IRON AGE - an era in the primitive and early class history of mankind, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools. The idea of ​​three ages: stone, bronze and iron - arose in the ancient world (Titus Lucretius Car). The term "Iron Age" was coined around the middle of the 19th century by the Danish archaeologist K. J. Thomsen. The most important studies, the initial classification and dating of Iron Age sites in Western Europe were carried out by M. Görnes, O. Montelius, O. Tischler, M. Reinecke, J. Dechelet, N. Oberg, J. L. Peach and J. Kostszewski; in Vost. Europe - V. A. Gorodtsov, A. A. Spitsyn, Yu. V. Gotye, P. N. Tretyakov, A. P. Smirnov, X. A. Moora, M. I. Artamonov, B. N. Grakov and others; in Siberia, by S. A. Teploukhov, S. V. Kiselev, S. I. Rudenko, and others; in the Caucasus - B. A. Kuftin, B. B. Piotrovsky, E. I. Krupnov and others.

The period of the initial spread of the iron industry was experienced by all countries at different times, but the Iron Age usually refers only to the cultures of primitive tribes that lived outside the territories of ancient slave-owning civilizations that arose back in the Eneolithic and Bronze Ages (Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, India, China). The Iron Age is very short compared to previous archaeological epochs (Stone and Bronze Ages). Its chronological boundaries: from the 9th-7th centuries BC. e., when many primitive tribes of Europe and Asia developed their own iron metallurgy, and until the time when a class society and state arose among these tribes. Some modern foreign scientists, who consider the time of the appearance of written sources to be the end of primitive history, attribute the end of the Iron Age of Western Europe to the 1st century BC. e., when Roman written sources appear containing information about Western European tribes. Since iron still remains the most important material from which tools are made, the modern era enters the Iron Age, therefore, the term “early Iron Age” is also used for the archaeological periodization of primitive history. On the territory of Western Europe, only its beginning (the so-called Hallstatt culture) is called the Early Iron Age. Despite the fact that iron is the most common metal in the world, it was mastered by man late, since it is almost never found in nature in its pure form, it is difficult to process and its ores are difficult to distinguish from various minerals. Initially, meteoric iron became known to mankind. Small objects made of iron (mainly jewelry) are found in the 1st half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. in Egypt, Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. The method of obtaining iron from ore was discovered in the 2nd millennium BC. e. According to one of the most likely assumptions, the cheese-making process (see below) was first used by Hittite-subordinate tribes living in the mountains of Armenia (Antitaur) in the 15th century BC. e. However, for a long time, iron remained a rare and very valuable metal. Only after the 11th century BC. e. a rather widespread production of iron weapons and tools began in Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, and India. At the same time iron becomes known in the south of Europe. In the 11th-10th centuries BC. e. individual iron objects penetrate into the area north of the Alps, are found in the steppes of the south of the European part of the USSR, but iron tools begin to dominate in these areas only in the 8th-7th centuries BC. e. In the 8th century BC e. iron products are widely distributed in Mesopotamia, Iran and somewhat later in Central Asia. The first news about iron in China dates back to the 8th century BC. e., but it spreads only in the 5th century BC. e. In Indochina and Indonesia, iron spread at the turn of our era. Apparently, from ancient times iron metallurgy was known to various African tribes. Undoubtedly, already in the 6th century BC. e. iron was produced in Nubia, Sudan, Libya. In the 2nd century BC e. the Iron Age began in the central region of Africa. Some African tribes moved from the Stone Age to the Iron Age, bypassing the Bronze Age. In America, Australia and most of the islands of the Pacific Ocean, iron (except meteoric iron) became known only in the 2nd millennium AD. e. with the arrival of Europeans in these areas.

In contrast to the relatively rare sources of copper and especially tin, iron ores, although most often low-grade (brown iron ore, lacustrine, marsh, meadow, etc.), are found almost everywhere. But getting iron from ores is much more difficult than copper. The melting of iron, i.e., obtaining it in a liquid state, has always been inaccessible to ancient metallurgists, since this requires a very high temperature (1528 °). Iron was obtained in a doughy state using a cheese-blowing process, which consisted in the reduction of iron ore with carbon at a temperature of 1100-1350 ° in special furnaces with air blown by bellows through a nozzle. At the bottom of the furnace, a kritz was formed - a lump of porous doughy iron weighing 1-8 kg, which had to be hammered repeatedly to compact and partially remove (squeeze out) slag from it. Hot iron is soft, but even in ancient times (about the 12th century BC), a method was discovered for hardening iron products (by immersing them in cold water) and their cementation (carburization). Ready for blacksmith crafts and intended for trade exchange, iron bars usually had a bipyramidal shape in Western Asia and Western Europe. The higher mechanical qualities of iron, as well as the general availability of iron ore and the cheapness of the new metal, ensured that bronze was replaced by iron, as well as stone, which remained an important material for the production of tools in the Bronze Age. It didn't happen right away. In Europe, only in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BC. e. iron began to play a really significant role as a material for making tools. The technological revolution caused by the spread of iron greatly expanded the power of man over nature. It made possible the clearing of large forest areas for crops, the expansion and improvement of irrigation and reclamation facilities, and the improvement of land cultivation in general. The development of crafts, especially blacksmithing and weapons, is accelerating. Woodworking is being improved for the purposes of house-building, the production of vehicles (ships, chariots, etc.), and the manufacture of various utensils. Artisans, from shoemakers and masons to miners, also received better tools. By the beginning of our era, all the main types of handicraft and agricultural hand tools (except screws and hinged scissors) used in the Middle Ages, and partly in modern times, were already in use. The construction of roads was facilitated, military equipment improved, exchange expanded, and the metal coin spread as a means of circulation.

The development of productive forces associated with the spread of iron, over time, led to the transformation of the entire social life. As a result of the growth of productive labor, the surplus product increased, which, in turn, served as an economic prerequisite for the emergence of the exploitation of man by man, the collapse of the tribal system. One of the sources of the accumulation of values ​​and the growth of property inequality was the exchange that expanded during the Iron Age. The possibility of enrichment through exploitation gave rise to wars for the purpose of robbery and enslavement. The beginning of the Iron Age is characterized by a wide distribution of fortifications. In the era of the Iron Age, the tribes of Europe and Asia were going through the stage of decomposition of the primitive communal system, were on the eve of the emergence of a class society and state. The transfer of part of the means of production into the private ownership of the ruling minority, the emergence of slave ownership, the increased stratification of society, and the separation of the tribal aristocracy from the bulk of the population are already features typical of early class societies. Among many tribes, the social organization of this transitional period took the political form of the so-called military democracy.

A. L. Mongait. Moscow.

Soviet historical encyclopedia. In 16 volumes. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1973-1982. Volume 5. DVINSK - INDONESIA. 1964.

Literature:

Engels F., The origin of the family, private property and the state, M., 1953; Artsikhovsky A. V., Introduction to archeology, 3rd ed., M., 1947; World History, vol. 1-2, M., 1955-56; Gernes M., Culture of the prehistoric past, trans. from German, part 3, M., 1914; Gorodtsov V. A., Household archeology, M., 1910; Gotye Yu. V., Iron Age in Eastern Europe, M.-L., 1930; Grakov BN, The oldest finds of iron things in the European part of the USSR, "CA", 1958, No 4; Jessen A. A., On the issue of monuments of the VIII - VII centuries. BC e. in the South of the European part of the USSR, in: "CA" (vol.) 18, M., 1953; Kiselev S.V., Ancient history of Yu. Siberia, (2nd ed.), M., 1951; Clark D. G. D., Prehistoric Europe. Economical essay, trans. from English, M., 1953; Krupnov E.I., Ancient history of the North Caucasus, M., 1960; Lyapushkin I.I., Monuments of the Saltovo-Mayatsky culture in the basin of the river. Don, "MIA", 1958, No 62; its own, the Dnieper forest-steppe left bank in the Iron Age, MIA, 1961, No. 104; Mongait A. L., Archeology in the USSR, M., 1955; Niederle L., Slavic Antiquities, trans. from Czech., M., 1956; Okladnikov A.P., The distant past of Primorye, Vladivostok, 1959; Essays on the history of the USSR. Primitive communal system and the most ancient states on the territory of the USSR, M., 1956; Monuments of Zarubinets culture, "MIA", 1959, No 70; Piotrovsky B. V., Archeology of Transcaucasia from ancient times to 1 thousand BC. e., L., 1949; his own, Kingdom of Van, M., 1959; Rudenko S. I., Culture of the population of the Central Altai in the Scythian time, M.-L., 1960; Smirnov A.P., Iron Age of the Chuvash Volga Region, M., 1961; Tretyakov P. N., East Slavic tribes, 2nd ed., M., 1953; Chernetsov V.N., Lower Ob region in 1000 AD e., "MIA", 1957, No 58; Déchelette J., Manuel d "archéologie prehistorique celtique et gallo-romaine, 2 ed., t. 3-4, P., 1927; Johannsen O., Geschichte des Eisens, Düsseldorf, 1953; Moora H., Die Eisenzeit in Lettland bis etwa 500 n. Chr., (t.) 1-2, Tartu (Dorpat), 1929-38; Redlich A., Die Minerale im Dienste der Menschheit, Bd 3 - Das Eisen, Prag, 1925; Rickard T. A., Man and metals, v. 1-2, N. Y.-L., 1932.

Reconstruction of the appearance of a representative of the Ananyino culture and some archaeological finds

iron age

Iron Age - a period of development humanity which occurred in connection with the manufacture and use of iron tools labor and weapons. Changed bronze age in AD I millennium BC In contrast to the relatively rare deposits of copper and especially tin, low-quality iron ores (brown iron ore) are found almost everywhere. But getting iron from ores is much more difficult than copper. The smelting of iron was beyond the reach of ancient metallurgists. Iron was obtained in a doughy state using a cheese-blowing process, which consisted in the reduction of iron ore at a temperature of approx.

Carthage. Spanish weapons IV-II centuries. BC 1 - saunion - a heavy iron dart with a serrated edge. From Almedinilla. 2 - tip of a pilum-type dart from Arkobriga. 3 - spearhead from Almedinilla (Cordoba). 4 - falcata (falcata) from Almedinilla. 5 - straight piercing-chopping sword (gladius hispaniensis) from Aguila de Angwita. 6 - dagger from Almedinilla. 7 - Spanish dagger from Numantsia. 8 and 9 - spears. 10 - a knife of this type was attached to the falcata scabbard. All weapons are shown on a scale of 1: 8.11 - a tombstone of a Spanish mercenary discovered in Tunisia, which depicts his shield, helmet, sword and two spears. 12-15 - reliefs from Osuna in southern Spain. 12 - a swordsman with a Celtic-type shield and a headdress made of veins. 13 - a headdress of the same type. 14 - a warrior with a Spanish shield, a falcata and a cap made of veins .15 - a cap of the same type. 16 - a warrior depicted on a vase from Liria. 17 - a bronze figurine of a Spanish horseman of the 3rd century. BC. in a headdress made of veins. He is armed with a round shield and falcata. Museum of Valencia de don Juan. Madrid. 18 - front view of the figurine, allowing you to see how such a shield was held, as well as a wide belt of a warrior. 19 - a sculptural image of a horse, on which a bit and sweatshirt are visible. From El Cigarrelejo. 4th century BC. Meeting Wed. E. Cuadrado, Madrid.20 - reconstruction of the appearance of the Spanish horseman of the time of Hannibal. He wears a veined headdress and a white tunic trimmed with a crimson stripe. He is armed with a round shield with a handle located in the center, a spear and a falcata.21 - a reconstruction of the appearance of a Spanish infantryman from the time of Hannibal. At the beginning of his campaign, the Carthaginian commander collected more than 70,000 of them, they served as the main "expendable material". The infantryman wears a vein cap adorned with a horsehair crest and a white tunic trimmed with dark red. He has a Celtiberian oval shield with a vertical rib, a spear, a saunion, and a falcata. Instead of the latter, he may have been armed with a double-edged straight Spanish sword. 22 and 23 are two types of Spanish bits found at Aguila de Anguita in southern Spain

At the bottom of the furnace, a cry was formed - a lump of porous iron weighing 1-5 kg, which had to be forged for compaction, as well as removal of slag from it. Raw iron is a very soft metal; tools and weapons made of pure iron had low mechanical qualities. Only with the discovery in the IX-VII centuries. BC. methods of manufacturing steel from iron and its heat treatment, the wide distribution of the new material begins. The higher mechanical qualities of iron and steel, as well as the general availability of iron ores and the cheapness of the new metal, ensured the displacement of bronze, as well as stone, which remained an important material for the production of tools in the Bronze Age. In Europe, in the second half of the 1st millennium BC. iron and steel began to play really essential role as a material for the manufacture of tools and weapons.

Artifacts of the Ananyino culture. 1 - stone pseudoanthropomorphic tombstone depicting a battle ax and a dagger; 2 - bronze belt with pendant plaques and a stone whetstone (reconstruction); 3, 4 - iron and bronze spearheads; 5, 6, 8 - bronze arrowheads; 7 - iron arrowhead; 9 - bone arrowhead; 10 - bronze ax - "Celt"; 11 - bimetallic dagger; 12 - bronze pick with a zoomorphic rim; 13 - iron dagger; 14 - ceramic vessel; 15 - bronze bracelet; 16 - a bronze ax with a zoomorphic bushing and butt; 17 - bronze bridle plaque in the form of a coiled predator

The technological revolution caused by the spread of iron and steel greatly expanded power man over nature: it became possible to clear large forest areas for crops, expand and improve irrigation and reclamation facilities and improve land cultivation in general. Development accelerates crafts, especially blacksmith and weapons. The processing of wood for the purposes of housebuilding, the production of vehicles, and the manufacture of various utensils is being improved. Artisans, from shoemakers and masons to miners, also received better tools. K n. our era all the main types of handicraft and agricultural hand tools (except screws and hinged scissors) used in the Middle Ages, and partly in modern times, were already in use. The construction of roads was facilitated, improved military technology, exchange expanded, metal coins spread as a means of circulation. Development productive forces associated with the spread of iron, over time led to the transformation of the entire public life.

Artifacts of the Dyakovo culture. 1-4 - bone arrowheads; 5, 6 - iron arrowheads; 7, 8 - iron knives; 9, 10 - iron sickles; 11 - iron ax - "Celt"; 12 - iron bits; 13 - iron fishing hook; 14, 15 - bronze ornaments-threads; 16 - bronze noisy pendant; 17-20 - ceramic objects ("Dyakov type weights"); 21-25 - ceramic vessels

As a result of the growth of labor productivity, the surplus product increased, which, in turn, served economic prerequisite for the emergence exploitation man man, decay tribal primitive communal building. One of the sources of accumulation values and growth wealth inequality there was an exchange that expanded during the Iron Age. The possibility of enrichment through exploitation gave rise to wars for the purpose of robbery and enslavement. At the beginning of the Iron Age, fortifications were widespread. In the era of the Iron Age, the tribes of Europe and Asia were going through the stage of disintegration of the primitive communal system, were on the eve of the emergence class society and states. The transfer of certain means of production to private property the ruling minority, the emergence of slavery, the increased stratification of society and the separation of the tribal aristocracy from the bulk of the population are already features typical of early class societies.

Ancient Greece. 1 is a part of a drawing from a Greek vase showing two different types of comb base. 2 is a Greek raised comb base. From Olympia.3 - Italian raised crest base. Both the first and second types were fixed with double pins. 4-7 - evolution of the Greek sword. 4,5 - two late Mycenaean (type II) bronze swords from Kallithea. OK. 1200 BC 5a - sword hilt of the same type from Italy. 6 - early Greek iron sword from Ceramics. OK. 820 BC 6a - a bronze hilt of a sword of the same type. 7 - an iron sword and a Greek-type scabbard for it, trimmed with bone, from the Campovalano di Campi necropolis. OK. 500 BC Cheti Museum.8 - Greek type iron spearhead from the Campovalano necropolis. Cheti Museum.9 - Greek bronze spearhead from the British Museum

In many tribes, the social structure of this transitional period took political the form of the so-called. military democracy. The spread of iron metallurgy in the territory Russia refers to the 1st millennium BC. AT steppes Northern Black Sea region in the 7th century BC - the first centuries. AD tribes lived Scythians who created the most developed culture early Iron Age. Iron products were found in abundance in the settlements and mounds of the Scythian period. Signs of metallurgical production were discovered during excavations of a number of Scythian settlements. The largest number of remains of iron-working and blacksmithing was found in the Kamensky settlement (V-III centuries BC) near Nikopol on Ukraine, which was, apparently, the center of a specialized metallurgical region of ancient Scythia. Iron tools contributed to the wide development of various crafts and the spread of plowed agriculture among the local tribes of the Scythian time. The next after the Scythian period of the early Iron Age in the steppes of the Black Sea region is represented by Sarmatian culture that dominated here from the II century. BC. until the 4th century AD In the previous period from the 7th c. BC. Sarmatians (or Sauromatians) lived in the Don and the Urals.

Ancient Rome. 1 - a bronze sword with "antennas" from Fermo. 2 - an antenna-type sword with a bronze sheath from Fermo. 3 - an antenna-type bronze saber sword from Bologna. 4, 6, 7 - bronze tips of the scabbards of antenna-type swords. sword antenna type. The scabbard is wrapped with bronze wire and has a bronze tip. 8 - an iron dagger with a bone handle and a bronze scabbard with a bone mouth from Veyev. 9, 9a - a bronze dagger and scabbard from Tarquinia. 10 - a bronze spear tip and a wire that fastened it to the shaft. Veii.11, 12 - bronze tip and spearhead from Tarquinia.13 - giant bronze tip from Tarquinia.14 - bronze darthead found in Latium15 - bronze ax from Tarquinia.Scale 1:5

In the first centuries AD. one of the Sarmatian tribes - Alans- began to play a significant historical role and gradually the very name of the Sarmatians was supplanted by the name of the Alans. By the same time, when the Sarmatian tribes dominated the Northern Black Sea region, there are cultures of "burial fields" that spread in the western regions of the Northern Black Sea region, the Upper and Middle Dnieper and Transnistria Chernyakhiv culture and etc.). These cultures belonged to agricultural tribes who knew the metallurgy of iron, among which, according to some scientists, were the ancestors Slavs. The tribes living in the central and northern forest regions of the European part of Russia were familiar with iron metallurgy from the 6th-5th centuries. BC. In the VIII-III centuries. BC. in the Kama region was distributed Ananyino a culture that was characterized by the coexistence of bronze and iron tools, with the undoubted superiority of the latter at the end of it. The Ananyino culture on the Kama was replaced by the Pyanobor culture (late 1st millennium BC - first half of the 1st millennium AD). In the Upper Volga region and in the regions of the Volga-Oka interfluve, the settlements of the Dyakovo culture (from the 1st millennium BC - from the 1st millennium AD) belong to the Iron Age, and in the territory south of the middle reaches of the Oka, west of the Volga, in the basin of the river. Tsna and Moksha, settlements of the Gorodets culture (VII century BC-V century AD), which belonged to the ancient Finno-Ugric tribes.

Celtic artifacts. 1-17 - the evolution of the Celtic helmet. It is impossible to clearly trace the evolution due to the fact that all these helmets come from very distant places from each other. However, in some cases (for example, 2-6-12) the path of development is quite obvious. 1 - bronze helmet from the Somme peat bogs, France. Museum Saint-Germain, 2 - bronze helmet from Dürnberg an der Hallen, Austria. Salzburg Museum. 3 - iron helmet from Hallstatt. Austria, Vienna Museum. 4 - bronze helmet from Montpellier. France. 5 - bronze helmet from the Senon burial. Italy. Museum of Ancona. 6 - helmet made of bronze and iron from the Senonian necropolis in Montefortino. Museum of Ancona. 7 - iron helmet from Umbria. Berlin Museum. 8 - Etruscan bronze helmet of Montefortino type. Villa Giulia Museum. 9 - bronze helmet, possibly of Italian work, from Montefortino. Museum of Ancona. 10 - bronze helmet from Waden (Marne). France, Museum Saint-Germain. 11 - Kenoman bronze "cap-shaped" helmet. Museum of Cremona. 12 - iron helmet from Castelrotto in the Italian Alps. Innsbruck Museum. 13 - iron helmet from Batina, Yugoslavia. Museum of Vienna. 14 - iron helmet from Sanzeno in the Italian Alps. Museum of Trento. 15 - a bronze helmet, which was found near Siel (department of Saone and Loire). Museum of Chalon-on-Son. 16 - iron helmet from Port-on-Nidau, Switzerland. Zurich Museum. 17 - iron helmet from Giubiasco, Ticino, Swiss Alps. Zurich Museum. 18 - bronze horned helmet, which was found in the Thames. British museum. 19 - bronze cheek-pieces from Carniola. Yugoslavia, Ljubljana Museum. 20 - iron cheek-pieces from Alesia. Museum of Saint Germain. 21 - two horned helmets depicted on an arch in Orange, southern France. 22 - in the IV century. BC. the Gallic Zante wore such finely decorated gold and bronze ceremonial helmets

IRON AGE, an epoch of human history, distinguished on the basis of archeological data and characterized by the leading role of products made of iron and its derivatives (cast iron and steel). As a rule, the Iron Age replaced the Bronze Age. The beginning of the Iron Age in different regions refers to different times, and the dating of this process is approximate. An indicator of the beginning of the Iron Age is the regular use of ore iron for the manufacture of tools and weapons, the spread of ferrous metallurgy and blacksmithing; the mass use of iron products means a special stage of development already within the Iron Age, in some cultures separated from the beginning of the Iron Age by several centuries. The end of the Iron Age is often considered the onset of the technological era associated with the industrial revolution, or extended to the present.

The widespread introduction of iron made it possible to produce mass series of tools, which was reflected in the improvement and further spread of agriculture (especially in forest areas, on difficult soils for cultivation, etc.), progress in construction, crafts (in particular, saws appeared, files, articulated tools, etc.), the extraction of metals and other raw materials, the manufacture of wheeled vehicles, etc. The development of production and transport led to the expansion of trade, the appearance of coins. The use of massive iron weapons significantly affected the progress in military affairs. In many societies, all this contributed to the decomposition of primitive relations, the emergence of statehood, inclusion in the circle of civilizations, the oldest of which are much older than the Iron Age and had a level of development that surpassed many societies of the Iron Age.

Distinguish early and late Iron Age. For many cultures, primarily European ones, the border between them, as a rule, is attributed to the era of the collapse of ancient civilization and the onset of the Middle Ages; A number of archaeologists correlate the end of the early Iron Age with the beginning of the influence of Roman culture on many peoples of Europe in the 1st century BC - 1st century AD. In addition, different regions have their own internal periodization of the Iron Age.

The concept of "Iron Age" is used primarily to study primitive societies. The processes associated with the formation and development of statehood, the formation of modern peoples, as a rule, are considered not so much within the framework of archaeological cultures and "ages", but in the context of the history of the respective states and ethnic groups. It is with them that many archaeological cultures of the late Iron Age are correlated.

The spread of ferrous metallurgy and metalworking. The most ancient center of iron metallurgy was the region of Asia Minor, the Eastern Mediterranean, Transcaucasia (2nd half of the 2nd millennium BC). Evidence of the widespread use of iron appears in texts from the middle of the 2nd millennium. The message of the Hittite king to Pharaoh Ramesses II with a message about the dispatch of a ship loaded with iron (late 14th - early 13th century) is indicative. A significant number of iron products have been found at the archaeological sites of the 14-12th century of the New Hittite Kingdom, steel has been known in Palestine since the 12th century, in Cyprus - since the 10th century. One of the oldest finds of a metallurgical furnace dates back to the turn of the 2nd and 1st millennia (Kvemo-Bolnisi, the territory of modern Georgia), slag - in the layers of the archaic period of Miletus. At the turn of the 2nd - 1st millennia, the Iron Age began in Mesopotamia and Iran; Thus, during the excavations of the palace of Sargon II in Khorsabad (4th quarter of the 8th century), about 160 tons of iron were found, mainly in the form of krits (probably a tribute from subject territories). Perhaps, from Iran at the beginning of the 1st millennium, ferrous metallurgy spread to India (where the beginning of the widespread use of iron is attributed to the 8th or 7/6th centuries), in the 8th century - to Central Asia. In the steppes of Asia, iron became widespread no earlier than the 6th/5th century.

Through the Greek cities of Asia Minor, iron-making skills spread at the end of the 2nd millennium to the Aegean Islands and around the 10th century to mainland Greece, where since that time commodity kries, iron swords in burials have been known. In Western and Central Europe, the Iron Age began in the 8th-7th centuries, in Southwestern Europe - in the 7th-6th centuries, in Britain - in the 5th-4th centuries, in Scandinavia - actually at the turn of the eras.

In the Northern Black Sea region, in the North Caucasus and in the southern taiga Volga-Kama region, the period of primary development of iron ended in the 9th-8th centuries; along with things made in the local tradition, there are known products created in the Transcaucasian tradition of obtaining steel (cementation). The beginning of the Iron Age itself in the indicated and influenced regions of Eastern Europe is attributed to the 8th-7th centuries. Then the number of iron objects increased significantly, the methods of their manufacture were enriched with the skills of molding forging (with the help of special crimps and dies), overlap welding and the packing method. In the Urals and Siberia, the Iron Age was the earliest (by the middle of the 1st millennium BC) in the steppe, forest-steppe and mountain forest regions. In the taiga and the Far East, the Bronze Age actually continued in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BC, but the population was closely associated with the cultures of the Iron Age (excluding the northern part of the taiga and the tundra).

In China, the development of ferrous metallurgy proceeded separately. Due to the highest level of bronze foundry production, the Iron Age did not begin here until the middle of the 1st millennium BC, although ore iron was known long before that. Chinese craftsmen were the first to purposefully produce cast iron and, using its fusibility, made many products not by forging, but by casting. In China, the practice of making malleable iron from cast iron by reducing the carbon content arose. In Korea, the Iron Age began in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BC, in Japan - around the 3rd-2nd century, in Indochina and Indonesia - by the turn of the era or a little later.

In Africa, the Iron Age was first established in the Mediterranean (by the 6th century). In the middle of the 1st millennium BC, it began on the territory of Nubia and Sudan, in a number of regions of West Africa; in the Eastern - at the turn of the eras; in the South - closer to the middle of the 1st millennium AD. In a number of regions of Africa, in America, Australia and the Pacific Islands, the Iron Age began with the advent of Europeans.

The most important cultures of the early Iron Age beyond civilizations

Owing to the wide distribution and comparative ease of mining of iron ores, bronze-casting centers gradually lost their monopoly on the production of metal. Many previously backward regions began to catch up with the old cultural centers in terms of technology and socio-economic level. Accordingly, the zoning of the ecumene changed. If for the early metal era an important culture-forming factor was belonging to a metallurgical province or to the zone of its influence, then in the Iron Age, the role of ethno-linguistic, economic, cultural and other ties increased in the formation of cultural and historical communities. The widespread distribution of effective weapons made of iron contributed to the involvement of many communities in predatory and predatory wars, accompanied by mass migrations. All this led to cardinal changes in the ethno-cultural and military-political panorama.

In a number of cases, on the basis of linguistic data and written sources, one can speak of the dominance within certain cultural and historical communities of the Iron Age of one or a group of peoples close in language, sometimes even linking a group of archaeological sites with a specific people. However, written sources for many regions are scarce or absent; far from all communities it is possible to obtain data that would allow them to be correlated with the linguistic classification of peoples. It should be borne in mind that the speakers of many languages, perhaps even entire families of languages, did not leave direct linguistic descendants, and therefore their relationship to known ethno-linguistic communities is hypothetical.

Southern, Western, Central Europe and the south of the Baltic region. After the collapse of the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization, the beginning of the Iron Age in Ancient Greece coincided with the temporary decline of the "Dark Ages". Subsequently, the widespread introduction of iron contributed to a new upsurge in the economy and society, which led to the formation of ancient civilization. On the territory of Italy, many archaeological cultures are distinguished for the beginning of the Iron Age (some of them formed in the Bronze Age); in the northwest - Golasekka, correlated with part of the Ligures; in the middle reaches of the Po River - Terramar, in the northeast - Este, compared with Veneti; in the northern and central parts of the Apennine peninsula - Villanova and others, in Campania and Calabria - "pit burials", the monuments of Puglia are associated with the messes (close to the Illyrians). In Sicily, the culture of Pantalica and others is known, in Sardinia and Corsica - nuraghe.

On the Iberian Peninsula, there were large centers for the extraction of non-ferrous metals, which led to a long-term predominance of bronze products (Tartess culture, etc.). In the early Iron Age, waves of migrations of different nature and intensity are recorded here, monuments appear that reflect local and introduced traditions. On the basis of some of these traditions, the culture of the Iberian tribes was formed. To the greatest extent, the originality of traditions was preserved in the Atlantic regions (“the culture of the settlements”, etc.).

The development of the cultures of the Mediterranean was strongly influenced by the Phoenician and Greek colonization, the flourishing of culture and the expansion of the Etruscans, the invasion of the Celts; later the Mediterranean became inland for the Roman Empire (see Ancient Rome).

In a large part of Western and Central Europe, the transition to the Iron Age took place during the Hallstatt era. The Hallstatt cultural area is divided into many cultures and cultural groups. Some of them in the eastern zone are correlated with groups of Illyrians, in the western zone - with the Celts. In one of the areas of the western zone, the Laten culture was formed, then spread over a vast territory during the expansion and influence of the Celts. Their achievements in metallurgy and metalworking, borrowed by their northern and eastern neighbors, determined the dominance of iron products. The Laten era defines a special period of European history (about the 5th-1st century BC), its finale is associated with the expansion of Rome (for territories north of the Laten culture, this era is also called “pre-Roman”, “early Iron Age”, etc. ).

Sword in a scabbard with an anthropomorphic handle. Iron, bronze. The Laten culture (2nd half of the 1st millennium BC). Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York).

In the Balkans, east of the Illyrians, and north to the Dniester, there were cultures associated with the Thracians (their influence reached the Dnieper, the Northern Black Sea region, up to the Bosporan state). At the end of the Bronze Age and at the beginning of the Iron Age, the commonality of these cultures is referred to as the Thracian Hallstatt. Around the middle of the 1st millennium BC, the originality of the "Thracian" cultures of the northern zone intensified, where associations of the Getae, then Dacians, took shape; were annexed to the Roman Empire.

At the end of the Bronze Age in Southern Scandinavia and partly to the south, a decline in culture is recorded, and a new rise is associated with the spread and widespread use of iron. Many Iron Age cultures north of the Celts cannot be related to known groups of peoples; it is more reliable to compare the formation of the Germans or a significant part of them with the Jastorf culture. To the east of its range and the upper Elbe to the Vistula basin, the transition to the Iron Age took place within the framework of the Lusatian culture, in the later stages of which the originality of local groups intensified. Based on one of them, the Pomeranian culture was formed, which spread in the middle of the 1st millennium BC to significant parts of the Lusatian area. Toward the end of the Laten era, the Oksyvian culture was formed in the Polish Pomorie, to the south - the Przeworsk culture. In the new era (within the 1st-4th century AD), called the “Roman imperial”, “provincial-Roman influences”, etc., various associations of Germans become the leading force to the northeast of the borders of the Empire.

From the Masurian Lake District, parts of Mazovia and Podlasie to the lower reaches of the Pregolya, in the La Tène time, the so-called culture of the Western Baltic mounds is distinguished. Its relationship with subsequent cultures for a number of regions is debatable. In Roman times, cultures associated with the peoples attributed to the Balts, including the Galinds (see the Bogachev culture), Sudavs (Sudins), Aestii, comparable with the Sambian-Natang culture, etc., are recorded here, but the formation of most of the known peoples of the western and the eastern ("Summer-Lithuanian") Balts already dates back to the 2nd half of the 1st millennium AD, that is, the late Iron Age.

Steppes of Eurasia, forest zone and tundra of Eastern Europe and Siberia. By the beginning of the Iron Age, in the steppe belt of Eurasia, stretching from the Middle Danube to Mongolia, nomadic cattle breeding had developed. Mobility and organization, along with the mass character of effective (including iron) weapons and equipment, became the reason for the military and political significance of nomadic associations, which often extended power to neighboring settled tribes and were a serious threat to states from the Mediterranean to the Far East.

In the European steppes, from the middle or end of the 9th to the beginning of the 7th century BC, a community dominated, with which, according to a number of researchers, the Cimmerians are associated. The tribes of the forest-steppe (Chernolesskaya culture, Bondarikhinsky culture, etc.) were in close contact with it.

By the 7th century BC, a “Scythian-Siberian world” had formed from the Danube region to Mongolia, within which the Scythian archaeological culture, the Sauromatian archaeological culture, the Sako-Massaget circle of culture, the Pazyryk culture, the Uyuk culture, the Tagar culture (the only one that retained the production of high-quality bronze items) and others, to varying degrees correlated with the Scythians and the peoples of the “Herodotic” Scythia, Savromats, Sakas, Massagets, Yuezhi, Usuns, etc. Representatives of this community were predominantly Caucasoids, probably a significant part of them spoke Iranian languages.

In close contact with the "Cimmerian" and "Scythian" communities were the tribes of the Crimea and the population of the North Caucasus, the southern taiga of the Volga-Kama region (the Kizilkoba culture, the Meotian archaeological culture, the Koban culture, the Ananyin culture), which was distinguished by a high level of metalworking. The influence of the "Cimmerian" and Scythian cultures on the population of the Middle and Lower Danube is significant. Therefore, the distinguished "Cimmerian" (aka "pre-Scythian") and "Scythian" eras are used in the study of not only steppe cultures.

An iron arrowhead inlaid with gold and silver from the Arzhan-2 kurgan (Tuva). 7th century BC. Hermitage (St. Petersburg).

In the 4-3 centuries BC, in the steppes of Europe, Kazakhstan and the Southern Trans-Urals, the Scythian and Savromatian cultures were replaced by Sarmatian archaeological cultures, which determined the era, divided into early, middle, late periods and lasted until the 4th century AD. A significant influence of Sarmatian cultures can be traced in the North Caucasus, which reflects both the resettlement of a part of the steppe population and the transformation under its influence of local cultures. The Sarmatians also penetrated far into the forest-steppe regions - from the Dnieper to Northern Kazakhstan, in various forms contacting the local population. Large stationary settlements and craft centers east of the Middle Danube are associated with the Sarmatians of Alföld. Partly continuing the traditions of the previous era, largely Sarmatized and Hellenized, the so-called late Scythian culture was preserved in the lower reaches of the Dnieper and in the Crimea, where a kingdom arose with its capital in Scythian Naples, part of the Scythians, according to written sources, concentrated on the Lower Danube; a number of researchers also include some groups of sites of the Eastern European forest-steppe as "Late Scythian".

In Central Asia and Southern Siberia, the end of the era of the "Scythian-Siberian world" is associated with the rise of the Xiongnu unification at the end of the 3rd century BC under Maodun. Although it collapsed in the middle of the 1st century BC, the southern Xiongnu fell into the orbit of Chinese influence, and the northern Xiongnu were finally defeated by the middle of the 2nd century AD, the “Xiongnu” era is extended until the middle of the 1st millennium AD. Monuments correlated with the Xiongnu (Xiongnu) are known in a significant part of Transbaikalia (for example, the Ivolginsky archaeological complex, Ilmovaya Pad), Mongolia, steppe Manchuria and testify to the complex ethnocultural composition of this association. Along with the penetration of the Xiongnu, the development of local traditions continued in Southern Siberia [in Tuva - the Shumrak culture, in Khakassia - the Tesinsky type (or stage) and the Tashtyk culture, etc.]. The ethnic and military-political history of Central Asia in the Iron Age is largely based on information from Chinese written sources. One can trace the advancement of one or several associations of nomads, which extended power over vast areas, their disintegration, absorption by the next, and so on. (Dunhu, Tabgachi, Juan, etc.). The complexity of the composition of these associations, the poor knowledge of a number of regions of Central Asia, the difficulties of dating, etc., make their comparison with archaeological sites still very hypothetical.

The next era in the history of the steppes of Asia and Europe is associated with the dominance of Turkic speakers, the formation of the Turkic Khaganate, which replaced it with other medieval military-political associations and states.

The cultures of the sedentary population of the forest-steppe of Eastern Europe, the Urals, and Siberia were often included in the "Scythian-Siberian", "Sarmatian", "Hunnic" "worlds", but could form cultural communities with forest tribes or formed their own cultural areas.

In the forest zone of the Upper Ponemanye and Dvina, Podneprovye and Poochye traditions of the Bronze Age, the culture of hatched ceramics continued; on the basis of predominantly local cultures, the Dnieper-Dvina culture and the Dyakovo culture developed. In the early stages of their development, although iron was common, it did not become the dominant raw material; Archaeologists characterized the monuments of this circle on the basis of mass finds of bone products at the main objects of excavation - hillforts as "bone-bearing hillforts". The massive use of iron here begins around the end of the 1st millennium BC, when changes occur in other areas of culture, migrations are noted. Therefore, for example, in relation to the cultures of hatched ceramics and Dyakovo, researchers distinguish the corresponding "early" and "late" cultures as different formations.

In terms of origin and appearance, the early Dyakovo culture is close to the Gorodets culture adjoining from the east. By the turn of the eras, its range is significantly expanded to the south and north, to the taiga regions of the Vetluga River. Near the turn of the eras, the population is moving into its range because of the Volga; from Sura to the Ryazan Poochie, cultural groups are formed associated with the tradition of the Andreevsky Kurgan. On their basis, the cultures of the late Iron Age were formed, associated with the speakers of the Finno-Volga languages.

The southern zone of the forested Dnieper region was occupied by the Milogradskaya culture and the Yukhnovskaya culture, in which a significant influence of the Scythian culture and Latena can be traced. Several waves of migration from the Vistula-Oder region led to the emergence of the Pomeranian and Przeworsk cultures in Volhynia, the formation of the Zarubinets culture in most of the south of the forest and forest-steppe Dnieper region. It, along with the Oksyv, Przeworsk, Poyanesti-Lukashevsky cultures, is singled out in the circle of “Latenized”, noting the special influence of the Laten culture. In the 1st century AD, the Zarubinets culture experienced a collapse, but on the basis of its traditions, with the participation of the more northern population, monuments of the late Zarubinets horizon were formed, which formed the basis of the Kyiv culture, which determined the cultural appearance of the forest and part of the forest-steppe Dnieper region in the 3rd-4th centuries AD. On the basis of the Volyn monuments of the Przeworsk culture, the Zubrets culture was formed in the 1st century AD.

With the cultures that adopted the components of the Pomeranian culture, primarily along the so-called Zarubintsy line, researchers associate the formation of the Slavs.

In the middle of the 3rd century AD, from the Lower Danube to the Seversky Donets, the Chernyakhov culture developed, in which the Velbar culture played a significant role, the spread of which to the southeast is associated with the migrations of the Goths and Gepids. The collapse of socio-political structures correlated with the Chernyakhov culture under the blows of the Huns at the end of the 4th century AD marked the beginning of a new era in the history of Europe - the Great Migration of Nations.

In the north-east of Europe, the beginning of the Iron Age is associated with the Ananyino cultural and historical region. On the territory of northwestern Russia and part of Finland, cultures are common in which components of the Ananyino and textile ceramics of cultures are intertwined with local ones (Luukonsari-Kudoma, Late Kargopol culture, Late White Sea, etc.). In the basins of the Pechora, Vychegda, Mezen, Northern Dvina rivers, sites appear in which ceramics continued to develop the comb ornamental tradition associated with the Lebyazh culture, while new ornamental motifs testify to interaction with the Kama and Trans-Ural population groups.

By the 3rd century BC, on the basis of the Ananyino culture, the communities of the Pyanobor culture and the Glyadenovo culture were formed (see Glyadenovo). A number of researchers consider the middle of the 1st millennium AD to be the upper limit of the cultures of the Pyanobor circle, others single out the Mazunin culture, the Azelin culture, etc. for the 3rd-5th centuries. the formation of medieval cultures associated with speakers of modern Permian languages.

In the mountain forest and taiga regions of the Urals and Western Siberia in the early Iron Age, the cross-ceramic culture, the Itkul culture, the comb-pit ceramic culture of the West Siberian circle, the Ust-Polui culture, the Kulai culture, the Beloyarskaya, Novochekinskaya, Bogochanovskaya, and others were widespread; in the 4th century BC, the focus on non-ferrous metalworking was preserved here (the center is associated with the Itkul culture, supplying many areas, including the steppe, with raw materials and copper products), in some cultures, the spread of ferrous metallurgy refers to the 3rd third of the 1st millennium BC. This cultural circle is associated with the ancestors of the speakers of some of the modern Ugric languages ​​and Samoyedic languages.

Iron items from the Barsovsky III burial ground (Surgut Ob region). 6-2/1 century BC (according to V. A. Borzunov, Yu. P. Chemyakin).

To the south was the region of the forest-steppe cultures of Western Siberia, the northern periphery of the nomadic world, associated with the southern branch of the Ugric peoples (the Vorobyov and Nosilovo-Baitov cultures; they were replaced by the Sargat culture, the Gorokhov culture). In the forest-steppe Ob region in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BC, the Kizhirov, Staro-Aley, Kamenskaya cultures spread, which are sometimes combined into one community. Part of the forest-steppe population was involved in the migrations of the middle of the 1st millennium AD, the other part moved north along the Irtysh (Potchevash culture). Along the Ob to the south, up to the Altai, the Kulay culture (Upper Ob culture) spread. The remaining population, associated with the traditions of the Sargat and Kamensk cultures, was Turkified in the Middle Ages.

In the forest cultures of Eastern Siberia (late Ymyyakhtakh culture, Pyasinskaya, Tsepanskaya, Ust-Milskaya, etc.), bronze items are few, mostly imported, iron processing appears no earlier than the end of the 1st millennium BC from the Amur and Primorye. These cultures were left by mobile groups of hunters and fishermen - the ancestors of the Yukagirs, the northern part of the Tungus-Manchurian peoples, the Chukchi, Koryaks, etc.

Eastern regions of Asia. In the cultures of the Russian Far East, northeast China and Korea, the Bronze Age is not as pronounced as in Siberia or in more southern regions, but already at the turn of the 2nd-1st millennium BC, the development of iron began here within the framework of the Uril culture and the Yankov culture, and then the Talakan, Olgin, Poltsevo cultures and other cultures close to them from the territory of China (Wanyanhe, Guntulin, Fenglin) and Korea that replaced them. Some of these cultures are associated with the ancestors of the southern part of the Tungus-Manchurian peoples. More northern monuments (Lakhtinskaya, Okhotskaya, Ust-Belskaya and other cultures) are branches of the Ymyyakhtakh culture, which reach Chukotka in the middle of the 1st millennium BC and, interacting with the Paleo-Eskimos, participate in the formation of the ancient Bering Sea culture. The presence of iron incisors is evidenced, first of all, by the turning tips of bone harpoons made with their help.

On the territory of Korea, the manufacture of stone tools prevailed during the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age, mainly weapons, some types of jewelry, etc. were made from metal. The spread of iron is attributed to the middle of the 1st millennium BC, when the Joseon unification took shape here; the later history of these cultures is connected with the Chinese conquests, the formation and development of local states (Koguryeo, etc.). On the Japanese islands, iron appeared and became widespread during the development of the Yayoi culture, within which tribal unions were formed in the 2nd century AD, and then the state formation of Yamato. In Southeast Asia, the beginning of the Iron Age falls on the era of the formation of the first states.

Africa. In the Mediterranean regions, significant parts of the Nile basin, near the Red Sea, the formation of the Iron Age took place on the basis of the cultures of the Bronze Age, within the framework of civilizations (Ancient Egypt, Meroe), in connection with the emergence of colonies from Phenicia, the heyday of Carthage; by the end of the 1st millennium BC, Mediterranean Africa became part of the Roman Empire.

A feature of the development of more southern cultures is the absence of the Bronze Age. The penetration of iron metallurgy south of the Sahara is attributed by some researchers to the influence of Meroe. More and more arguments are being expressed in favor of a different point of view, according to which the routes across the Sahara played an important role in this. Such could be the "roads of chariots", reconstructed from rock art, they could pass through Fezzan, as well as where the ancient state of Ghana was formed, etc. In a number of cases, iron production could be concentrated in specialized areas, monopolized by their inhabitants, and blacksmiths could form closed communities; communities of different economic specialization and level of development coexisted. All this, as well as the poor archaeological knowledge of the continent, makes our understanding of the development of the Iron Age here very hypothetical.

In West Africa, the oldest evidence for the production of iron products (2nd half of the 1st millennium BC) is associated with the Nok culture, its relationship with synchronous and later cultures is largely unclear, but no later than the 1st half of the 1st millennium AD, iron was known throughout West Africa. However, even on monuments associated with state formations of the late 1st millennium - the 1st half of the 2nd millennium AD (Igbo-Ukwu, Ife, Benin, etc.), there are few iron products; during the colonial period, it was one of import items.

On the east coast of Africa, Azania cultures are attributed to the Iron Age, and there is evidence of iron imports in relation to them. An important stage in the history of the region is associated with the development of trading settlements with the participation of immigrants from southwestern Asia, primarily Muslims (such as Kilwa, Mogadishu, etc.); centers for the production of iron are known for this time from written and archaeological sources.

In the Congo Basin, the interior of East Africa, and to the south, the spread of iron is associated with cultures belonging to the tradition of “pottery with a concave bottom” (“hole at the bottom”, etc.) and traditions close to it. The beginning of metallurgy in some places of these regions is attributed to different segments of the 1st half (no later than the middle) of the 1st millennium AD. Migrants from these lands probably brought iron to South Africa for the first time. A number of emerging "empires" in the basin of the Zambezi, Congo (Zimbabwe, Kitara, etc.) were associated with the export of gold, ivory, etc.

A new stage in the history of sub-Saharan Africa is associated with the emergence of European colonies.

Lit .: Mongait A. L. Archeology of Western Europe. M., 1973-1974. Book. 1-2; Coghlan H. H. Notes on prehistoric and early iron in the Old World. Oxf., 1977; Waldbaum J. C. From bronze to iron. Gott., 1978; The coming of the age of iron. New Haven; L., 1980; Iron Age Africa. M., 1982; Archeology of Foreign Asia. M., 1986; Steppes of the European part of the USSR in the Scythian-Sarmatian time. M., 1989; Tylecote R. F. A history of metallurgy. 2nd ed. L., 1992; The steppe zone of the Asian part of the USSR in the Scythian-Sarmatian time. M., 1992; Shchukin M. B. At the turn of the era. SPb., 1994; Essays on the history of ancient ironworking in Eastern Europe. M., 1997; Collis J. The European Iron age. 2nd ed. L., 1998; Yalcin U. Early iron metallurgy in Anatolia // Anatolian Studies. 1999 Vol. 49; Kantorovich A.R., Kuzminykh S.V. Early Iron Age // BRE. M., 2004. T.: Russia; Troitskaya T.N., Novikov A.V. Archeology of the West Siberian Plain. Novosib., 2004; Russian Far East in antiquity and the Middle Ages; discoveries, problems, hypotheses. Vladivostok, 2005; Kuzminykh S.V. Final Bronze Age and Early Iron Age in the north of European Russia // II Northern Archaeological Congress. Yekaterinburg; Khanty-Mansiysk, 2006; Archeology. M., 2006; Koryakova L. N., Epimakhov A. E. The Urals and Western Siberia in the Bronze and Iron ages. Camb., 2007.

I. O. Gavritukhin, A. R. Kantorovich, S. V. Kuzminykh.

The early Iron Age in archeology is the period following the Bronze Age in the history of mankind, marked by the development of the method of obtaining iron, the beginning of manufacture and the wide distribution of products from it.

The transition from bronze to iron took several centuries and proceeded far from evenly. Some peoples, for example, in India, in the Caucasus, knew iron in the 10th century. BC e., others (in Southern Siberia) - only in the III-II centuries. BC e. But mostly already in the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. the peoples who lived on the territory of Russia mastered the new metal.

Chronology of the early Iron Age - VII century BC. e.- V in. n. e. The dates are highly arbitrary. The first is associated with classical Greece, the second with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the beginning of the Middle Ages. In Eastern Europe and North Asia, the Early Iron Age is represented by two archaeological periods: the Scythian of the 7th-3rd centuries. BC e. and Hunno-Sarmatian II c. BC e - V c. n. e.

Why the early Iron Age? This name of the archaeological epoch in the history of Eurasia is not accidental. The fact is that from the 1st millennium BC. e., that is, since the beginning of the Iron Age, mankind, despite a number of inventions, the development of new materials, especially plastic substitutes, light metals, alloys, continues to live in the Iron Age. Imagine for a moment what the whole of modern civilization would look like if iron disappeared. Suffice it to say that all machines, vehicles, mechanisms, bridge structures, ships and much more are made of iron (steel), they cannot be replaced by anything. This is the civilization of the Iron Age. Another is yet to come. And the early Iron Age is a historical and archaeological concept. This is a period of history marked and reconstructed mainly through archaeology.

Mastering the method of obtaining and manufacturing iron products

Mastering the method of obtaining iron was the greatest achievement of mankind, which caused a rapid growth of productive forces. The first iron objects were apparently forged from meteoric iron with a high nickel content. Almost simultaneously, iron products of earthly origin appear. At present, researchers are inclined to believe that a method for obtaining iron from ores was discovered in Asia Minor. Based on the structural analysis of iron blades from Aladzha-Hyuk, dated to the 2nd millennium BC. e., it is established that they are made of raw iron. However, these are isolated examples. The appearance of iron and the beginning of the Iron Age, i.e., its mass production, do not coincide in time. The fact is that the technology for producing iron is more complex and fundamentally different than the method for producing bronze. The transition from bronze to iron would have been impossible without certain prerequisites that appeared at the end of the Bronze Age - the creation of special furnaces with artificial air supply and mastering the skills of metal forging and its plastic processing.

The reason for the widespread transition to the smelting of iron was, apparently, the fact that iron is found in nature almost everywhere, but in the form of oxide and oxide. This iron in a state of rust was mainly used in antiquity.

The technology for producing iron is complex and time-consuming. It consisted of a series of successive operations aimed at the reduction of iron from oxide. First, it was necessary to prepare concretions in the form of pieces of rust found in sediments on birches of rivers and lakes, dry them, screen them out, then load the mass together with coal and additives into a special oven made of stones and clay.

To obtain iron, as a rule, raw-blast furnaces were used, or forges - domnitsa, into which air was artificially pumped with the help of furs. The first forges about a meter high had a cylindrical shape and were narrowed at the top. Blower nozzles were inserted into the lower part of the hearth, with their help, the air necessary for burning coal entered the furnace. A sufficiently high temperature and a reducing atmosphere were created inside the furnace as a result of the formation of carbon monoxide. Under the influence of these conditions, the mass loaded into the furnace, which consisted mainly of iron oxides and waste rock, underwent chemical transformations. One part of the oxides combined with the rock and formed a fusible slag, the other part was reduced to iron. The recovered metal in the form of separate grains was welded into a loose mass (critz), in the voids of which there were always various impurities. To extract the bloom, the front wall of the forge was broken out. Kritsa was a spongy sintered mass of iron Fe203, FeO in the form of metal grains containing slag in their voids. In fact, it was a reducing chemical process that took place under the influence of temperature and carbon monoxide (CO). The purpose of this process is the reduction of iron under the influence of a chemical reaction and the production of bloom iron. Liquid iron was not obtained in ancient times.

The scream itself is not yet a product. With this technology, it was impossible to obtain liquid metal that could be poured into molds, as in bronze metallurgy. The kritsu in the hot state was subjected to compaction and wrung out, i.e. forged. The metal became homogeneous, dense. Forged krietz were the starting material for the manufacture of various items. The piece of iron obtained in this way was cut into pieces, heated already on an open furnace, and with the help of a hammer and an anvil, the necessary objects were forged from a piece of iron. This is the fundamental difference between iron production and bronze foundry metallurgy. Here, the figure of a blacksmith comes to the fore, his ability to forge a product of the desired shape and quality by heating, forging, cooling. The process of smelting, or rather the smelting of iron, which was established in antiquity, is widely known as the cheese-making method. It got its name later, in the 19th century, when not raw, but hot air was blown into blast furnaces, and with its help they reached a higher temperature and obtained a liquid mass of iron. In recent times, oxygen has been used for this purpose.

The manufacture of tools from iron expanded the productive possibilities of people. The beginning of the Iron Age is associated with a revolution in material production. More productive tools - an iron plowshare, a large sickle, a scythe, an iron ax - made it possible to develop agriculture on a large scale, including in the forest zone. With the development of blacksmithing, the processing of wood, bone, and leather received a certain impetus. Finally, the use of iron made it possible to improve the types of offensive weapons - iron daggers, various arrowheads and darts, long swords of chopping action - and the warrior's protective equipment. The Iron Age had an impact on all subsequent history.

Early Iron Age in the context of world history

In the early Iron Age, most tribes and peoples developed a productive economy based on agriculture and cattle breeding. In a number of places, population growth is noted, economic ties are being established, and the role of exchange is increasing, including over long distances. A significant part of the ancient peoples at the beginning of the Iron Age was at the stage of a primitive communal system, some tribes and unions were in the process of class formation. In a number of territories (Transcaucasia, Central Asia, steppe Eurasia), early states arose.

Studying archeology in the context of world history, it must be taken into account that the early Iron Age of Eurasia is the heyday of the civilization of Ancient Greece, this is classical Greece, Greek colonization, this is the formation and expansion of the Persian state in the East. This is the era of the Greco-Persian wars, the aggressive campaigns of the Greco-Macedonian army to the East and the era of the Hellenistic states of Western and Central Asia.

In the western part of the Mediterranean, the early Iron Age is the time of the formation of the Etruscan culture on the Apennine Peninsula and the rise of the Roman power, the time of the struggle between Rome and Carthage and the expansion of the territory of the Roman Empire to the north and east - to Gaul, Britain, Spain, Thrace and Denmark.

The Late Bronze Age and the transition to the Iron Age in the archeology of Europe is known as the period of the Hallstatt culture (named after a burial ground in Austria) - approximately the 11th - the end of the 6th century. BC e. There are four chronological stages - A, B, C and D, of which the first two belong to the end of the Bronze Age.

Early Iron Age outside the Greco-Macedonian and Roman world from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. represented in Europe by monuments of the La Tène culture of the 5th-1st centuries. BC e. The periods of development of the Laten culture - A (500-400 years), B (400-300 years) and C (300-100 years) - this is a whole era in development. It is known as the "Second Iron Age", following the Hallstatt culture. Bronze tools are no longer found in the La Tène culture. Monuments of this culture are usually associated with the Celts. They lived in the basin of the Rhine, Laura, in the upper reaches of the Danube, in the territory of modern France, Germany, England, partly Spain, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and Romania.

In the middle and second half of the 1st millennium BC. e. there is a uniformity of elements of archaeological cultures (burial rite, some weapons, art) over large areas: in Central and Western Europe - the Latens, the Balkan-Danube region - the Thracians and Getadaks, in Eastern Europe and North Asia - the Scythian-Siberian world.

By the end of the archaeological period - Hallstatt D - there are archaeological sites associated with well-known ethnic groups in Europe: Germans, Slavs, Finno-Finns and Balts, further to the east - the civilization of Ancient India and Ancient China of the Qin and Han dynasties (with China subordinating the western and northern territories, the formation of the ancient Chinese ethnic group and the state took place within borders close to modern ones). Thus, the historical world and the archaeological world of Europe and Asia came into contact in the early Iron Age. Why then such a division? Very simply: in some cases, where civilization was developed and written sources allow us to imagine the course of events, we are dealing with history; in the rest of Eurasia, the main source of knowledge is archaeological materials.

This time is characterized by diversity and unevenness in the processes of historical development. However, the following main trends can be identified. The main types of civilization were finalized: settled agricultural and pastoral and steppe, pastoral. The relationship between the two types of civilization has acquired a historically stable character. There was such a transcontinental phenomenon as the Great Silk Road. A significant role in the course of historical development was played by the Great Migration of Peoples, the formation of migrating ethnic groups. It should be noted that the development of productive forms of economy in the north led to the economic development of almost all territories suitable for these purposes.

In the early Iron Age, two large historical and geographical zones were designated to the north of the most ancient states: the steppes of Eastern Europe and Northern Asia (Kazakhstan, Siberia) and an equally vast forest area. These zones differed in natural conditions, economic and cultural development.

In the steppes, even in the previous era, starting from the Eneolithic, cattle breeding and agriculture developed. In the forest area, however, agriculture and forest cattle breeding have always been supplemented by hunting and fishing. In the extreme, subarctic north of Eastern Europe, in North and Northeast Asia, a type of appropriating economy has developed. It developed in the named territories of the Eurasian continent, including the northern part of Scandinavia, Greenland and North America. A so-called circumpolar stable zone of traditional economy and culture was created.

Finally, an important event in the early Iron Age was the formation of proto-ethnoi and ethnic groups, which are to some extent connected with archaeological complexes and with the modern ethnic situation. Among them are the ancient Germans, Slavs, Balts, Finno-Ugric peoples of the forest belt, Indo-Iranians in the south of Eurasia, Tungus-Manchus in the Far East, and Paleo-Asians of the circumpolar zone.

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Child G. Progress and archeology. M., 1949.

The era of human history, distinguished on the basis of archeological data and characterized by the leading role of iron products and its derivatives.

How right-vi-lo, J. v. came-ho-dil to replace the armor-zo-in-mu-ve-ku. Na-cha-lo Zh. v. in different regions from-but-sit-sya to different-time-me-no, moreover, yes-ti-ditch-ki of this pro-cess near-approx zi-tel-ny. For-ka-for-te-lem of the beginning of Zh. c. yav-la-et-sya regular use of ore-no-go-zhe-le-za for from-go-to-le-of tools and weapons, dis-pro-stra -non-black metal-lur-gy and kuz-nech-no-go de la; mass-co-use of the iron-iron-ny from de-li oz-on-cha-et a special stage of development already within the framework of Zh. v., in not -something-ryh cul-tu-rah from de-lyon-ny from na-cha-la Zh.v. not-how-ki-mi-hundred-le-tiya-mi. The end of Zh. not-rarely count on-stu-p-le-tion of tech-no-logic. epoch, associated with prom. pe-re-in-ro-tom, or pro-dle-va-yut it to the present.

Shi-ro-something out-dre-zhe-le-for ob-slo-vi-lo the possibility of pro-from-va mass series of tools of labor-yes, which from- ra-zi-elk on the improvement and further races-pro-country of the earth-le-de-lia (especially ben-but in the forest regions, on heavy for about-ra-bot-ki soil-wah, etc.), progress in construction. de-le, re-myo-slah (in part-st-no-sti, po-vy-li-pi-ly, na-pil-ni-ki, shar-nir-nye in-st-ru-men-you etc.), to-by-che metal-loving and other raw materials, from-go-to-le-nii wheel-no-go transport, etc. Raz-vi- tie pro-from-water-st-va and trans-port-that led to the race-shi-re-niyu trade-whether, in-yav-le-niyu mo-no-you. Use-pol-zo-va-nie mas-so-in-go-lez-no-go voo-ru-zhe-niya su-shche-st-ven-but said-for-moose on pro-gres-se in military de le. In many societies, all this is a way of diversifying the first-in-life-from-but-she-ni, arising-nick- but-ve-niyu go-su-dar-st-ven-no-sti, include-che-niu in the circle of qi-vi-li-za-tsy, the oldest of some of them are many th older J. c. and did they have a level of development, pre-elevating, many others. general-st-va per-rio-yes-lez-no-go-ve-ka.

Raz-whether-cha-yut early and late Zh. c. For many cultural tour, pre-zh-de of all-ev-ro-pey-skih, gra-ni-tsu me-zh-du ni-mi, like right-vi-lo, from-no-syat to the era the crash of an-tich-noy qi-vi-li-za-tion and on-stu-p-le-niya Sred-ne-ve-ko-vya; a series of ar-heo-lo-gov co-from-no-sit fi-nal ran-not-go J. v. with the beginning of the influence of Rome. cul-tu-ry on pl. on-ro-dy Ev-ro-py in the 1st century. BC e. - 1 in. n. e. In addition to that, different regions have their own internal. per-rio-di-za-tion iron-lez-no-go-ve-ka.

Understanding “J. in." use-pol-zu-et-sya pre-zh-de everything for the study of the first-in-life-societies. Processes connected with the sta-nov-le-ni-em and the development of the go-su-dar-st-ven-no-sti, for-mi-ro-va -no-eat modern. on-ro-dov, as right-vi-lo, ras-smat-ri-va-yut is not so much within the framework of ar-heo-logich. cultural tour and "centuries", how many in the context of is-to-rii co-from-vet-st-vu-ing states and ethno-owls. Namely, but with them co-from-but-syat-sya pl. ar-heo-logic. cul-tu-ry of the late J. c.

Ras-pro-country-non-black metal-lur-gy and metal-lo-ob-ra-bot-ki. The most ancient center of metal-lur-gyi zhe-le-za was the region of Lesser Asia, East. Middle-di-earth-but-sea, Za-kav-ka-zya (2nd half of the 2nd millennium BC). Swi-de-tel-st-va about shi-ro-com is-pol-zo-va-nii same-le-for-yav-la-yut-sya in texts from ser. 2nd millennium. -right-ke-ko-slave-la, on-gru-women-but-go-le-zom (late 14th - early 13th centuries). Means. the number of iron-lez-nyh from de-ly nay-de-but on ar-heo-logic. pa-myat-ni-kah 14-12 centuries But in the Hittite kingdom, steel from the West in Pa-le-sti-not from the 12th century, in Cyprus from the 10th century. One of the ancient-shih-na-ho-dok met-tal-lur-gi-che-so-gor-na from-no-sit-sya to ru-be-zhu on the 2nd and 1st thous. -le-ta. On the rub-be-same 2 - 1st thousand. on-stu-drank in Me-so-po-ta-miya and Iran; so, during the digging of the palace of Sar-go-on II in Khor-sa-ba-de (4th quarter of the 8th century) about-on-ru-same-but ca. 160 t same-le-za, in the main. in the form of krits (ve-ro-yat-no, tribute from sub-authority ter-ri-to-ry). Possibly, from Iran to the beginning. 1st millennium black metal-lur-giya raced to India (where on-cha-lo shi-ro-ko-go is-pol-zo-va- niya zhe-le-za from-no-syat to the 8th or 7/6th centuries), in the 8th century. - on Wednesday. Asia. In the steppes of Asia, the same-le-zo in-lu-chi-lo shi-ro-some race-pro-country not earlier than 6/5 centuries.

Through the Greek. the city-ro-yes of Lesser Asia iron-lezo-de-la-tel-nye-on-you-ki races-pro-country-ni-lis in con. 2nd millennium to the Aegean Islands and approx. 10th c. to mainland Greece, where from this time on, there are var-nye kri-tsy, iron swords in gre-be-ni-yah. In Zap. and Center. Ev-ro-pe Zh. v. on-stu-drank in the 8th-7th centuries, in the South-West. Ev-ro-pe - in the 7th-6th centuries, in Bri-ta-nii - in the 5-4th centuries, in Scan-di-na-wii - fak-ti-che-ski in ru-be-same er .

All in. Near-black-but-sea-rye, to the North. Kav-ka-ze and in the south-but-ta-ezh-nom Vol-go-Ka-mye per-ri-od per-vich-no-go os-voi-niya same-le-for-ver-shil -Xia in the 9th-8th centuries; on-a-row with things, from-go-tov-len-ny-mi in the me-st-tra-di-tion, here from the West from de-lia, created-dan -nye in the trans-Caucasian-Kaz-s-tra-di-tion became-whether (ce-men-ta-tion). Na-cha-lo so-st-ven-but Zh.v. in the indicated and used-py-tav-shih their influence in the regions of the East. Ev-ro-py from-no-syat to 8-7 centuries. Then su-shche-st-ven-but you-grew-lo-liche-st-in-iron-th-me-ths, we receive them from-go-to-le-of- ha-ti-lis on-you-ka-mi for-mo-voch-noy co-ki (with the help of special press-press-ni-kov and stamps), weld-ki vna-whip and me-to-house pa-ke-ti-ro-va-nia. On Ura-le and in C-bi-ri Zh. v. earlier than everything (by the middle of the 1st millennium BC) on-stepped in the steppe, forest-steppe and mountain-forest regions. In the tay-ge and on the Far East Vos-to-ke and in the 2nd floor. 1st millennium BC e. fak-ti-che-ski continued the Bronze Age, but on-se-le-nie was closely connected with the cul-tu-ra-mi Zh. in. (except for northern tea. part of tai-gi and tun-d-ru).

In China, the development of black metal-lur-gy went separately. Because of you-so-tea-she-th level of bron-zo-li-tei-no-go pro-from-water-st-va J. v. started here not earlier than ser. 1st millennium BC e., although ore-noe-le-zo would-lo from-west-but long before that. Whale. mas-te-ra per-you-mi na-cha-whether tse-le-on-right-len-but pro-from-to-dit chu-gun and, using it, easy-to-float- bone, from-go-to-la-li pl. from de-liya not co-coy, but pour-eat. In Ki-tai, rise-nick-la prak-ti-ka you-ra-bot-ki of co-ko-go-le-za from chu-gu-on the way reduce-the-same-niya so-der -niya corner-le-ro-yes. In Korea Zh. on-step-drank in the 2nd floor. 1st millennium BC e., in Japan - approx. 3-2 centuries, in Ying-do-ki-tai and Ying-do-ne-zii - to ru-be-zhu er or a little later.

In Af-ri-ke Zh. v. earlier than all-go mustache-ta-no-vil-sya in the Middle-di-earth-but-sea (by the 6th century). All R. 1st millennium BC e. he began on the territory of Nu-bii and Su-da-na, in a number of districts of the Zap. Af-ri-ki; in East-precise-noy - on ru-be-same er; in the South - closer to the middle. 1st millennium AD e. In a number of districts of Af-ri-ki, in Amer-ri-ke, Av-st-ra-lea and on the islands of Ti-ho-go, approx. J. c. on-stu-drank with the arrival of the ev-ro-pey-tsev.

The most important cul-tu-ry ran-not-go-lez-no-go-ve-ka for pre-de-la-mi qi-vi-li-za-tsy

Following the st-vie of the shi-ro-koi race-pro-country-nen-no-sti and compare-no-tel-noy-no-no-no-no-ko-sti of the development of iron ores bronze -li-tey-nye centers-try in step-pen-but ut-ra-chi-va-li mo-no-po-lyu on pro-from-in-metal-la. Many earlier regions from the old regions became-whether to-know according to tech-no-logic. and so-qi-al-no-eco-no-mich. level-nu old cultural centers. Co-from-vet-st-ven-but from-me-no-moose paradise-they-ro-va-nie oh-ku-me-ny. If for the era of early-not-go-metal-la, an important cultural-tu-ro-ob-razu-ing fact-rum would be belonging to metal -lur-gi-che-sky province or to the zone of its influence, then in Zh. in the for-mi-ro-va-nii cul-tur-no-is-to-rich. in general, the role of et-no-y-zy-ko-vyh, ho-zyay-st-ven-no-kul-tour-nyh and other connections has been strengthened. Shi-ro-some race-pro-country-non-ef-fek-tiv-no-go vo-ru-same-niya from iron -nyu pl. communities in gra-bi-tel-skie and for-grab-nich. howl-us, co-pro-in-g-give-mas-so-you-mi mi-gra-tion-mi. All this led to the card-di-nal-ny from-me-not-no-pits of et-but-cultural-tour-noy and military-en.-po-li-tich. pa-no-ra-we.

In a number of cases, on the basis of the data of lin-gwis-ti-ki and letters. is-toch-no-kov can-but talk about do-mi-ni-ro-va-nia within the framework of op-re-de-lyon-ny cul-tours-but-is-to- rich. general-no-stey J. in. one or a group of people close in language, sometimes even linking a group of ar-heo-logich. pa-myat-ni-kov with a concrete-ny on-ro-house. One-to-one written sources for many others. re-gio-new are scarce or from-sut-st-vu-yut, yes-le-ko, not for all communities it is possible to get data, I-let-ly- co-from-not-sti them with the lin-gvis-ti-che-class-si-fi-ka-qi-her na-ro-dov. It should be borne in mind that but-si-te-li pl. languages, maybe, yes, whole families of languages, not os-ta-vi-whether direct their from-no-she-nie to the well-known et-but-I-zy-ko-y-you general-no-ties gi-po-te-tich-but.

Southern, Western, Central Europe and the south of the Baltic region. After the collapse of the Cri-to-Mi-Ken-sky qi-vi-li-za-tion, the beginning of the Zh. century. in Ancient Greece coincided with the temporary decline of the "dark ages". Subsequently, shi-ro-something out-dre-nie-le-for-s-s-s-in-va-lo but-in-mu-e-mu-e-mu eco-no-mi-ki and society, with -leading to the for-mi-ro-va-niyu an-tich-noy qi-vi-li-za-tion. On the territory of Italy for na-cha-la Zh. v. you de la ut many ar-heo-lo-gich. cul-tu-ry (not-some-rye of them sfor-mi-ro-va-lis in the bronze ve-ke): on the se-ve-ro-for-pas-de - Go- la-sec-ka, co-from-no-si-muyu with a part of li-gu-ditch; on average those-che-nii river. By - Ter-ra-mar, on the se-ve-ro-vos-to-ke - Es-te, co-post-tav-lyae-muyu with ve-not-that-mi; all in. and center. parts of the Apen-nin-sko-th peninsula - Vil-la-no-va and others, in Kam-pa-niya and Ka-lab-rii - "pit-nyh in-gre-be-ny" , pa-myat-ni-ki Apu-lii is connected with me-sa-na-mi (near-ki il-li-riy-tsam). In Si-qi-lii from west-na kul-tu-ra Pan-ta-li-ka and others, in Sar-di-nii and Kor-si-ke - nu-rag.

On the Pi-re-nei-sky peninsula, su-sche-st-vo-va-li are large centers of pre-chi-non-ferrous metals, which ob-slo-vi-lo long-term pre-ob-la-da-nie from de-lie from bronze (cult-tu-ra Tar-tess, etc.). In the early Zh. here fik-si-ru-yut-sya are different in ha-rak-te-ru and in-ten-siv-no-sti waves of mi-gra-tsy, they appear-la-yut-sya pa -mint-no-ki, from-ra-zhayu-shchy me-st-nye and priv-not-sen-nye-tra-di-tions. On the basis of these traditions, sfor-mi-ro-va-las was the culture of the ple-men of the Iber-ditch. In the greatest step-pe-neither its-ob-ra-zie tra-di-tsy-stored-elk in the pri-at-lan-ti-che-sky regions (“kul -tu-ra go-ro-disch ", etc.).

For the development of a cultural tour of the Middle-di-earth-but-sea-rya, a strong influence of the eye-for-whether fi-ni-ki-sky and Greek. ko-lo-ni-za-tion, the color of the culture and the ex-pan-sia of et-ru-skov, the second of the cel-ts; later Middle-earth m. became an internal-ren-nim for Rome. im-pe-rii (see Ancient Rome).

On means. hour Zap. and Center. Ev-ro-py re-re-move to J. c. pro-is-ho-dil in the era-hu Gal-state. Gal-shtat-sky cultural-tur-naya region de-lit-Xia on mn. cultural groups and cultural groups. Some of them are in the East. zo-not co-from-no-syat with groups-pa-mi il-li-riy-tsev, in the west - with kel-ta-mi. In one of the regions of the app. zones of sfor-mi-ro-va-las kul-tu-ra La-ten, then ras-pro-country-niv-shay-sya on the big-rum-noy ter-ri-to-rii in ho -de ex-pan-si and the influence of the Celts. Their dos-ti-same-nia in metal-lur-gy and metal-lo-about-ra-bot-ke, for-im-st-in-van-nye sowing. and east. co-se-dya-mi, ob-us-lo-vi-whether the state of iron-lez-nyh from de-ly. Epo-ha La-ten op-re-de-la-et is a special per-ri-od ev-rop. is-to-rii (c. 5-1 centuries BC), its fi-nal is associated with ex-pan-si-her Ri-ma (for ter-ri-to-riy to se- ve-ru from the culture of La-ten this era is still called “pre-Roman”, “early iron-lez-no-go-ka”, etc. P.).

On the Bal-ka-nah, east of the il-li-riy-tsev, and to the north to the Day-st-ra, the culture-tu-ry, ties- vae-mye with fra-ki-tsa-mi (their influence-i-nie dos-ti-ha-lo of the Dnieper, Sev. wa). To designate at the end of the Bronze Age and at the beginning of the Zh. century. the generality of these cultures is used by the term “Fra-Ky-sky Gal-State”. OK. ser. 1st millennium BC e. usi-li-va-et-sya own-ob-ra-zie of the “Fra-ki-sky” cultural tour of the sowing. zones, where warehouses-va-yut-sya ob-e-di-non-niya get-tov, then yes-kov, in the south. zo-not ple-me-on fra-ki-tsev enter-pa-whether in close contacts-so-you with gre-ka-mi, move-gav-shi-mi-sya here-yes group- pa-mi-ski-fov, kel-tov, etc., and then would-whether we-so-di-ne-na to Rome. im-pe-rii.

At the end of the Bron-zo-vo-th century in Yuzh. Scan-di-on-wii and from-part-to-the-south-her fic-si-ru-yut drop-dock culture-tu-ry, and a new rise in connection-zy-wa-yut with race-pro -stra-not-no-eat and shi-ro-kim is-pol-zo-va-ni-eat same-le-za. Many cultures Zh. v. to the se-ve-ru from the cel-ts it is impossible to co-from-not-sti with the well-known groups-pa-mi on-rod-dov; more-more-reliably-but co-posting for-mi-ro-va-niya of the Germans or their significant part from the Yas-torf culture -Roy. To the east-ku from its area-la and the top-ho-viy El-by to the bass-this-on the Vis-la, the passage to Zh.v. pro-is-ho-dil within the framework of the Luzhitsy-koi-cul-tu-ry, at the later stages of the groin-some-swarm-whether-va-elk-of-a-ra-zie lo- calcium groups. On the basis of one of them, there was a formation of mi-ro-va-las in the sea culture-tu-ra, ras-pro-country-niv-shay-sya in the middle. 1st millennium BC e. on a significant part of the Lu-zhits-to-area-la. Closer to the end of the La-ten era in Polish. In the sea, sfor-mi-ro-va-las ok-syv-skaya kul-tu-ra, to the south - pshe-vor-skaya kul-tu-ra. In the new era (within the framework of the 1st-4th centuries AD), according to the best names. “Roman-im-per-sky”, “pro-vin-tsi-al-no-Roman-influences”, etc., to the se-ve-ro-east-to-ku from gra- prostrate Im-pe-rii ve-du-schey with the power of a hundred-but-vyat-sya decomp. unification of the Germans.

From Ma-zur-th Po-lake-rya, part of Ma-zo-via and Pod-lya-shya to the lower-zo-viy Pre-go-whether in La Ten-time you- de la ut so-called. kul-tu-ru zapad-but-Baltic kur-ga-nov. Her co-from-no-she-nie with the next-blowing-mi-cul-tu-rams for a number of re-gio-new disputes. In Rome. time here fic-si-ru-yut-sya cul-tu-ry, connected-zy-vae-my with na-ro-da-mi, from-but-si-we-mi to ball-there, in the number of someone-ryh - ga-lin-dy (see Bo-ga-chev-skaya cul-tu-ra), su-da-you (su-di-ny), es-tii, co- post-tav-lyae-my with sam-biy-sko-na-tan-gskoy kul-tu-swarm, etc., but for-mi-ro-va-nie pain-shin-st-va from-west- nyh na-ro-dov app. and the eastern ones (“le-to-li-tov-sky”) bal-tov from-no-sit-sya already to the 2nd floor. 1st millennium AD e., i.e., late-no-mu-lez-no-mu-ku.

The steppes of Ev-raz-zia, the forest zone and the tun-d-ra of Eastern Europe and Si-bi-ri. To na-cha-lu Zh. v. in the steppe belt of Ev-razia, pro-tya-nuv-shem-sya from Wed. Du-naya to Mon-go-liya, it was ko-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-t-o. Mobility and or-ga-ni-zo-van-ness, along with the mass-co-s-tu of effective-no-go (including iron-lez- but-go) weapons and sleep-rya-zhe-niya, became-whether at-chi-noy in-en.-po-li-tich. signifi-c-mo-sti ob-e-di-non-niy ko-chev-ni-kov, not-rarely ras-pro-country-nav-shih power to neighboring settled ples- me-na and the former-shih-ser-ez-noy-ug-ro-zoy for the state-states from the Middle-di-earth-but-sea-rya to the Far-not-go Vos-to-ka.

in european rap. steppe with ser. or con. 9 to early 7th century BC e. do-mi-ni-ro-va-la commonality, with someone swarm, according to me, a number of research-sle-do-va-te-lei, connected with kim-me- rii-tsy. With her on-ho-di-lissed in a close con-so-those ple-me-on le-so-step-pi (black-no-les-sky cul-tu-ra, bon-da-ri- Khin-skaya kul-tu-ra, etc.).

By the 7th c. BC e. from Pri-du-na-vya to Mont-go-liya sfor-mi-ro-val-sya "ski-fo-si-bir-sky world", within the framework of someone-ro-go you-de -la-yut Scythian ar-heo-lo-gi-che-skuyu kul-tu-ru, sav-ro-mat-skuyu ar-heo-lo-gi-che-skuyu cul-tu-ru, sa- ko-mas-sa-get-sko-go kru-ga cul-tu-ry, pa-zy-ryk-kulk-tu-ru, yuk-kulk-tu-ru, ta-gar cul-tu -ru (single-st-ven-nuyu, so-preserved-niv-shui pro-of-you-so-ko-ka-che-st-vein-bron-zo-out-of-de-ly) and others, in a different step-pe-ni co-from-but-si-my with ski-fa-mi and on-ro-da-mi "ge-ro-to-to-howl" Ski-fii , sav-ro-ma-ta-mi, sa-ka-mi, mas-sa-ge-ta-mi, yuech-zha-mi, usu-nya-mi, etc. Pre-hundred-vi-te-li this community would be pre-im. ev-ro-peo-i-dy, ve-ro-yat-but, it means. some of them go-vo-ri-la in Iranian languages.

In close con-so-those with the "Kim-Me-riy-sky" and "Scythian" common-no-stay-were there a tribe on the Crimea and from-li-chav- neck-sya you-with-kim-level metal-lo-about-ra-bot-ki on-se-le-nie Sev. Kav-ka-za, south-no-ta-hedgehog-no-go Vol-go-Ka-mya (ki-zil-ko-bin-skaya kul-tu-ra, me-ot-skaya ar-heo-lo -gi-che-skaya kul-tu-ra, ko-ban-skaya kul-tu-ra, anan-in-skaya kul-tu-ra). Significantly, the influence of the “Kim-Me-riy-sky” and the Scythian cultural tour on the na-se-le-nie of the Middle and Lower Po-du-na -vya. That's why you-de-lyae-we are "kim-me-ry-sky" (aka "pre-Scythian-sky") and "Scythian" epoch is used-pol-zu-yut-sya when researching, before-va-nii, not only the cul-tour of the steppe.

In the 4th-3rd centuries. BC e. in the steppes of Ev-ro-py, Kazah-sta-on and South. For-hurray-lea to replace the Scythian and Sav-ro-ma-tskaya par-ho-dyat Sar-mat-skie ar-heo-lo-gi-che-cult-tu-ry, op-re - de-laying epoch-hu, sub-raz-de-laying-muyu for early, middle, late periods and lasting up to the 4th century. n. e. Means. the influence of the Sar-Mat-sky cultural tours about-follow-zh-va-et-sya on the North. Kav-ka-ze, which from-ra-zha-et both re-re-se-le-nie part of the step-no-go on-se-le-niya, and trans-for-ma-tion under his influence-ni-eat me-st-nyh cultures. Sar-ma-you about-no-ka-li and yes-le-ko in the le-so-steppe regions - from the Dnieper-ro-vya to the North. Kazakh-sta-on, in various forms of con-so-tee-ruya with the local on-se-le-ni-em. Large sta-tsio-nar-nye in-se-le-niya and re-mess-len-nye centers to the east from Wed. Du-naya are connected with sar-ma-ta-mi Al-fol-da. From-hour-to-continuing tra-di-tion of the pre-she-st-vuyu-schey epoch, in the mean-chit. step-pe-ni sar-ma-ti-zi-ro-van-naya and el-li-ni-zi-ro-van-naya, the so-called. late-Scythian kul-tu-ra was preserved in the lower-calls of the Dnieper and in the Crimea, where the kingdom arose with a hundred tsey in Ne-apo-le Scythian, part of the Scythians, according to the letters. is-toch-no-kam, skon-tsen-tri-ro-va-las on the Lower Danube; to the “late-non-Scythian” a number of studies-before-va-te-lei from-no-syat and some-some groups of pa-myat-nik-kov east.-ev- rop le-so-step-pi.

To the Center. Asia and South. C-bi-ri end of the era "ski-fo-si-beer-sko-go mi-ra" is associated with the rise-higher-ni-em volume-e-di-ne-niya hun - well, in the con. 3 in. BC e. under Mao-du-ne. Ho-tya in ser. 1 in. BC e. it dis-pas-moose, south. hun-nu-pa-li in or-bi-tu kit. influence, and sowing. hun-well, would windows-cha-tel-but once-thunder-le-na to ser. 2 in. n. e., the "Xiongnu" era-hu pro-dle-va-yut to ser. 1st millennium AD e. Pa-myat-ni-ki, co-from-but-si-mye with xion-nu (hun-nu), from-west-na to mean-chit. part of Za-bai-ka-lya (for example, Ivol-gin-sky ar-heo-lo-gi-che complex, Il-mo-vaya pad), Mon-go-li, steppe Noah Man-chzhu-rii and wi-de-tel-st-vu-yut about the complex eth-no-cultural-tour co-hundred-ve of this association. On-row-du with pro-nick-but-ve-ni-em hun-nu, in the South. C-bi-ri continued the development of local traditions [in Tu-ve - noise-rak-skul-tu-ra, in Kha-ka-si - Te-sin-sky type (or stage) and Tash-tyk-skaya culture, etc.]. Eth-nothing and in-en.-po-li-tich. is-th-riya Center. Asia in Zh. v. in many ways based on the sve-de-no-yah whale. letters. is-point-no-kov. You can follow the same movement of one or more volumes of e-di-no-ko-chev-ni-kov, dis-pro-country -shih power over vast expanses of countries, their disintegration, absorption of the next-blowing-mi, etc. (dun-hu, tab-ga- chi, zhu-zha-not, etc.). The complexity of the composition of a hundred of these volumes is e-di-non-ny, the weak study of a number of regions of the Center. Asia, labor-no-sti da-ti-rov-ki, etc. de-la-yut their comparison with ar-heo-logic. pa-myat-no-ka-mi very gi-po-te-tich-ny-mi.

The next epoch of the is-to-rii of the steppes of Asia and Europe is connected with do-mi-ni-ro-va-ni-em but-si-te-ley Turk -skih languages, about-ra-zo-va-ni-em Türk-ko-go ka-ga-na-ta, replacing his other Middle Ages. in-en.-po-li-tich. ob-e-di-non-ny and state-su-darstvo.

Culture-tu-ry settled-lo-go on-se-le-niya le-so-step-pi Vost. Ev-ro-py, Ura-la, Si-bi-ri not-rarely enters-di-whether in “ski-fo-si-bir-sky”, “sar-mat-sky”, “hun-sky "" "worlds", but could it make up cultural communities with the forest-we-ple-me-na-mi or about-ra-zo-you-va-li own. cultural regions.

In the forest zone of the Upper-no-go Po-no-ma-nya and Pod-vi-nya, Po-dnepr-ro-vya and Po-ochya tradition of bron-zo-vo-go -ka pro-dol-zha-la stroke-ho-van-noy ke-ra-mi-ki cul-tu-ra, on the basis of-no-ve pre-im. local cultures were formed by the Dnieper-ro-Dvin-skaya cul-tu-ra, Dyakovskaya cul-tu-ra. At the early stages of their development, the same-le-zo ho-cha and it was-lo-ra-pro-country-not-but, but did not become-lo-mi-ni-ruyu-schim raw materials -eat; pa-myat-no-ki of this circle-ha ar-heo-lo-gi according to the mass-co-you-on-the-walk-kams of the kos-ty-nyh from de-ly on the main. object-ek-tah ras-ko-pok - go-ro-di-shah ha-rak-te-ri-zo-wa-li as “kos-te-nos-nye go-ro-di-sha”. Mas-co-use-pol-zo-va-nie is the same-le-for here on-chi-on-et-xia ok. con. 1st millennium BC e., when they pro-is-ho-dyat from-me-not-niya and in other areas of culture, from-me-cha-yut-sya mi-grace. In this way, for example, in from-no-she-nii kul-tour shtri-ho-van-noy ke-ra-mi-ki and dia-kov-is-sle-do-va-te- do you de-la-yut as different about-ra-zo-va-niya co-from-vet-st-vu-shchy "early" and "late" cultures.

According to the pro-is-ho-zh-de-nia and ob-li-ku of the early dia-kov-kul-tu-re near the pri-we-kav-shay from the east-ka-go-ro -dets-kaya kul-tu-ra. To the ru-be-zhu er pro-is-ho-dit su-sche-st-ven-noe race-shi-re-nie of its area to the south and north, to those regions in re-whose Vet-lu-gi. Eye-lo ru-be-zha er in her are-al about-mov-ga-et-sya on-se-le-nie because of the Volga; from Su-ra to rya-zan-sko-go Po-ochi for-mi-ru-ut-sya cultural groups associated with tra-di-qi-ey An-d- re-ev-sko-go chicken-ha-on. On their foundations, cul-tu-ry of the late Zh. -kov.

South the zone of the forest-no-go Po-Dnep-ro-vya for-ni-ma-li mi-lo-grad-skaya cul-tu-ra and Yukh-novskaya cul-tu-ra, in which trace-va- et-sya means. the influence of the Scythian culture and La-te-na. Several waves of mi-graces from the Vist-lo-Oder-region-on led to the appearance on Vo-ly-no in the sea and psh-vor- skoy cultural tour, for-mi-ro-va-niyu on the b. part of the south of the forest-no-go and le-so-step-no-go Po-dnep-ro-vya for-ru-bi-nets-koy kul-tu-ry. Her, on-a-row with Ok-Ksyv-skaya, Pshe-Vor-Skoy, Poya-Nesh-ti-lu-Ka-shev-Kul-tu-swarm, you-de-la-yut in the circle "la -te-ni-zi-ro-van-nyh ”, from me-tea, the special influence of the La-ten culture. In the 1st century n. e. for-ru-bi-nets-kaya kul-tu-ra ne-re-zhi-la dis-pad, but on the basis of its traditions, with the participation of more sowing. on-se-le-niya, for-mi-ru-yut-sya pa-myat-no-ki late-not-for-ru-bi-net-go-go-ri-zon-ta, lay down in the OS-no-woo of the Kiev culture-tu-ry, op-re-de-lyav-shey cultural appearance of the forest-no-go and part of the le-so-step-no th Po-Dnep-ro-vya in the 3rd-4th centuries. n. e. On the basis of the Vo-Lyn-sky pa-myat-ni-kov of the Pshe-Vor-kul-tu-ry in the 1st century. n. e. for-mi-ru-et-sya tooth-retz-kay kul-tu-ra. With cul-tu-ra-mi, re-taking-shi-mi com-po-nen-you in a maritime cul-tu-ry, pre-zh-de everything according to the so-called. for-ru-bi-net-coi-lines, explore-follow-to-va-te-whether connections-zy-va-yut for-mi-ro-va-nie slav-vyan.

All R. 3 in. n. e. from the Lower Danube to the Northern Don, there was a black-nya-khov-ska cul-tu-ra, in what is the significant role of the play-ra- la vel-bar-sky kul-tu-ra, ras-pro-stra-non-nie-some-swarm to the south-east is connected with mi-gra-tsiya-mi go-tov and ge -pi-dov. The collapse of society-in-li-tich. structures-tour, correlated with the black-nya-khov-sky kul-tu-swarm, under the blow-ra-mi of the gunns in the con. 4th c. n. e. signified on-cha-lo a new-howl of the epoch in the history of Ev-ro-py - We-whether-to-re-re-se-le-niya on-ro-dov.

On the se-ve-ro-east-to-ke Ev-ro-py na-cha-lo Zh.v. connection-for-but with Anan-in-sky kul-tu-r-but-historical. area. On the territory of the north-west. Russia and parts of Finland-land-dia races-pro-countries of culture-tu-ry, in some com-po-nen-you anan-in-sky and tech-style- noy ke-ra-mi-ki cul-tour pe-re-ple-ta-yut-sya with me-st-ny-mi (luu-kon-sa-ri-ku-do-ma, late car- go-pol-sky cul-tu-ra, late-not-white-lo-sea, etc.). In the basins of the rivers Pe-cho-ry, You-che-gdy, Me-ze-ni, Sev. Move-we-yav-la-yut-sya pa-myat-ni-ki, in ke-ra-mi-ke some-ryh-long-did-moose development-vi-tie gre-ben-cha -that or-on-men-tal-noy tra-di-tion, connected with the Le-byazh-sky kul-tu-swarm, while the new ornamental mo-ti- you testify to mutually-mo-de-st-vii with pri-kam-ski-mi and beyond-Ural-ski-mi groups on-se-le-niya.

By the 3rd c. BC e. on the basis of the Anan-In-storage warehouse-dy-va-yut-sya of the community of the Pya-no-Bor culture-tu-ry and the glya-de-novskaya culture (see . Look-but-in). The upper-her gra-ni-tsey kul-tour of the pya-no-bor-sko-go-kru-ha row is-sle-to-va-te-lei count-ta-yut ser. 1st millennium AD e., others you de la ut for 3-5 centuries. ma-zu-nin-skul-tu-ru, aze-lin-skul-tu-ru, etc. A new stage is-to-rich. development is associated with a number of mi-graces, including in-yav-le-ni-em pa-myat-ni-kov circle Ha-ri-no, at- leading to the for-mi-ro-va-niyu middle-age. cultural tour associated with no-si-te-la-mi modern. Permian languages.

In the mountain-but-forest and ta-ezh-nyh districts of Ura-la and Zap. CBC in the early J. century. would there be a race-pro-country-not-us of the cross-howl ke-ra-mi-ki cul-tu-ra, it-kull cul-tu-ra, gre-ben-cha-to-yamoch -noy ke-ra-mi-ki kul-tu-ra za-pad-but-si-bir-sko-th-circle, Ust-po-lui-skaya kul-tu-ra, ku-lay-skaya kul -tu-ra, be-lo-yar-sky, but-vo-che-kin-sky, bo-go-chanov-sky, etc .; in the 4th c. BC e. here the ori-en-ta-tion was preserved on the colored metal-lo-ob-ra-bot-ku (the center is connected with the - zhav-shi pl-rays, including steppe, raw materials and from de-li-mi from copper), in some cultures of races - pro-country of black metal-lurgy from-no-sit-Xia to the 3rd third of the 1st millennium BC. e. This cultural circle of connection-zy-va-yut with the pre-ka-mi but-si-te-lei part of the modern. Ugric languages ​​and Sa-mo-Diy languages.

To the south of it, there was a region of forest-steppe cultures Zap. CBC, Sev. pe-ri-fe-rii mi-ra ko-chev-ni-kov, connections-zy-vae-may with the south. vet-view ug-ditch (vo-rob-yov-ska and no-si-lov-sko-bai-tov-skaya cul-tu-ry; their change is sar-gat-skaya cul-tu-ra , go-ro-hov-skaya kul-tu-ra). In the forest-steppe-nom Pri-Ob in the 2nd floor. 1st millennium BC e. races-pro-countries of ki-zhi-rov-sky, old-ro-alei-sky, ka-men-sky cul-tu-ry, some-rye sometimes ob-e-di- nya-yut in one-well generality. Part of the le-so-step-no-go on-se-le-niya was-la in-vle-che-na in mi-gra-tion ser. 1st millennium AD e., the other part along the Ir-ty-shu re-re-moved-well-laid to the north (pot-che-your-kul-tu-ra). Along the Ob to the south, up to Al-tai, there was a ra-pro-country of the Ku-Lai-kul-tu-ry (upper-not-Ob-kul-tu-ra). Ost-av-neck-sya on-se-le-nie, connected with the tra-di-tion-mi of the Sar-gat and Ka-men-sky cultural tour, in the era of the Middle -ve-ko-vya would-lo tur-ki-zi-ro-va-no.

In the forest cultures of Vost. Si-bi-ri (late ymy-yakh-takh-skaya kul-tu-ra, pya-sin-skaya, tse-pan-skaya, Ust-mil-skaya, etc.) from de-lia from bron -zy not-many-numbers-len-us, pre-im. im-port-nye, about-ra-bot-ka-leza-yav-la-et-sya not earlier con. 1st millennium BC e. from the Amur and Primorye. These cul-tu-ry os-tav-le-ny under-vizh-ny-mi groups-pa-mi hunters and fish-bo-lo-vov - ancestors of yuka-gir, sowing. hour-ti tun-gu-so-Manchurian peoples, chuk-chey, ko-rya-kov, etc.

Eastern regions of Asia. Grew up in culture. Far from the East, se-ve-ro-east-to-ka of China and Korea, the bronze age is not as bright as in Si- bi-ri or in more south. districts, but already on the ru-be-same 2-1st millennium BC. e. here on-cha-moose os-voi-zhe-le-za within the framework of the Uril-kul-tu-ry and Yan-kovskaya kul-tu-ry, and then replacing them ta-la-kan-sky, ol-gin-sky, pol-tsev-sky cul-tu-ry and other cultural tours close to them from the ter-ri-to-rii of China (wan-yan- he, gong-tu-lin, feng-lin) and Ko-rei. Some of these cultures are connected with the pre-southern ones. hour-ti tun-gu-so-Manchurian peoples. More sowing. pa-myat-ni-ki (Lakh-tin-skaya, Okhot-skaya, Ust-Bel-skaya and other culture-tu-ry) yah-tah-sky culture-tu-ry, some in the middle. 1st millennium BC e. dos-ti-ga-yut Chu-kot-ki and, mutually-mo-dey-st-vuya with pa-leo-es-ki-mo-sa-mi, teaching-st-vu-yut in for-mi- ro-va-nii of the ancient-not-be-rin-go-marine culture. About the presence of iron incisors of the sw-de-tel-st-vu-yut pre-g-de of everything made with their help in the mouth -nye on-ko-nech-no-ki bone gar-pu-nov.

On the ter-ri-to-ri Ko-rei from-go-to-le-ni-tools from stone pre-ob-la-da-lo on the pro-ty-the-same-bron-zo-vo- go ve-ka and na-cha-la J. v., from metal-la de la-li in the main. weapons, some-some-rye types of uk-ra-she-niy, etc. Ras-pro-country-no-le-le-for from-but-syat to ser. 1st millennium BC e., when there are warehouses-dy-va-moose association Cho-son; more later history of these cultures is connected with the whale. for-how-wa-niami, for-mi-ro-wa-ni-em and the development of local states (Ko-gu-ryo, etc.). On the Japanese Islands, the same-le-zo po-moose and-lu-chi-lo races-pro-country-not-nie in the course of the development of the Yayoi culture, within the framework of someone swarm in the 2nd century. n. e. folded tribal unions, and then the state. about-ra-zo-va-nie Yama something. In the South East. Asian na-cha-lo G. v. when-ho-dit-sya on the epo-hu for-mi-ro-va-niya of the first states.

Africa. In the mid-earth-but-sea regions, that means. part of the bass-this-on Ni-la, at the Kras-no-go m. pro-is-ho-di-lo on the os-no-ve cul-tour bron-zo-vo-go-ve-ka, within the framework of qi-vi-li-za-tsy (Egi-pet Ancient, Me-roe), in connection with the emergence of co-lo-ni from Phi-ni-kiya, the race of Kar-fa-gen-na; to con. 1st millennium BC e. middle-di-earth-but-sea Af-ri-ka became a part of Rome. im-pe-rii.

Especially-ben-no-stu development-vi-tia more south. cultural tour yav-la-et-sya from-day-st-vie bron-zo-vo-th-ve-ka. Pro-nick-but-ve-nie metal-lur-gyi zhe-le-za south of Sa-kha-ra part of the study-to-va-te-lei connection-zy-va-yut with influence - no-eat Me-roe. More and more ar-gu-men-tov speaks out in favor of other points of view, according to some important role in this game -cut Sa-haru. So-ko-you-mi could be “do-ro-gi ko-forest-nits”, re-con-st-rui-rue-my on-rock-pictures-bra-same-ni-pits , could they pass through Fets-tsan, and also where the ancient state of Ga-na was formed, etc. In a number of cases, cha-ev about-from-in-the-le-for-could-lo-so-mid-to-that-chi-vat-sya in sp-tsia-li-zir. district-onakh, mo-but-po-li-zi-ro-va-sya their lives-te-la-mi, and kuz-not-tsy - about-ra-zo-you-vat castles-well-tye with -general-st-va; ob-schi-us different eco-no-mich. sp-tsia-li-za-tion and the level of development of co-sed-st-in-va-li. All this, as well as the weak ar-geo-lo-gich. the study of the con-ti-nen-ta de-la-yut is our representation of the development of the Zh.v. here. all-ma gi-po-te-tich-nym.

In Zap. Af-ri-ke of the ancient-shie svi-de-tel-st-va pro-from-water-st-va-iron-nyh from-de-liy (2nd half of the 1st millennium BC AD) connections with the cul-tu-swarm Nok, its co-from-no-she-nie with synchronous-mi and later-no-mi cul-tu -ra-mi in many ways is not clear, but not later than the 1st floor. 1st millennium AD e. same-le-zo would-lo from-west-but in the whole Zap. Af-ri-ke. One-on-one, yes, on pa-myat-ni-kah, connected with the state. about-ra-zo-va-niya-mi con. 1st thousand - 1st half. 2nd millennium AD e. (Ig-bo-Uk-wu, Ife, Be-nin, etc.), from-de-ly from zhe-le-for not-much, in-lo-ni-al-ny per-ri- once it was one of the pre-meth imports.

To the east in-be-re-zhe Af-ri-ki to J. c. from-no-syat of the culture of Aza-niya, moreover, in their from-no-she-nii there is information about them-por-the same-le-za. An important stage in the history of the region is connected with the development of trade settlements with the participation of walkers from the south app. Asia, pre-g-de of all mu-sul-man (such as Kil-wa, Mo-ga-di-sho, etc.); centers for pro-from-water-st-vu same-le-for-west-us for this time by letters. and ar-heo-lo-gich. is-tot-no-kam.

In bass-this-not Kon-go, ext. district-onah Vost. Af-ri-ki and south-her races-pro-country-not-the same-le-for connection-zy-va-yut with kul-tu-ra-mi, at-above-le-zha-schi-mi tra-di-tions “ke-ra-mi-ki with a bent bottom” (“pit-koy at the bottom”, etc.) and close-ki-mi to her tra-di-tion-mi. Na-cha-lo metal-lur-gyi in otd. the places of these regions are from-no-syat to different cut-offs of the 1st floor. (not later than se-re-di-na) of the 1st millennium AD. e. Mi-grants from these lands, ve-ro-yat-but, for the first time brought the same-le-zo to the South. Af-ri-ku. A number of rising “empires” in the basin of the rivers Zam-bezi, Kon-go (Zim-bab-we, Ki-ta-ra, etc.) would be connected us with ex-port of gold-lo-ta, layer-new-bone, etc.

A new stage in the history of Af-ri-ki south of Sa-kha-ra is associated with the appearance of ev-rop. ko-lo-ny.

Additional literature:

Mon-gait A. L. Ar-geo-logia of Western Europe. M., 1973-1974. Book. 1-2;

Coghlan H. H. Notes on prehistoric and early iron in the Old World. Oxf., 1977;

Waldbaum J. C. From bronze to iron. Gott., 1978;

The coming of the age of iron. New Haven; L., 1980;

Iron Age Af-ri-ki. M., 1982;

Ar-geo-logia of Za-ru-beige Asia. M., 1986;

Steppe of the European part of the USSR in ski-fo-sar-mat-time. M., 1989;

Tylecote R. F. A history of metallurgy. 2nd ed. L., 1992;

Steppe in-lo-sa of the Asian-At-th part of the USSR in the ski-fo-sar-mat-time. M., 1992;

Shchu-kin M. B. On the rub-be-same er. SPb., 1994;

Essays on the history of the ancient same-le-zo-ob-ra-bot-ki in Eastern Europe. M., 1997;

Collis J. The European Iron age. 2nd ed. L., 1998;

Yal-çin Ü. Early iron metallurgy in Anatolia // Anatolian Studies. 1999 Vol. 49;

Kan-to-ro-vich A. R., Kuz-mi-nykh S. V. Early Iron Age // BRE. M., 2004. T.: Russia; Tro-its-kaya T. N., No-vi-kov A. V. Ar-geo-logia of the West-Siberian equal. But-in-Sib., 2004.

Illustrations:

Iron knives from gre-be-niya near Mount Olympus. 11th-8th centuries BC e. Ar-heo-lo-gi-che-sky museum (Di-on, Greece). BDT archive;

BDT archive;

BDT archive;

Sword in a scabbard with an anthropomorphic handle. Je-le-zo, bronze. Culture Laten (2nd half of the 1st millennium BC). Met-ro-po-li-ten-mu-zey (New York). BDT archive;

Para-rad-ny battle-howl then-por from chickens-ha-on Ke-ler-mes-1 (Ku-ban). Zhe-le-zo, zo-lo-that. Con. 7 - early 6th century BC e. Er-mi-tage (St. Petersburg). BDT archive;

Iron-on-ko-nech-nick arrows, in-kru-sti-ro-van-ny gold and silver-rum, from kur-ha-on Ar-zhan-2 (Tuva). 7th c. BC e. Er-mi-tage (St. Petersburg). BDT archive;

Iron iz-de-liya from the mo-gil-ni-ka Bar-sov-sky III (Sur-gut-skoe Pri-Ob). 6th-2nd/1st centuries BC e. (according to V. A. Bor-zu-no-wu, Yu. P. Che-mya-ki-nu). BRE archive.