minutes. Even in informal conversations, the listener learns, on average, no more than 60-70% of what the interlocutor says.

Thus, the ability to listen is an important factor influencing the course and outcome of a business conversation or negotiation.

End of work -

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The first clear division of the forms of verbal communication was made by Aristotle. A major role in identifying everyday speech genres belongs to M. M. Bakhtin, who, without using the term "pragmatics", characterized the necessary pragmatic components of speech communication, emphasized the importance of the role of the addressee (the Other, in his terminology), anticipating his response. M. M. Bakhtin defined speech genres as relatively stable and normative forms of utterance, in which each utterance obeys the laws of integral composition and types of connection between sentences-utterances. Dialogue he defined as a classical form of verbal communication.

According to the types of communicative attitudes, according to the way partners participate, their role relations, the nature of the remarks, the ratio of dialogic and monologue speech, the following genres are distinguished: conversation, conversation, story, story, proposal, recognition, request, dispute, remark, advice, letter, note, message on pager, diary.

1. Conversation. This is a genre of verbal communication (dialogue or polylogue), in which, with a cooperative strategy, the following occurs: a) an exchange of views on any issues; b) exchange of information about the personal interests of each of the participants - to establish the type of relationship; c) aimless exchange of opinions, news, information (phatic communication). Different types of conversation are characterized by the corresponding types of dialogic modality.

The second type of conversation involves spiritual "consonance", praise, approval, compliments, sincere confessions.

The third type of conversation genre is idle talk, in which participants relieve emotional stress, practice wit by telling jokes, make political predictions, share their worries, seek sympathy, tell jokes and stories. This type of conversation is characterized by an emotional modality.

The genre of conversation is the type of conversation in which, with various tactics, the strategy of solidarity in opinions and agreement dominates. The exchange of information in a conversation can be one of the phases of speech interaction, an auxiliary tactic, so the modality can be expressed with introductory words like: You know; You can not imagine; And what do you think was there?; Imagine that; these modal words and the reaction of the addressee(s) to them - I can't imagine; Really; Is; How should I know; I have no idea; - play the role of regulators in the course of a conversation, determining the vector of verbal communication. Therefore, the words of N. Abramov (“The Gift of Words”, 1901) that “conversation is an exchange of sympathies” can rightly be attributed to the conversation.

All of the above information about the relationship and mutual influence of pragmatic factors on the course of speech interaction can be applied to conversation, this basic type of communication.

2. Conversation. In this genre, both cooperative and non-cooperative strategies can be implemented. According to the goals of communication, they differ: a) informative conversation; b) prescriptive conversation (requests, orders, demands, advice, recommendations, beliefs in something); c) conversations aimed at clarifying interpersonal relationships (conflicts, quarrels, reproaches, accusations). Purposefulness is a characteristic feature of conversation, in contrast to conversation, which can be an idle speech genre. The special features of the conversation are evidenced by stable expressions that have historically developed in the language system, for example: I have a conversation with you; serious conversation; big conversation; unpleasant conversation; cheerful conversation; useless conversation; pointless conversation; business, conversation.

The initial cue of the conversation may be indicative of the type of conversation. In a conversation of the first type, it indicates the speaker's interest in obtaining the necessary information. This type is characterized by question-answer replication, and the role of the leader, the participant directing the course of the conversation, is played by the questioner, with short replicas-questions, re-questions, clarifications-questions, and the role of the “slave” is the participant who owns knowledge, with replicas-answers of various length. The main condition for the success of an informative conversation is the correspondence between the world of knowledge of the sender and the addressee. The communicative competence of the participants in the conversation, their knowledge of social norms of etiquette are also important. Communicative competence includes the ability of speakers to choose a situationally appropriate form of knowledge representation, interpretation of events and facts, the nuances of using indirect speech acts, non-literal expressions.

The conversations of the second type, as a rule, occur between participants who have different social and role characteristics, for example, between a father and a son, between neighbors who have different social status. The motives of the conversation are revealed by the verbs: I ask, I demand, I advise, I recommend, I convince, I beg, I order, I insist, etc. respectively, tactics of influencing the addressee, systems of threats and punishments.

The structure of this type of conversation, as well as others, is determined not only by the speech rules for introducing replicas of consent or refusal, but also by the behavioral reactions of the participants in the communication. These behavioral reactions in the conduct of a conversation are valuable not only in themselves, but also as motives for including this or that linguistic element, this or that way of expression in a dialogical cue.

The next type of conversation - a conversation aimed at clarifying the relationship - is based on a non-cooperative strategy of quarrel, conflict, reproaches, squabbles. Here, mockery, irony, hint often become a verbal form of expression of aggression. Metalanguage of replicas: “I am like that and treat me like that! What I say in this form is significant. The hyperbole of questions-denials, affirmation-denials acts as a negative assessment; for example: You are always so; You think so?; That's what he did to you! The strategic goal may be pursued by silence - the desire to stop communication.

3. Dispute. An argument is an exchange of opinions with the aim of making a decision or finding out the truth. Different points of view on a particular issue, however, have a common phase, not explicitly expressed in linguistic forms - an interest in communication. This determines a positive beginning in a dialogue or polylogue, a kind of code of trust, truthfulness and sincerity, expressed in etiquette forms of address, politeness, and the truth of arguments. The purpose of the dispute is to find an acceptable solution, but at the same time it is also a search for truth, the only correct solution. Depending on the topic of the dispute, it is possible to form an epistemic modality (in disputes on the topics of science, politics) or an axiological modality (in disputes about the world of values, morality, etc.).

A constructive beginning in this genre of verbal communication is the emphasis by the interlocutors of the commonality of views, the commonality of positions. The declaration of the infallibility of one's own view, on the contrary, leads to a communicative failure. In the theory of a dispute, there is a rule of “presumption of an ideal partner”, which puts the subject of a dispute in the center of attention and prohibits touching on the personal qualities of partners. The expression of disagreement by the speaker, the presentation of his point of view, the argumentation of its truth is expedient using the so-called verbs of opinion (we believe, we believe it is possible, etc.).

The participants in the dispute, citing various arguments in defense of their point of view, demonstrate their commitment to the truth, and not just their disagreement. Argumentation, or showing that a statement is true, has many techniques. The "impression of truth" is created by the conscious use of explanatory complex sentences like: It goes without saying, chcho...; It is known that ... etc.; or sentences with particles, adverbs that refer the addressee to the assessment of truth; for example: Yes, son, we forgave you too much with your mother ...

In addition to bringing objective arguments and using the techniques of a hidden dispute, when conducting a dispute, sometimes there is an “argument to the individual”. This may be either flattery to the addressee so that he accepts the addresser's point of view, or, conversely, the reception of psychological pressure on the addressee through the humiliation of his human dignity, insulting feelings. Many "arguments to the individual" are considered forbidden techniques in the theory of dispute.

In domestic disputes, with the strategy of reconciliation of positions, the tactic of changing the topic is appropriate: for example, a statement like: Let's better talk about the weather. In any disputable situations, partners should be treated with respect, treated as equals.

4. Story. This is a genre of colloquial speech, in which the monologue form of speech predominates within a dialogue or polylogue. The main strategic line of verbal communication is solidarity, consent, cooperation, “permission” for one of the participants to carry out their communicative intention, which basically comes down to information. The topic of the story can be any event, fact that happened to the narrator or anyone else. The course of the story may be interrupted by remarks-questions or remarks-evaluations, to which the narrator answers with varying degrees of completeness.

A characteristic feature of the genre of the story is the integrity of the transmitted information, provided by the coherence of individual fragments. In the story, the addresser, interpreting real events, acts as the author, arbitrarily, from his point of view, evaluates them. At the same time, with the help of a certain functional perspective of sentences, word order, intonation, introductory and plug-in constructions, particles, adverbs, paraphrases (for example: And Petya, this Plyushkin, suddenly became generous ...) the addresser creates not only an epistemic addressee oriented to the world of knowledge) the modal plan of the story, but also the axiological outline of the story (offers a hierarchy of value orientations, consistent with the world of socio-cultural stereotypes of the addressee).

Support for the communicative initiative of the narrator and the interest of listeners can be manifested in interruptions, replicas, repetitions, exclamations not addressed to the speaker.

The theme of the story and the nature of real events (terrible, neutral, funny, instructive) also determine the modality of speech.

Phraseology, idioms, allusive precedent texts and "fashionable" lexemes are both semantic blocks and a way of presenting oneself as a speaker as a narrator.

5. History. This genre of colloquial speech, like the story, is primarily monologue speech, which takes into account all the components of the pragmatic situation. In addition, an important pragmatic factor of speech in telling a "story" is memory. This factor determines the structure of the narrative and the content of speech. Characteristically, the stories do not include the addressee himself as a character.

The communicative goal of history is not only the transmission of information about events that occurred earlier (at an unspecified moment), but also a summing up of semantic results, a summary, a comparison with an assessment of contemporary events and facts.

In contrast to other types of verbal communication, story and story refer to the planned types of speech, "allowed" by the participants in the communicative interaction. Therefore, communicative success is a foregone conclusion here to a greater extent, but not absolutely.

The style of history absorbed all the features of colloquial syntax: thematic fragmentation (“mosaic”), associative deviations from the “plot” of the narrative, elliptical constructions, question-answer moves. The expressiveness of lexical elements is due to the cultural background of the communication situation, reflects the spontaneity, unpreparedness of the narrative, therefore, there is an abundance of concretizing lexemes in speech, as well as introductory words that show the speaker's control over the course of presentation and the way of expression.

6. Letter. A necessary condition for this genre of verbal communication is sincerity, which is possible with the internal proximity of kindred or friendly people. “The context of consent, characteristic of the concept of sincerity, corresponds to the etymological meaning of the word: sincere meant “close, approximate, nearby.” Whatever mode prevails in writing, the very fact of addressing one's feelings-thoughts in writing, which implies a non-momentary reading, indicates that the author has the opportunity to use the natural way of explicating himself as a person (and this is the most important pragmatic condition for any verbal communication).

The regularity of correspondence is determined by a number of factors: a) the relationship between the participants in this type of verbal communication; b) the external circumstances of the correspondence; c) topic relevance for the addressee; d) frequency of correspondence.

I. N. Kruchinina, analyzing the stylistic features of this genre, comes to the conclusion that the ease of relations with the addressee is the main condition for correspondence, and “the absence of this prerequisite is usually immediately felt as an obstacle to communication and may even lead to its termination; see, for example, in Pushkin's letter to Vyazemsky: "Darling, I'm tired of writing to you, because I can't appear in a dressing gown, unbuttoned and with my sleeves down" (November 1825)."

The element of colloquial speech in writing is reflected in the dissonance of linear syntactic connections; this testifies to the “quick pronunciation” of the writer, the arbitrary nature of the thematic elements in the course of the presentation of thoughts (for example: I laughed about Valya when I read about her tricks ...; which may be an analogue of the construction of the codified language: As for Valya, I laughed ...). This trend of "stringing" thematically important, from the point of view of the author of the letter, elements is also characteristic for the formation of the entire structure of the letter: the letter can be thematically discrete, saturated with associative elements and additional messages.

The pragmatic condition of solidarity and agreement in the genre of writing finds its formal expression in the "formulas" of greeting and farewell, originating in the mists of time.

7. Note. Unlike writing, this genre of written colloquial speech is largely formed by the common world of feeling-thought of the sender and addressee, the same epistemic and axiological modality, the relevance of the same circumstances. Therefore, the content of the note is usually brief; a detailed argument can be replaced by one or two words that play the role of a hint.

So, for example, a note left in a student dormitory may contain only two words: “They called: We are waiting.” The addressee of the note guesses both the authors of the note and their communicative purpose. The situational conditioning and close relationship between sender and addressee make free expression and reticence possible; see, for example, A. N. Ostrovsky’s note to N. A. Dubrovsky: “Nikolka! Why don't you lead Vetlitsky, and where the hell are you yourself? Will you listen to me! Well, you wait!”

You can’t write like that, I just thought so, but you need to write like this:

"Your Majesty

Nikolai Alexandrovich,

Would you like to welcome me today directly from the office to the dining table, which will greatly oblige your deeply respectful and devoted A. Ostrovsky. ”

(Oct. 1870)".

The informal friendly tone of the first note and the purely official nature of the second explain the incompleteness of the structure of the first note (where are you going?). The second note does not have the modal components of the first one: the probability of failure and the tactics of influencing the addressee are not expressed here.

In a note, as in a letter, it is possible for the addressee to self-check the way of his expression, the train of thought; For example: Shall I go? (no, I'll run early in the morning). In addition, a note, like a letter, may not be a spontaneous flow of feeling-thought, but a processed version, written off from a draft, in which the irregularities of improvisation are “softened” and reduced, the unexpected appearance in consciousness of the meaningful elements of the statement.

8. Diary. Diary entries are texts of addressed colloquial speech, and therefore, they have all the stylistic features of texts due to the multifactorial pragmatic space. The addressee of the texts of the diary is the alter ego, the supersubject, “the highest instance of reciprocal understanding” (in the terminology of M. M. Bakhtin), which helps the writer express his thoughts, feelings and doubts. This pragmatic factor forces the author of diary entries to verify the accuracy of the expression of thoughts, to introduce synonyms, concretizers, to use such syntactic devices as gradation, question-answer moves, rhetorical questions; introductory words and sentences that are signals of the author's reflection; see, for example, a fragment of the diary of Andrei Bely (entry August 8, 1921; the day after the death of A. Blok): physical plane) is a part of myself. How so? I am alive, but the content, the living content of my soul, has died? Nonsense?! Then I realized that some huge stage of my life was over” [Literaturnaya. newspaper. 1990. August 1].

The style of diary entries is determined by all aspects of the personality (I-intellectual, I-emotional, I-spiritual, etc.); depending on the predominance of one or another beginning, the nature of the presentation changes. Diary entries are divided into two major categories. Some diaries reflect the author's orientation towards describing the day as a temporary space. This can be a listing of what has been done, a summary, reflections, an analysis of feelings and thoughts, plans, etc. Diaries of a different type (they may be conducted irregularly) - “talking” about oneself in “time, thinking about what excites, a kind of” stream of consciousness” with associative subtopics of the “main” thoughts of the day. The diaries of people doing creative work are a laboratory of creative searches and are not much different from the "notebooks" and "workbooks" of writers and poets.

Culture of Russian speech / Ed. OK. Graudina and E.N. Shiryaeva - M., 1999

A text is understood as a human thought fixed on a certain carrier. In a narrower sense, it is a coherent and sequential transmission of characters. The text exists in two forms (written and oral) and is determined by such features as semantic integrity and articulation (in other words, the selection of fragments in its composition). One sentence cannot be considered a text. There must be at least two of them.

Text styles and types

Let's see what texts are. The Russian language distinguishes the following styles:

Colloquial

• Publicistic. This style is characterized by logicality, emotionality, appraisal, appeal. The main feature is socio-political vocabulary. The words are emotionally colored, solemn vocabulary and the use of short sentences are inherent. Example: “Deputy head of Mosgorbank Petrov Nikolai was sentenced to 6 years in prison for embezzlement of 330 million rubles.”
• Scientific. It is distinguished by the logical sequence of presentation, an ordered system of communication between statements, the desire for accuracy and conciseness.
• Official business. A means of written communication that is used in the field of legal relations and management. Example: “With this receipt, I, Ivanov Sergey Ivanovich, undertake to return the money in the amount of 500,000 (five hundred thousand) rubles by March 1, 2016.”
• Art. It is used exclusively in fiction using the entire wealth of vocabulary, a variety of styles, and emotional speech. This style is aimed at conveying the feelings and thoughts of the author. Example: “A fog was quietly creeping over the river, like fresh milk. The birds in the forest have almost died down. Another June morning began.

Text types

Initially, the text was supposed to convey the opinion and impression of the author about what surrounds him, about people and events. In this regard, consider what texts are by type:

1. Narration. The text tells about events that are interconnected by a time sequence. A distinctive feature is a certain structure: plot, development, denouement. The story is built in the first or third person, using perfect past tense verbs.
2. containing the study and study of specific subjects and their relationship to each other. A certain scheme and logical structure are traced. The main idea is the thesis, which is formulated at the beginning of the text. The following are arguments and evidence that confirm or refute this thesis. At the end, conclusions are drawn.
3. Description. Text that has a consistent image and description of events, objects and people. You can trace the enumeration of the characteristic properties and features inherent in the main character. The text is characterized by additions, circumstances, the use of metaphors, comparisons, epithets and other expressive means of the language. The main task is to create an opinion about the described subject or character.

We found out what texts are by type, now we will consider what genres they are divided into.

Genres

A genre is a form of speech organization that distinguishes and characterizes types of text. The genre also distinguishes between the nature of speech activity and the form of its use. For example, the genre of an interview is a dialogue, the genre of a journalistic article is a monologue. At the same time, an article is a written genre, and a report is an oral genre. There is also such a thing as an interstyle genre, where one genre can belong to several styles: an interview as a genre can be attributed to both official and journalistic style, and an essay, essay or article can be attributed to both scientific and journalistic style. style.

Consider What are the literary genres regarding styles:

1. Fiction includes such genres as novel, short story, essay, story, fable. This also includes lyrics in all its manifestations.
2. Educational literature includes tutorials, lessons, textbooks and manuals - in other words, those documents that are available for study.
3. Historical literature includes all genres devoted to past events and key moments in the history of mankind. These are historical essays, poems, dramas, compositions, etc.
4. Scientific literature includes narrowly focused texts on specific topics. These are reports, monographs, popular science articles, notes, reference books, essays, encyclopedias, practical advice, memos.

digital text

What other texts are there? In the era of digital technologies, such a thing as digital text has appeared. And if earlier the Internet served only as a means for finding information, now on this resource you can find entire libraries with different types of texts. Today, not only newspaper and scientific publications are being digitized, but also masterpieces of world literature. Now it is not necessary to go to the library or bookstore. It is enough to go to the Internet from any device and find the publication of interest.

Learning in elementary school

A detailed study of the text begins in elementary school, when the teacher introduces children to the types of sentences, establishes the connection of words in these sentences. Next comes the acquaintance with the text and consideration of the topic "What are the texts." Grade 2 in this lesson will not only get acquainted with the structural features of the text, the children will be asked to compose it themselves, highlighting the main idea and topic. Particular attention is paid to building a dialogue.

There are not only stylistically opposed language units, but also the language laws of their use. If you look at several pages of the dictionary words marked "colloquial." and “high.”, then you can immediately notice that there are much fewer high words than colloquial ones. This reflects the norm of the modern literary language in the text (written or oral) there can be many colloquial words, and this does not disgust the modern language taste. On the contrary, words of high style should be used sparingly so as not to give the impression of deliberate exaltation or insincerity. Such is the taste of time, reflected in speech and in the laws of the use of linguistic units.

On the squares of Maloyaroslavets and Mozhaisk, I saw the holy Mongols, the brave men who participated in the liberation of these cities are buried here. Years will pass. The terrible months of the war will be forgotten. People will build new cities, new schools, new clubs. More beautiful, our cities will become bigger than before.

Expensive monuments will remain in the heart of the liberated cities. And the mother, pointing the child to the plinth with the inscribed names, will say “Here, Petya, who saved you ...” And in the zero the collective farmers will honor the lonely grave of a Red Army soldier. The ears of corn will part around it. Time won't touch her...
Our fighters, who fell on the battlefield, defeated not only the enemy, he also defeated death. They died for their loved ones, for friends, for their small village and for our vast country. Orphans will find mothers - all the women of Russia. The dead childless will have descendants - the entire Russian people (I. G. Ehrenburg).
There are few solemn words in this text, but they are enough to convey a feeling of sorrow, gratitude and high sadness.

The text may consist of neutral style units and colloquial style units; may consist of neutral style units and high style units. There are texts from only units of the neutral style, but they are rare.

There are types of combination of colored language units in one text that are stable in this era. Such types are called stylistic genres. In the modern era, we meet such stylistic genres as fiction, scientific research, newspaper information, playful everyday dialogue, a fable, a lyric poem, a report at a scientific conference, a feuilleton, a meeting protocol, an application to an institution, advertising, a report on work, a conversation between a seller and a shopper in a store, telling a friend about an event, a journalistic interview, a non-fiction theory, a travel guide, etc.

These genres belong not only to speech, but also to language. The very laws of combining different colored words within each genre (what is permissible and what is not, or permissible as a special case, what saturation of the text with these colored units is possible, how they should be introduced into the text, etc.) are to a certain extent stable in each era, they characterize not only the given text, but also the genre as a whole. Therefore, such laws have not only a speech, but also a linguistic character.

Language genres and those studied by literary criticism do not coincide with each other. For example, a literary critic distinguishes between a story and a story - for a linguist, this is one genre of artistic narration. There are no actual linguistic (moreover, typified) differences to oppose the story to the story. And even in those cases when the genre is distinguished from both linguistic and literary positions, it is important for the linguist in it to be stable, beyond the scope of personal creativity, general linguistic, and for the literary critic - individual, that which in this text creates the unity of this figurative system and her given artistic expression.

Here genre of family writing:
My Tungus friends! Did you have rain when Ivan returned from the Lavra? In Yaroslavl, it was raining so hard that you had to put on a leather chiton. The first impression of the Volga was poisoned by the rain, the tear-stained windows of the cabin, and the wet nose of Gurland, who went out to the station to meet me. ...)
On the steamer, my first duty was to give free rein to my talent, that is, to go to bed. Waking up, I saw the sun. The Volga is not bad; water meadows, sun-drenched monasteries, white churches; the expanse is amazing; wherever you look, it is convenient to sit down and start fishing everywhere. On the shore, classy ladies roam and nibble green grass, occasionally a shepherd's horn is heard.

Kostroma is a good city. I saw Plyos, where the languid Levitan lived; I saw Kineshma, where I walked along the boulevard and watched local shpakovs.
Well, stay healthy and prosperous (A.P. Chekhov).
The linguistic genre of family writing is very pronounced. Such features are characteristic; colloquial style vocabulary (thrashed - about rain, not bad, chilly, etc.), occasionally colloquial words (everything was filled up inside) ", a lot of playful figurative meanings, ironic use of high words (put on, beheld), the inclusion of words of the family language - so M. P. Chekhov spoke in childhood, Drishka is a family form of the name Daria, the introduction of fragments of other language systems (menu), the predominance of simple syntactic constructions (there are no particularly dissected sentences, with a deep "syntactic perspective"), a very moderate use of participial and adverbial phrases .

As can be seen, different language genres are characterized not only by different use of words of high or colloquial style, but also by a number of other features. They present the signs of functional varieties of the language in different ways. What is called the functional varieties of the language
Some genres show linguistic affinity. So, for example, a notarial deed, a business contract, minutes of a meeting, and an official notice are similar to each other. A characteristic feature of these genres is the use of vocabulary associated with a particular area of ​​human activity, the frequent use of grammatical (primarily syntactic) features that are relevant in texts intended for this area. All these signs make up the distinctive features of the business variety of the modern Russian language. It is characterized not only by what is appropriate in it, but also by the fact that, as a rule, it does not contain words of a colloquial style (darling, tyutelka in tyutka, Vanyusha, seeded), high, solemn words are completely inappropriate, emotional means of language are uncommon (ah, eh, eyes, nose, white, blue-blue, the worst, and I forget about this contract).

Functional varieties of language are distinguished by generalizing those features that a certain group of language genres has. It is possible to group language genres in different ways, so different researchers have a different set of functional varieties of the language. Most often, such functional varieties are distinguished: business, journalistic, scientific and popular science, informational (for example, a newspaper chronicle), household (for example, a conversation on everyday, everyday topics).