In early August 1914, Germany entered the First World War. On the eve of the announcement of mobilization, this country had the second largest army in Europe, numbering 808,280 people (the armed forces of France totaled 882,907 people by 1914 and were the most numerous among the armies of European states). Quite quickly, the fighting in significant sectors of the front both in the west and in the east took on the character of a "trench war".

Already by October 1914, the European armies opposing each other had actually lost the opportunity for free maneuver, which ensured the complete superiority of defense over the offensive. The war promised to be protracted, which inevitably entailed colossal spending on ammunition and supply of troops. Any attempt to advance was extinguished by machine gun and artillery fire. In this situation, the British and French commands relied on the production and active introduction of tanks and armored vehicles - a new type of weaponry, which even then was promised a great future. But the command of the Kaiser's army decided to go the other way.

In the two centuries leading up to the First World War, the Prussian army was famous for its drill and discipline. First of all, this concerned the Prussian infantry - excellently trained and served as a model for the ground forces of many other European countries. A distinctive feature of the German army, even at the beginning of the 20th century, was a huge gap between officers and lower ranks and the incredible closeness and caste of the officer corps. It was not easy to become an officer in the Kaiser's army - the vast majority of them were German nobles, who came from officer families. Such an order of the military hierarchy already in the first months of the world war led to rather negative consequences.

Due to front-line losses, the number of career officers began to decline, but the military aristocracy was very resistant to the replenishment of the officer corps by people from other strata of society, especially soldiers and officers who had served themselves. Therefore, the number of personnel of infantry platoons was increased, there were up to 80 infantrymen per platoon lieutenant. Accordingly, infantry companies were also huge in number. At the same time, such a large number of units hindered their mobility during the fighting. If in a frontal attack such a number of platoons could still be considered an advantage, then in a trench warfare it became more of an obstacle.

Even at the beginning of the war, the most far-sighted officers of the Kaiser's army abandoned the outdated tactics of close formation and sent units into battle dispersed. This made it possible to minimize losses in the troops. Compared to companies that used close formation, dispersed units suffered much fewer losses. For example, on September 8, 1914, 15 of the 16 companies that took part in the attack of the 43rd Infantry Brigade moved into battle dispersed in groups of 30-40 people. As a result, out of 2250 soldiers and officers, only 25 people died.

In some infantry regiments in the first months of the war, special assault teams were created, which were tasked with destroying enemy wire obstacles in order to prepare the offensive of the main forces of their units. Typically, such teams were created on the basis of intelligence teams of regimental headquarters and consisted of 12 people each. The soldiers of the assault teams were armed with grenades and rifles. In addition, trench clearing teams armed with grenades, carbines and special portable shields began to be created in the infantry regiments.

On March 2, 1915, an order was issued by the Supreme High Command of the Ground Forces, ordering the creation of a special unit within the 8th Army Corps to test the tactics of breaking through the Western Front. The unit included soldiers and non-commissioned officers of sapper units who had experience in handling hand grenades. In order to cope with enemy machine-gun fire, the German command decided to use the 37-mm Krupp assault gun. Its light weight allowed it to be carried by soldiers. The first assault battalion, which consisted of two companies, included a platoon of 37-mm guns. The battalion also included a machine gun company with 6 machine guns, a mortar team with 4 mortars and a flamethrower team. Major Kaslov, who had previously served in the 18th engineer battalion, was appointed commander of the battalion.

Unlike ordinary infantrymen, Major Kaslov's attack aircraft were equipped with helmets and body armor. The battalion was trained for three months to participate in hostilities, after which it was divided between the infantry battalions of the first front line. But already in the first battles, the battalion lost up to 30% of its personnel, which was associated not only with special tasks, but also with a lack of experience and tactics for such actions.

In August 1915, the new commander of the assault battalion, Hauptmann Wilhelm Rohr (1877-1930, pictured), suggested dividing large platoons of 70-80 soldiers into small assault groups of 3-10 people. At the same time, Rohr put forward an idea that was innovative for that time - such small groups, moving forward, can act completely independently, without maintaining communication with each other and with the higher command. This was a major departure from traditional Prussian infantry tactics.

Already in the autumn of 1915, the battalion under the command of Hauptmann Rohr proved to be excellent in battles in the Vosges region, and in February 1916, near Verdun. Inspired by the successes of the first assault battalion, the command of the ground forces ordered from each army operating on the Western Front to send two officers and four non-commissioned officers to the first assault battalion. They had to practice new methods of warfare and then bring them into their units. Thus, Rohr's assault battalion became a unique unit that combined participation in battles and the training of instructors. It is noteworthy that instead of the 37-mm cannon, Rohr decided to use captured Russian three-inch guns with shortened barrels, which turned out to be a more effective solution.

The ideas of Hauptmann Rohr had a decisive influence on the further tactics of the German troops and changed the position of the command of the ground forces. In August 1916, the post of quartermaster general - deputy chief of staff of the ground forces was taken by General Erich Ludendorff (pictured), who on October 23, 1916 ordered the formation of a separate assault battalion as part of each field army fighting on the Western Front. It was decided to form these units on the basis of sapper, infantry and jaeger units of the German army.

By the beginning of December 1916, 16 army assault battalions had been formed. Following the armies, assault battalions appeared as part of army corps, at the same time the formation of special assault companies as part of divisions began. Each assault company included three to four platoons, which were distributed among the division's infantry regiments at the forefront. In the divisional assault company, there could be up to 225 soldiers, 20 non-commissioned officers and 4 officers, and were armed with 2-3 light mortars, 3 flamethrowers and 2 machine guns. The company was directly subordinate to the division commander, and, if necessary, was transferred to operational subordination to the commander of a particular infantry regiment.

The appearance of assault battalions was a real revolution not only in the tactics of the German army, but also in its military structure and hierarchy. Thanks to the emergence of these units, a real revision of the very foundations of the service began. So, the attitude towards the soldier as a combat unit of the assault battalion has changed significantly. If the traditional Prussian approach to the soldier meant the latter’s complete lack of any initiative and unquestioning obedience to officers, then in assault units the soldier was required to have maximum initiative and ingenuity, the ability to act and make decisions independently.

The importance of non-commissioned officers and sergeant majors increased even more, and not as overseers of personnel, but as experienced specialists who had to solve the most difficult combat missions. Given the special nature of the actions of the assault battalions, they were recruited exclusively from among volunteers. It was believed that only volunteers who independently decided to serve in assault units are worthy soldiers for them and have a sufficient level of motivation to fight in the most difficult and dangerous conditions.

At the same time, even among the volunteers, not everyone was suitable for the state of health and physical fitness for service in assault units. Almost all soldiers and non-commissioned officers were under 25 years old, unconditional preference was given to either unmarried or childless military personnel - the command understood the risks that those who were sent to serve in assault battalions and companies were taking. The commander of the assault group in the First World War was the famous German philosopher Ernst Junger (pictured) - later one of the key theorists of the conservative revolution and German national revolutionaries, and at that time a graduate of Heidelberg University, who began his service as an ordinary soldier and managed to get an officer rank. Jünger was wounded 14 times, received the Iron Cross, and left a memoir book "Steel Helmet" about those terrible battles.

Particular attention was paid to the armament and equipment of assault units. It was the attack aircraft that began to actively use hand grenades, with the help of which it was much easier and safer to clear enemy trenches than to launch a bayonet attack. Each soldier of an assault company or battalion carried dozens of hand grenades, which had to be used during an attack on enemy trenches. Accordingly, the importance of mortars also increased, since they were ideally suited for operations against enemy trenches. Mortars, firstly, were much lighter and more mobile, and secondly, easier to manage than field artillery.

The assault companies were also armed with machine guns. Mostly they were MaschinenGewehr 08 - a variation of the machine gun of the Maxim system. Each assault battalion of the German army had 1-2 machine gun companies, which made its firepower comparable to that of an ordinary infantry regiment. By 1917, the number of machine guns in an assault company was 8-10, then 12 machine guns, and in an assault battalion - up to 24 machine guns.

Instead of traditional rifles, attack aircraft were armed with shorter and more convenient carbines, indispensable in trench battles. In addition, for the first time in the world, submachine guns - MP18 of the Bergmann system - entered service with the assault squads. A submachine gun could fire 32 rounds in 3.5 seconds. For trench battles, this was really indispensable. Therefore, after submachine guns entered the troops in 1918, all officers and non-commissioned officers and 10 privates were armed with them in each assault company.

As part of the assault units, a new type of weapon, flamethrowers, was also tested. The first flamethrower unit was formed back in January 1915 - it was a volunteer sapper detachment commanded by Major Bernhard Reddeman (pictured). Then, on the basis of the detachment, the 3rd Guards Engineer Battalion was formed, consisting of 6, and then 12 companies. In February 1915, flamethrowers were tested by the French army near Verdun, then they were used against British troops.

Finally, the assault units did not forget about edged weapons. Daggers, six-bladed clubs, and even maces and flails found a new life in assault units, but most attack aircraft preferred to use trench knives or sharpened sapper shovels, turning this universal tool into a terrible weapon.

Nevertheless, the command of the ground forces was not going to create a separate branch of the troops from the assault units. Assault battalions and companies were considered as temporary units created exclusively for the period of hostilities. Following the battalions and companies, even the creation of assault platoons as part of ordinary infantry companies began. Such platoons were formed immediately before the battle and included 10-15 of the best fighters of the company, who were called grenadiers. They were faced with the most difficult tasks - to break through the enemy defenses and clear enemy positions for the subsequent advancement of the main part of the infantry company.

However, the assault units, pioneered by Germany in the First World War, could not ultimately influence the course of hostilities. Germany was defeated, and soon the Kaiser's monarchy also fell. In the Weimar Republic that appeared instead of it, other attack aircraft soon declared themselves, but they no longer had anything to do with the regular army.

Organization of the German army 1888-1914.
(Deutschen Heeres)

By 1871, four German kingdoms, eighteen duchies and principalities, and three free cities unite into a single union state, called the German Empire (Deutsche Reich), also known in historical terms as the Second Reich.
This state included:

*Kingdom of Prussia (Koenigreich Preussen);
*Kingdom of Saxony (Koenigreich Sachsen);
*Kingdom of Bavaria (Koenigreich Bayern);
*Kingdom of Württemberg (Koenigreich Wuerttemberg);

*Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (Grossherzogtum Meklenburg-Schwerin);
*Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (Grossherzogtum Meklenburg-Strelitz);
*Grand Duchy of Oldenburg (Grossherzogtum Oldenburg);
*Grand Duchy of Saxony-Weimar (Grossherzogtum Sachsen-Weimar);
*Grand Duchy of Baden (Grossherzogtum Baden);
*Grand Duchy of Hesse (Grossherzogtum Hessen);

*Duchy of Braunschweig (Herzogtum Braunschweig);
*Duchy of Anhalt (Herzogtum Anhalt);
*Duchy of Saxony-Meiningen (Herzogtum Sachsen-Meiningen);
*Duchy of Saxony-Coburg-Gotha (Sachsen-Koburg-Gotha);
*Duchy of Saxony-Altenburg (Herzogtum Sachsen-Altenburg);

* Principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen (Fuerstentum Schwarzburg-Sondershausen);
* Principality of Reuss aeltere line (Fuerstentum Reuss aeltere Linee);
* Principality of Reuss Jungere Line (Fuerstentum Reuss jungere Line);
* Principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt (Fuerstentum Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt);
*Principality of Lippe (Fuerstentum Lippe);
* Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe (Fuerstentum Schaumburg-Lippe);
* Principality of Waldeck (Fuerstentum Waldeck);

*Free Imperial City of Bremen (Freie Reichsstadt Bremen);
*Free Imperial City of Hamburg (Freie Reichsstadt Hamburg);
*Free Imperial City of Lübeck (Freie Reichsstadt Luebeck).

From the author. Actually, the process of unification of these states was not one-stage. Another Agreement of February 7, 1867 united the kingdoms of Prussia and Saxony, which formed the North German Union (Norddeutschen Bunde). On November 23, 1870, Bavaria joins this union, and on November 21-25, Württemberg. Further, other states listed above join the Union. The process, in general, was completed by the adoption of the State Constitution on April 16, 1871. This date should be considered the day of the formation of the German Empire (Deutsche Reich). More precisely - the German state.

Actually, this is how it is customary to translate into Russian - an empire. The very word "Reich" in German is used, firstly, in the concept of "state" (in any case, at the end of the 19th century), and secondly, as the ending of a compound word denoting a type of state. Something like "..stvo". For example, "Koenig reich"- Korolev stvo. More precisely, the "state of the king." And to be precise, the term "empire" is written in German Kaise rreich. Kaiser - emperor, ... reich - state. Together - the "emperor's state" or empire.
At the same time, according to the Constitution, the head of the German state was the King of Prussia, who received the title of German Emperor (Deutscher Kaiser).

Unlike the Emperor of Russia, the rights of the Kaiser were limited. In particular, the army was not a single military organization. Rather, it was a military alliance of the armies of the allied German states. The Kaiser had the right to declare war on behalf of the state only with the consent of the Federal Council (Bundesrat), which included the heads of all states included in the federation.

The process of uniting the armies of the united states into an all-German army was also not instantaneous. The uniting states on the armed forces concluded special agreements. This process culminated in the Imperial Army Code (Reichsmilitargesetz) of May 2, 1874.

Each of these states had its own armed formations, which were part of the allied all-German army. Of course, the number of military formations of each of the states depended on its size and population. So, if Prussia gave 18 corps (out of 25), Bavaria three corps, Saxony two, Baden and Württemberg one each, then Mecklenburg-Strelitz only 1 battalion.

All this left a certain imprint on the structure of the German army and the numbering of its formations and units.

Note. The Kingdom of Prussia in the past annexed the once independent German states, which in the period under review were called "province". Such provinces in the kingdom were East Prussia (until the first quarter of the 16th century, the area of ​​the Teutonic Order, and then the Duchy of Prussia), West Prussia, Pomerania, Posen (the former part of Poland), Neumark, Brandenburg, Thuringia, Magdeburg, Hanover, Silesia, Westphalia, Rhineland , Schleswig-Holstein, Alsace-Lorraine, Saar and a number of other smaller ones.
Therefore, the regiments of the Kingdom of Prussia in their names reflect their belonging to these provinces.

The regiments were officially designated as follows:
- type of regiment, name of the chief, number according to a single continuous numbering. For example, "Infantry Regiment of Count Schwerin No. 14".

However, in reality, a certain confusion and inconsistency reigned in the names of the regiments, associated with the ambitions of sovereigns, the unwillingness to abandon the traditional names of the regiments.
A number of regiments were formed back in the 17th-18th centuries, and sovereigns, regimental commanders, regimental officers sought to preserve the old traditional names of their units. Nevertheless, this is a powerful educational tool - traditions. Respect for older generations leads to the development of a sense of personal responsibility for one's country, one's army.
The only thing that everyone agreed with, based on the need to still accurately designate a specific regiment, was a single numbering for all regiments of the German army ("... No. 122.). All infantry regiments had one line of numbers, cavalry another, artillery, sapper, transport own.
Also, the type of regiment was more or less definitely indicated. Although all infantry regiments were essentially infantry, such names were still preserved - infantry, grenadier, fusilier, occasionally rifle, and in the guard there were regiments of foot guards, guards grenadiers, guards fusilier. Parts of the light infantry were called chasseurs.
In the cavalry, the main types of regiments were cuirassiers, dragoons, hussars, uhlans, and cavalry chasseurs. There was one regiment called Reytarsky, one Carabinieri regiment and several regiments called Chevalzhersky.
In artillery, regiments were usually referred to as either field artillery regiments or foot artillery regiments. The first are the regiments that were part of the divisions, the second part of the corps. Naturally, the calibers of the guns of the latter are much larger.

Below is an example of the designation of an infantry regiment - Infantry Regiment of Emperor Friedrich King of Prussia (7th Württemberg) No. 125 (Infanterie-Regiment Kaiser Friedrich Koenig von Preussen (7.wuerttembergisches) No.125)
Here we see that the 125th Infantry Regiment has the chief of the German Emperor Frederick, who is also the King of Prussia. In parentheses is his name (not complete), which he had in the army of Württemberg before the kingdom entered the German Empire.

Here is an example of the designation of field artillery regiments of the 27th (2nd Württemberg) field artillery brigade. Although these two regiments are completely of the same state, are part of the same Württemberg contingent, and moreover, are in the same brigade, but:

* Field Artillery Regiment of King Charles (1st Württemberg) No. 13 (Feldartillerie-Regiment Koenig Karl (1.wuerttembergisches) Nr.13).

* 3rd Württemberg Field Artillery Regiment No. 49 (3.Wuertemberisches Feldartillerie-Regiment Nr.49).

I give the names of the regiments as indicated in the German sources. Such a discrepancy in designations can only be explained by traditions. There is no logic here, although attempts are felt to bring the names into a coherent system.

Bavaria stands apart, which, in its struggle for the remnants of sovereignty, has completely retained the numbering of both its three corps and the regiments included in these corps. the Bavarian regiments did not have an all-German numbering.

This was partly due to the fact that the soldiers took the oath not to the emperor of Germany, but to their sovereign (king, duke or prince) and it was necessary to know which state formations this or that regiment belongs to, and from which places it is replenished with personnel. Partly, so that citizens know the regiments of their state and thus feel themselves, first of all, subjects of their sovereign, and only secondarily subjects of the emperor of Germany. Yes, and the soldiers were supposed to see that they serve not only the emperor of Germany, but also their king.

The largest kingdoms of the empire, which retained their independence to a certain extent, were Prussia, Saxony, Württemberg and Bavaria. Moreover, Prussia was, so to speak, the state-forming center. King Wilhelm II of Prussia was at the same time Emperor (Kaiser) of the German Federal State. Prussia strove for greater centralization of the army, while Saxony and Bavaria defended their right to the remnants of sovereignty, at least in army matters. To a greater extent, Bavaria succeeded. So, if the regiments of other kingdoms, duchies and principalities received a single all-German numbering of regiments, then Bavaria still retained its numbering of army corps and regiments.
The rest of the German states found themselves in a much more dependent position. All of their regiments were included in the so-called "non-Prussian contingent" of the Prussian corps.
The struggle of interests led to a rather anecdotal situation. So, if the soldiers swore allegiance to their sovereigns (kings, dukes, princes) and only at the end of the oath swore to carry out the orders of the emperor of Germany during the war, then the officers, on the contrary, took the oath to the emperor of Germany, and only solemnly promised conscientious service to their sovereign. Assigning titles, appointments, promotions - all this was the prerogative of the emperor.

On the other hand, the kingdoms of Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony each had their own military ministry. Those. Germany had three military ministries at once.

The Supreme Commander of the German Army (Oberbehelfshaber) was the German Emperor and King of Pussia (Deutscher Kaiser ung Koenig von Preussen), who in the period under review was Wilhelm II.

To manage military affairs, he had a Military and Marine Cabinet (Militaer- und Marine-Kabinet).

The executive body that was involved in the implementation of the instructions emanating from the Military Cabinet and managed the daily life of the army was the War Ministry (Kriegsministerium). As mentioned above, in Germany there were three military ministries - in Prussia, Saxony and Bavaria. Each of them put into practice the decisions of the Prussian military cabinet in their subordinate troops.

The leadership of military operations, combat training of troops, development of strategy and tactics of troops was carried out by the Great General Staff (grosse Generalstabe), located in Berlin. This headquarters can be considered a supranational organization, in other words, a federal military body. Simply put, if in all other issues of everyday army life among the states of the German Empire there could be disagreements and something could not be done according to uniform rules and standards, then the orders of the General Staff, especially during the war, were carried out strictly, unquestioningly and according to uniform operational tactical rules and regulations.

The large General Staff led the corps that decided the success of the battles of the strategic operational level

In peacetime, the highest operational unit of the German army was the army corps (Armeekorps). The numbering of the corps was continuous, uniform throughout the army, with the exception of the Bavarian corps. The numbers were indicated by Roman numerals. There were 25 corps in total. Of these, 1 guards and 24 army.

It should also be noted that in the then Germany the corps were approximately the same as in the Soviet Union and now in Russia there are military districts, i.e. territorial commands.
The whole of Germany in the military-administrative plan was divided into corps areas (Armeekorpsbezirke), which were numbered in the same way as the corps located in them. The boundaries of the corpus regions coincided with the boundaries of the respective kingdoms and duchies. principalities. At the same time, the territory of Prussia was divided into 18 corps regions, Bavaria into three, Saxony into two. Baden and Württemberg one each. A small number of states, whose regiments were simply part of the Prussian corps, were accordingly included in the corresponding corps areas,
In the corps area, there were corps administrations and units assigned to them. In addition, in the corps areas there were district commands (Bezirk-Kommandos), which performed the same role as our military registration and enlistment offices. These commands were engaged in the supply of recruits (recruits) to their corps.
In addition, in the corps districts there were landwehr districts (Landwehr-Bezirk), the number of which was determined by the local administrative division. The head of the landwehr district was the head of this administrative entity (village, township, city, urban district). In military terms, he was responsible for the registration of persons in the Landwehr. This is described in more detail in the articles on military service in Germany in 1901.

Prussia formed corps:

Guards Corps (Garde-Korps)	I Army Corps (I.Armeekorps)	II Army Corps (II.Armeekorps)
III Army Corps (III.Armeekorps)	IV Army Corps (IV.Armeekorps)	V Army Corps (V.Armeekorps)
VI Army Corps (VI.Armeekorps)	VII Army Corps (VII.Armeekorps)	VIII Army Corps (VIII.Armeekorps)
IX Army Corps (IX.Armeekorps)	X Army Corps (X.Armeekorps)	XI Army Corps (XI.Armeekorps)
XV Army Corps (XV.Armeekorps)	XVI Army Corps (XVI.Armeekorps)	XVII Army Corps (XVII.Armeekorps)
XVIII Army Corps (XVII.Armeekorps)	XX Army Corps (XX.Armeekorps)	XXI Army Corps (XXI.Armeekorps)

Saxony formed corps:

Württemberg formed a corps:

The military contingents of the states, which were few in number and could not form a corps, were assembled for the most part in the Prussian IX Corps.

To manage and supervise the corps in peacetime, five Army Inspectors (Armee-Inspektion) were created by the large General Staff:
*Berlin Inspectorate - I, II, IX, X and XVII corps,
* Dresden Inspectorate - V, VI, XII, XIX Corps,
*Hanoverian Inspectorate - VII, VIII, XI, XIII corps.
* Munich Inspectorate - III, IV corps and I, II and III Bavarian army corps,
*Karlsrues Inspectorate - XIV, XV, XVI Corps.

The Guards Corps remained outside the Inspectorates. It was controlled by the Emperor's Military Cabinet.

By 1914, the army corps organizationally consisted of the main command of the corps, two divisions and separate parts of the corps, which included:
* Jaeger Battalion,
* Division or regiment of foot artillery,
Telegraph Battalion
* Sapper Battalion,
* Transport battalion,
* Aviation or aeronautical detachment,
*Several columns for the supply of ammunition.

Most of the corps had an incomplete set of corps subordination units. More often, only sapper and transport battalions had corps. There were only two telegraph battalions and they were divided into several corps. There were only a few corps regiments or divisions of foot artillery. The author does not have exact information regarding corps air detachments or aeronautical detachments. However, according to indirect information, at the time the war began, there were only a few squadrons.

Of course, there were deviations in the composition of the corps. Especially in the Guards Corps. But in general, such a scheme persisted. The corps consisted of about 41 thousand soldiers and officers and 14 thousand horses.

The main command of the corps (General-Kommandos des Korps) included the commander of the corps, who in German terminology was called the "commanding general" (kommandierenden General) and the main headquarters of the corps (General-Stabs des Korps), which in turn included the chief of the chief headquarters (Chef des Stabes), two officers of the General Staff (Generalstabsoffiziere), several adjutants, several officers for assignments and support staff (clerks, draftsmen, accountants, etc.).

The division was considered the main tactical unit capable of fighting on its own, since it included all three main types of troops - infantry, cavalry and artillery. Therefore, in the German army, divisions were not subdivided into infantry, rifle and cavalry divisions, as was the case in Russia. The Germans had the only cavalry division only in the guards corps, and even then, it was more likely not a combat, but an administrative unit. This is noticeable from the fact that this division had exactly four cavalry brigades of two regiments each. Those. two brigades in each guards infantry division.

The division by 1914 consisted of two infantry brigades (in one of the divisions there could be three brigades), one or two cavalry brigades, two or three field artillery regiments of two, sometimes three divisions in each (moreover, in one of the regiments one division could be a howitzer or horse artillery battalion). The division had approximately 15 thousand personnel.

The division was controlled by the division commander (Divisions-Kommandeur), who had his own administrative body, which, however, did not bear the name "headquarters". In addition to the division commander, the division management included an officer of the General Staff, an adjutant and support personnel (clerks, draftsmen, accountants, etc.). In addition, the quartermaster (rear service), the chief divisional doctor, several military justice officials, and two priests (Catholic and Lutheran) were assigned to the division's management.

From the author. It is necessary to clarify the term "general staff officer". In the division, his main duties were the duties that the chief of staff performs in our army, i.e. development of plans for combat operations and a combat order based on the ideas and decisions of the division commander, control over the execution of a combat order, accounting for losses, submission of reports to higher headquarters.
However, in the German army there has always been a clear division into military officers and officers of the General Staff. If the former served in command positions all the time (starting with the platoon commander and ending with the corps commander), then the latter were representatives of the Great General Staff in the troops, its eyes and ears. They were originally trained as staff service specialists and were used in this role. Those. staff officers were, on the one hand, subordinates of their commanders, on the other hand, as if controlling representatives of a higher headquarters. It was believed that this duality would always ensure the timeliness, reliability and veracity of the information that the high command would receive.

I don’t know how it was in the First World War, but in the Second World War this system did not in the least prevent the General Staff officers from reporting up to the Fuhrer (especially in 41-42 years) fake, infinitely inflated information about super-grand victories over the Red Army, about a huge number of prisoners and captured weapons, defeated and completely destroyed "red divisions".
Hitler, not at all doubting the veracity of the information received by the General Staff, set more and more solid and ambitious tasks for his troops. His analytical apparatus, based on the same fake reports, drew conclusions that did not correspond at all to the real state of affairs. The price of this lie was tragic for the Wehrmacht.
So, by the beginning of the Soviet counter-offensive near Moscow in December 1941, German military analysts reported to Hitler that the Russians no longer had divisions and that Stalin simply had nothing and no one to create new ones, that "five minutes remained before the fall of Moscow." German intelligence partially knew or guessed that Soviet strategic reserves were accumulating behind Moscow, but no one dared to report to Hitler that the Russian divisions were larger than the number of people fit for service (as it turned out, based on fake reports).
Getting out of the delicate situation after the defeat at the walls of Moscow, the German General Staff officers first came up with the mythical Siberian divisions, and later (by the time of the encirclement near Stalingrad) launched the myth of Stalin's innumerable manpower reserves.

Here is a specific example of the fake reports of the German General Staff. The 6th Cavalry Division of the 6th Cavalry Corps of the 10th Army of the Western Military District began fighting on June 22, 1941 in the city of Lomzha in the westernmost part of the famous Bialystok ledge. The first time the 6th cavalry division, together with the corps and the army, was "destroyed" in a pocket near Bialystok on June 28, the second time in the Minsk pocket, and the third time as part of the 10th Army, "destroyed" back in the Bialystok pocket, was "destroyed" surrounded by Vyazma. In total, out of one cavalry division, which, by the way, fought right up to May 9, 1945, according to German reports, there were three. Those. I had to not be born three times, since my father fought in this division from the first day of the war, who ended the war in May 1945 on the Frisch-Nerung Spit as part of the 11th Guards Division.

As you know, myths, the more incredible, the more tenacious they are. Modern Russian historians of a democratic persuasion are now operating with might and main with this myth in their irrepressible desire to convince everyone that Stalin is a monster who poured Russian blood in rivers, tormented the people in the name of his cannibalistic ideals, that the victory of the Red Army over Nazism was achieved solely due to the ruthless sending into battle Red Army soldiers in droves. And in general, they say, all our Victory is somehow wrong and clumsy. A victory, which, they say, cannot be proud of, but which one should be ashamed of.

In reality, everything was completely different. We had neither Siberian divisions taken from the air, nor numerical superiority (especially after 40 to 50 ml of the population remained in the occupied territories). There was indeed a Patriotic War, in which every citizen of the country gave all his strength to the altar of the Fatherland. There was a planned economy that was able to manage all material resources in the best possible way. The German people and the German economy were incapable of such a thing.
There was indeed an excellently organized, equipped with modern weapons and trained Red Army, which, having got rid of our inherent slovenliness, laxity, negligence and complacency, began to win victories one after another until Berlin itself.
The British generals who visited the front in July-August 1941 came to the conclusion that the Red Army is excellently organized and fights well. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill spoke about this in his speech on the radio on August 24, 1941.
Not the best time for such conclusions, but if even the British, who are not inclined to praise anyone but themselves, saw already then, in those difficult days for us, the basis of future victories, then all other statements are simply insinuations.

In order to simplify the management of the division and bring all parts of one type of troops under a single command, the division was subdivided into two or three infantry brigades, a cavalry brigade and an artillery brigade. Each brigade included two or three regiments of the corresponding type of troops.
The brigade commander did not have his headquarters as an operational body. With him there was only an adjutant and a few clerks.

From the author. Sometimes readers ask questions about the hierarchy of division of military formations into squads, platoons, companies, battalions, regiments, brigades, divisions, corps, and armies. It seems to some that the "superfluous" links in this chain exist only in order to "be able to create more general posts." After all, let's say, "The Sverdlovsk region is divided into about 60 districts and nothing, the governor manages quite well. There are no over-districts, over-over-districts, over-over-over-districts."

However, civil administrative control of territories and combat control of military formations are very different control systems. Centuries-old military management experience has proved that any commander is able to effectively control and manage effectively no more than two or three subordinates, who also have another three subordinates under their command. The 3-3-3 formula ... was brought out by the Tatar-Mongols during the time of Genghis Khan. It was on this principle that his Horde was organized, and ultimately, after centuries, all the armies of the world came to it.
Three squads make up a platoon, three platoons a company, three companies a battalion, three battalions a regiment, three regiments a division,... Of course, there are deviations from this system, but in general it is observed everywhere. Numerous attempts to create effective management systems based on other principles inevitably failed.
So the top military leadership of Germany came to the conclusion that it was impossible for the division commander to effectively manage eight to twelve regiments at once (four infantry, two to four cavalry and two to four artillery). That is why an intermediate instance was introduced - the brigades. The division has two infantry brigades and one cavalry brigades. Artillery regiments are attached to brigades. Again we see the classical system - the division commander manages three brigade commanders. And each of them has two or three shelves.

The main permanent administrative and combat unit in the German army was the regiment. Larger formations (divisions, corps) in all cases were a combination of a certain number of regiments of the three main branches of service (infantry, cavalry and artillery) with the addition of regiments, battalions and other units of combat support, logistics.
By 1914, there were about 217 infantry regiments in the German army alone.
Each German state fielded a certain number of regiments. Large state formations (Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Baden and Württemberg) from their regiments could make up from one to several corps. The regiments of all other states of the German Empire were included in the corps related to Prussia.

In order to make it easier for the reader to understand this whole complex system of regiments, the author took the trouble to describe which regiments this or that state put up. Here, for simplicity, I do not give the full names of the regiments. Yes, this is not necessary, because. in the German army there was a single continuous numbering of regiments, regardless of whether the regiment belonged to one or another state of the German Union.
The full name of all regiments will be given in the article on the combat schedule of the German army.

Prussia:
* 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th regiments of foot guards.
* Guards Grenadier Regiments Nos. 1,2,3, 4 and 5.
* Guards Fusilier Regiment.
*Guards Jaeger Battalion.
*Guards rifle battalion
*Training Infantry Battalion.
* Infantry regiments Nos. 13-32, 41-72, 74, 77-79, 81-85, 87.88, 97-99, 128-132, 135-138, 140.141, 142-152, 154-161, 163 -167, 171-176.
* Grenadier regiments Nos. 1-12.
* Fusilier regiments Nos. 33-40, 73, 80, 86.
* Chasseur battalions Nos. 1-11.
* 3rd Battalion of Infantry Regiment No. 75, 3rd Battalion of Infantry Regiment No. 78, 1st Battalion of Infantry Regiment No. 96, 3rd Battalion of Infantry Regiment No. 153.
* Regiment of personal protection (cavalry).
*Guards Cuirassier Regiment.
* Guards Dragoon Regiments No. 1-2
* Guards Lancers No. 1-3
* Guards Hussar Regiment.
* Cuirassier regiments No. 1-8.
* Dragoon regiments No. 1-16.
* Hussars Nos. 1-16
* Lancer regiments No. 1-16.
* Guards regiments of field artillery No. 1-4.
* Field artillery regiments Nos. 1-11, 15-24, 26, 27, 31, 33-47, 51-59, 62, 63, 67, 69-75.
* Guards Foot Artillery Regiment.
* Foot artillery regiments No. 1-11, 15.
* Foot artillery battalion.
*Guards sapper battalion.
* Engineer battalions No. 1-11, 15-2.
* Guards transport battalion.
* Transport battalions Nos. 1-11, 15-17.
*Railway shelves No. 1-3.
*Telegraph battalions No. 1-3.
* Aeronautical detachment.
*Department of the enterprise of the railway brigade.
*Three training battalions of the field artillery school.
*Training battalion of the school of foot artillery.
* Eight squadrons of horse rangers.

From the author. It is difficult for today's person to grasp the difference between grenadier, infantry, rifle and fusilier regiments. In fact, by the beginning of the 20th century, these were all infantry regiments of the same organization, weapons and tactics of use. The difference in names is just a tradition. The difference between infantry and grenadier regiments in the distant past (XVII-XVIII centuries) was that especially physically strong soldiers were recruited into the grenadier regiments, who could throw primitive hand grenades far away. Naturally, in hand-to-hand combat, they were superior to conventional infantry. At the same time, the grenadiers were usually not strong in rifle fire. To correct this shortcoming, battalions of riflemen (fusiliers) were attached to the grenadier regiments. Based on some considerations, these fusilier battalions were separated from the grenadier regiments and reduced to fusilier regiments. In parallel with such fusilier battalions and regiments, there were also rifle regiments, which were originally created specifically for accurate fast fire. This is how the confusion was created. However, in the cavalry, the situation was similar. Light cavalry was usually divided into hussars, lancers, and horse rangers, and in Russia also into Cossacks, although the combat mission, tactics and weapons were, in general, identical.

Bavaria(the numbering of the regiments is own, the regiments do not have a single all-German numbering through):
* 1st Life Infantry Regiment,
* 1st - 23rd Infantry Regiments.
* Chasseur battalions No. 1-2.
* Heavy Reiter regiments No. 1-2
* Lancer regiments No. 1-2.
* Chevalzher regiments No. 1-6.
* Field artillery regiments No. 1-8.
* Foot artillery regiments No. 1-2.
* Detachment of foot artillery.
* Sapper battalions No. 1-3.
* Railway battalion.
* Aeronautical detachment
* Transport battalion (3 companies).
*Two squadrons of horse rangers.

From the author. Somewhat anecdotally, but politically, the king of Bavaria could thereby emphasize that he was more an ally of the Kaiser than his vassal. Quite a vivid example of the prevalence of politics over military expediency.

Saxony:
* Grenadier regiments No. 100 and No. 101,
*Infantry regiments Nos. 102-107, 133, 134, 139, 179, 181, 182,
* Rifle (aka Fusilier) Regiment No. 108.
* Chasseur battalions No. 12 and 13.
* Guards Reiter Regiment.
* Carabinieri regiment (cavalry).
* Lancer regiments No. 17-18.
* Hussar regiments No. 18-19.
* Field artillery regiments No. 12. 28, 32, 48, 68, 77.
* Foot Artillery Regiment No. 12
* Sapper battalions No. 12 and 21.
*Transport battalions Nos. 12 and 19
* Squadron of horse rangers.

Württemberg:
* Grenadier regiments No. 119 and No. 123,
*Infantry regiments Nos. 120-121, 124-127, 180,
* Fusilier Regiment No. 122.
* Lancer regiments No. 19 and 20.
* Dragoon regiments Nos. 25 and 26.
* Field artillery regiments Nos. 13, 29, 40, 65.
* Sapper Battalion No. 13.
* Transport Battalion No. 13

Mecklenburg-Schwerin:
* 1st and 3rd battalions of the Grenadier Regiment No. 89,
* Fusilier Regiment No. 90.

Mecklenburg-Strelitz:
* 2nd Battalion of the Grenadier Regiment No. 89.

Oldenburg:
* Infantry Regiment No. 91.

Saxony-Weimar:
* Infantry Regiment No. 94

Baden:
* Grenadier regiments No. 109 and No. 110,
*Infantry regiments Nos. 111-114, 142, 169, 170.

Hesse:
* 25th division (infantry regiments No. 115-118, 168).

Braunschweig:
* Infantry Regiment No. 92.

Anhalt:
* Infantry Regiment No. 93.

Saxony-Meiningen or Saxony-Coburg:
* Infantry Regiment No. 95.

Saxony-Altenburg:
* 1st and 2nd battalions of the infantry regiment No. 153.

Schwarzburg-Sondershausen:
* 1st Battalion of the Infantry Regiment No. 71.

Rice Eltere und Junöre Linyo:
* 1st and 2nd battalions of the infantry regiment No. 96.

Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt:
* 3rd Battalion, Infantry Regiment #96.

Lippe:
* 3rd Battalion of the Infantry Regiment No. 55.

Waldeck-Pyumont:
* 3rd Battalion of the Infantry Regiment No. 83.

Bremen:
* 1st and 2nd battalions of the infantry regiment No. 75.

Hamburg:
* Infantry Regiment No. 76.

Lübeck:
* Infantry Regiment No. 162.

The regiments of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Hamburg, Bremen, Lübeck were brought together in the 17th division of the Prussian IX Army Corps. In this division, only one regiment was Prussian. The Oldenburg regiment (No.91) was included in the 19th division of the Prussian X Army Corps, and the Braunschweig regiment (No.92) in the 20th division of the same corps. The regiments of the Grand Duchy of Hesse constituted the 25th division of the Prussian XVIII Army Corps.

As a rule, the regiment consisted of 3 battalions with 4 companies in the battalion. In some regiments there were not three battalions, but two. However, by 1913 this weakness was eliminated and thus almost all regiments of the three-battalion composition had a strength of 2364 people. (officers and lower ranks).
The regiment had 5 headquarters officers, 12 chief officers of company commanders, 52 chief officers of assistant company commanders, 12 sergeants, vice-sergeants and Fenrichs (candidates for officers), 61 sergeants, 115 non-commissioned officers, 12 sanitary non-commissioned officers or gefreiters, 45 musicians, 24 conscripts, 144 gefreiters and 1524 soldiers. A total of 69 officers, 1977 lower ranks, 6 military doctors and 6 military officials.

In the grenadier regiments, by tradition, the third battalion was called not the grenadier, but the fusilier, although there was no difference in state and purpose with the grenadier or infantry (in infantry regiments) battalions.

The regiment was commanded by an officer with the rank of Oberst or Oberstleutnant. He had a small administrative apparatus, consisting of an adjutant, several staff officers (majors) and support staff (clerks, draftsmen, accountants, etc.).

A rather significant medical staff, headed by an Oberstabsartian (medical rank equal to major), was engaged in medical support. Regimental military officials dealt with issues of clothing, food and other types of material supply.

From the author. Earlier in other articles, I wrote about the so-called "major's dead end". Those. the vast majority of officers never rose to the ranks above the major, since a lieutenant colonel (oberstleutant) could only be obtained while in the position of regiment commander and extremely rarely a battalion commander (more often by the time of retirement). And usually, having reached the rank of oberst (colonel), the officer left to command the brigade, since the post of brigade commander was the colonel's. Those. there were only 217 lieutenant colonel posts in the German army (not counting those in higher headquarters, which were also very small in number).
And all non-combat positions in the army were occupied not by officers, but by military officials. Leaving a military position, a German officer could not get a job in an economic one, even after resigning from the army, which cannot be said about Russian officers.
Kaiser Wilhelm did not scatter military ranks like the Russian emperor. In the Russian Army of that period, the regiment commander could receive the rank of general, and even the brigade commander was a general. Moreover, even the battalion commander could receive the rank of general in the guard. Even in conventional infantry, battalions were commanded by lieutenant colonels. The assistants to the regiment commander were also lieutenant colonels (and there were two or three of them in the regiment). The Russian rank of captain corresponded to the German rank of major. That's just the Russian infantry company, the captain could command, and the German only hauptmann (equal to the Russian staff captain).

It is possible that here lies the very high authority and skill of the German officers of both world wars. Everyone believed (and so it was) that a person with officer epaulettes cannot but be an excellent specialist in military affairs.

The battalion commanders were majors. The battalion consisted of 4 companies. The battalion was commanded by a major who had a small headquarters with him. At the head of the headquarters was a Hauptmann. In addition to him, the battalion headquarters included a battalion adjutant (leutnant), a battalion doctor, a soldier-clerk and military officials - a treasurer and a junior treasurer. In addition, there was a sub-headquarters, which included a non-commissioned officer, a storekeeper, a weapons master, and a battalion drum major (musician).

A company was considered the smallest tactical unit capable of fighting independently. A company in peacetime consisted of 160 to 180 people. In wartime, its number increased to 260 people. At the head of the company was a Hauptmann. However, it can be said that he reigned, but did not rule. He was responsible for the combat readiness of the company and for the level of training of the company as a whole. All issues of organizing and carrying out internal service, accommodation of personnel, the state of clothing and weapons, food for soldiers were in charge of the sergeant major of the company. The company commander did not interfere with his activities.

Figuratively speaking, the sergeant-major was responsible for ensuring that the company was like a tuned violin, on which the Hauptmann could play the music that the higher command ordered him to. The main thing is that the company commander skillfully command the company in battle and lead it to victory. The rest of the life of the company does not concern him. To do this, he has a sergeant major and the rest of the non-commissioned officers.

Figuratively speaking, the Feldwebel creates a tool that the Hauptmann uses in battle.

The company in economic terms was divided into corporals numbering from 12 to 20 people. At the head of each corporal was the head of the non-commissioned officer's corporal rank (non-commissioned officer or sergeant).
At the same time, the company was divided into three platoons in terms of training and service. Each platoon was divided into two half-platoons. The half-platoon was divided into squads, and each squad was divided into two teams.
The platoons were commanded by officers with the rank of Leutnat or Oberleutnant. With a shortage of officers, an experienced vicefeldwebel was appointed as a platoon commander. However, everyday and economic concerns about the personnel of the platoons did not concern the officers. It was the prerogative of non-commissioned officers. Officers only supervised the training of soldiers in actions as part of a platoon and company. All drill and single combat training of the soldiers fell on the commanders of the departments, who were also the heads of the corporals.

From the author. Incomprehensible division of the company into units. In economic terms, the company is immediately divided into corporals, which are also branches. The head of the corporal is also the commander of the squad. This non-commissioned officer or sergeant in the economic plan immediately submits to the sergeant major of the company. But in combat and combat terms, as a squad leader, he is subordinate to the platoon commander. Obviously, at the level of the department, combat, combat, and household duties, as well as the training of soldiers, are in the same hands. But above there is already a sharp division of economic duties and duties of combat and combat. Hence, two hierarchical ladders are obtained.
The division of a squad into two teams, as well as a platoon into two half-platoons, is a purely combat division associated with the tactics of the German infantry ..

In total, the German army in 1901 consisted of:

* 625 infantry battalions (meaning battalions of all types),
* 428 cavalry squadrons,

From the author. Often, a cavalry squadron is considered in the cavalry at the level of a battalion in the infantry, since the cavalry regiment is immediately divided into squadrons and there are few of them in the regiment (about five). However, the author considers a squadron in cavalry to be equal to an infantry company. Judge for yourself, in the German army in the infantry company there were about 112 ordinary soldiers, and in the cavalry squadron about 102. The entire cavalry regiment was hardly larger in number than the infantry battalion. It is worth remembering that the names of military formations are given to a greater extent not in terms of numbers, but in terms of the level of combat missions they solve. Yes, and the squadron commander is a rittmeister, i.e. an officer assigned to the level of captains, i.e. company commanders.

* 574 batteries of field artillery (Field artillery, this is artillery that is part of divisions. 2-3 batteries make up a division),
* 38 divisions of foot artillery (Foot artillery, this is large-caliber artillery, i.e. corps artillery),
* 26 engineer battalions,
* 23 transport battalions,
* 11 working battalions.

The combat schedule of the German army, the names and numbering of corps, divisions and regiments, see the following article.

Sources and literature.

1. Das kleine Buch vom Deutsche Heere. Verlag von Lipsins & Tischer. Kiel und Leipzig 1901.
2. C. Woolley. The Kaiser's Army in color.Schiffer Military History. Atglen. PA. 2000.
3.R.Herrmann, J.Nguyen, R.Bernet. Uniformen deutsche Infanterie 1888 bis 1914 in Farbe. Motor Buch Verlag.2003
4. G. Ortenburg, I Promper. Preussisch-Deutsche Uniformen von 1640-1918. Orbis Verlag. 1991.
5.K.L. Keubke. Uniformen der preussuschen Armee 1858/59. Militaerverlag der DDR.
6..I.Golyzhenkov, B.Stepanov. European soldier for 300 years. 1618-1918. Isographus. EXMO PRESS. Moscow. 2001
7. Military Encyclopedic Dictionary Ripol Classic. Moscow. 2001
8. Bekleidungsvorschrift. Offiziere, Santaetsoffiziere und Veterinaeroffiziere des koeniglich Preussischen Heeres (O.Bkl.V.) vom 15.Mai 1899. Siegfrid Mittler und Sohn. Berlin. 1911
9.D.S.V. Fosten, R.J. Marrion. The German Army 1914-1918. Osprey. London.1978.
10. W. Churchill. Muscles of the world. EXMO. Moscow. 2003

1864, there was tension mainly between the confederation, the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia. The end of the German Confederation was marked by the Austro-Prussian War of 1866.

After this war, the victorious and enlarged Prussia formed a new federal state, the North German Confederation, which included the states of northern Germany. The agreement that formed the North German Confederation provided for the maintenance of the Federal Army and the Federal Navy (in German. Bundesmarine or him. Bundeskriegsmarine). Also during this period, laws on military duty were adopted. The agreements (some later amended) included the North German Confederation and its member states, which were subordinate to the Prussian army during the war, and recognized Prussian control over training, doctrine, and weaponry. The federal army was based on 11 army corps of the Prussian army and the Saxon army, reorganized into the 12th army corps.

Shortly after the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, the North German Confederation also concluded agreements on military matters with states that were not members of the confederation: Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden. On the basis of these agreements and the Constitution of the German Empire of 1871, an imperial army was created (in German. Reichsheer), created on the basis of 12 army corps of the North German federal army, the Royal Württemberg Army, which became the 13th Army Corps, the Baden Army, which became the 14th Army Corps, was also created by the 15th Army Corps (Alsace-Lorraine). The contingents of the Bavarian, Saxon and Württemberg formations remained semi-autonomous, while the Prussian army assumed almost complete control over the armies of other states of the empire.

However, after 1871, the peacetime armies of these four kingdoms remained relatively independent. The terms "German army" and "imperial army" were used in various legal documents such as the Military Penal Code, but otherwise the Prussian, Bavarian, Saxon and Württemberg armies maintained distinct identities. Each kingdom had its own War Ministry, Bavaria and Saxony created their own rankings for their officials, and Württemberg had different division designations from the Prussian army lists. The Württemberg and Saxon units and formations were numbered according to the Prussian system, while the Bavarian units maintained their own designation (thus the 2nd Infantry Regiment of Württemberg was the 120th Infantry Regiment under the Prussian system).

In 1890, the 16th Army Corps (Alsace-Lorraine) was created from a part of the 15th Army Corps, and the 17th Army Corps from a part of the 1st Army Corps, in 1899 from a part of the 11th Army Corps - 18th Army Corps, from 12th Army Corps - 19th Army Corps, in 1912 from part of the 1st and 17th Army Corps - 20th Army Corps, from 8th Army Corps - 21st Army frame.

Command

The commander-in-chief of the Reichsheer, and to a lesser extent of the Bavarian contingent, was the Kaiser. He was assisted by the War Cabinet and controlled through the Ministry of Defense and the General Staff. The Chief of the General Staff became the Emperor's chief military adviser and the most powerful military figure in Germany. Bavaria had its own War Office and its own General Staff, but coordinated its plans for military operations with the Prussian General Staff.

The command and control system of the Prussian army was significantly transformed following the defeats suffered by Prussia during the Napoleonic Wars. Instead of relying primarily on the military skills of the individual members of the German nobility who dominated the military profession, a series of reforms were introduced in the Prussian army to ensure excellence in leadership, organization and planning at all levels of command. The system of the General Staff, an institution that sought to institutionalize the superiority of the military, was the main result. The system sought to bring out military talent at lower levels and develop it through academic training and practical experience, breaking up the army into divisions, corps and higher ranks up to the General Staff, seriously replanning the composition of the army. This ensured effective planning and organizational work during peacetime and wartime. The Prussian General Staff, having proven its worth in the wars of the period of German unification, subsequently became the German General Staff after the formation of the German Empire, which took into account the leading role of Prussia in the imperial army.

Organizational structure

In peacetime, the organizational structure of the German imperial army was based around the Army Inspectorate (German. Armee Inspection), army corps (German. Armeekorps), divisions and regiments. In wartime, the staff of the Army Inspectorate formed army field commands that administered corps and subordinate units. During the First World War, for command at a higher level, such a military structure as the army group (Germ. Heeresgruppe). Each army group consisted of several field armies.

army inspection

Germany, with the exception of Bavaria, was divided into army inspectorates (in German. Armee Inspection). In 1871 there were five of them, in the period from to 1913 three more were added. The Bavarian War Office maintained its own army, which functioned as an inspectorate of the Bavarian Kingdom. Each inspectorate was the equivalent of an army area and controlled several corps.

Corps

The main organizational formation was the army corps. A corps consisted of two or more divisions and various support troops, and was assigned to a specific geographical area. The corps was also responsible for maintaining reserves and the formation of the Landwehr in the territory assigned to the corps. By 1914, twenty-one areas of the army corps were under Prussian jurisdiction and three more areas were controlled by the Bavarian army corps. In addition to the regional corps, there was also the Guards Corps (German. Gardecorps), which was formed by the elite guards units of Prussia. In addition to divisions, the corps included a battalion of light infantry (German. Jager), a field artillery battalion, an engineer battalion, a telegraph battalion, and a railway battalion. Some corps areas also had fortress troops and aviation units.

During wartime, the army corps became a mobile operational-tactical formation. The corps area became the rear area for the corps, responsible for training and replenishing troops and other duties. In addition to the regular army corps, reserve corps were formed during the mobilization of 1914, which became additional fighting corps as the First World War continued.

divisions

The main tactical formation was the division. A standard Imperial German division consisted of two infantry brigades of two regiments each, a brigade of cavalry of two regiments and an artillery brigade of two regiments. One of the divisions in the corps area was usually also formed from the Landwehr of the corps area (German. Landwehrbezirk). In 1914, in addition to the Guards Corps (two guards divisions and a guards cavalry division), there were 42 regular divisions in the Prussian Army (including four Saxon divisions and two Württemberg divisions), as well as six divisions of the Bavarian Army.

These divisions were mobilized in August 1914. They were reorganized, receiving engineer units and other support units from the corps and eliminating most of their cavalry to form separate cavalry units. Reserve divisions were also mobilized, Landswehr brigades were formed into divisions, and other divisions were formed from replacement (Ersatz) units. As the First World War continued for a long time, additional divisions were formed. By the end of the war, 251 divisions had been formed or converted in the German Army.

Shelves

The regiment was the main combat unit, as well as the basis for replenishing soldiers. When a recruit arrived in a regiment, his service usually began with a reserve battalion, where he received his initial training. There were three main types of regiments: infantry, cavalry and artillery. Other military specialties such as pioneers (combat engineers) and signal troops were organized into smaller support units. The regiments also carried the traditions of the army, in many cases stretching back into the 17th and 18th centuries.
After World War I, regimental traditions were promoted in the Reichswehr and its successor, the Wehrmacht, but the chain of tradition was broken in 1945 as West German and East German troops stopped maintaining the old traditions.

Military formations

1st Army Inspectorate (Hannover)

1st Army Corps (Königsberg, Province of East Prussia, Prussia)

• 1st Division (Königsberg, Administrative District of Königsberg, Province of East Prussia, Prussia)
  • 1st Infantry Brigade (Königsberg)
  • 2nd Infantry Brigade (Königsberg)
• 2nd Division (Königsberg, Administrative District of Königsberg, Province of East Prussia, Prussia)
  • 3rd Infantry Brigade (City of Rashtenburg, District of Rashtenburg, Administrative District of Königsberg, Province of East Prussia, Kingdom of Prussia)
  • 4th Infantry Brigade (City of Gumbinnen, District of Gumbinnen, Administrative District of Gumbinnen, Province of East Prussia, Kingdom of Prussia)

17th Army Corps (Danzig, Province of West Prussia, Prussia)

• 35th Division (Thorn, Administrative District of Marienwerder, Province of West Prussia, Prussia)
  • 70th Infantry Brigade (Torn City Area)
  • 87th Infantry Brigade (Torn City Area)
• 36th Division (Danzig, Administrative District of Danzig, Province of West Prussia, Prussia)
  • 69th Infantry Brigade (City district of Graudenz, Administrative district of Marienwerder, Province of West Prussia, Kingdom of Prussia)
  • 71st Infantry Brigade (Danzig City Area)

20th Army Corps (Allenstein, Province of East Prussia, Prussia)

• 37th Division (Allenstein, Administrative District of Allenstein, Province of East Prussia, Prussia)
  • 73rd Infantry Brigade (Lick City, Lik District, Allenstein Administrative District, East Prussian Province, Kingdom of Prussia)
  • 75th Infantry Brigade (Allenstein City Area)
• 38th Division (Erfurt, Administrative District of Erfurt, Province of Saxony, Prussia)
  • 76th Infantry Brigade (City area of ​​Erfurt, Administrative district of Erfurt, Province of Saxony, Kingdom of Prussia)
  • 83rd Infantry Brigade (City area Erfurt)

2nd Army Inspectorate (Berlin)

Guards Corps (Berlin)

• 1st Guards Division (Berlin)
  • 1st Guards Brigade (Potsdam)
  • 2nd Guards Brigade (Potsdam)
• 2nd Guards Division (Berlin)
  • 3rd Guards Brigade (Berlin)
  • 4th Guards Brigade (Berlin)
  • 5th Guards Brigade (Spandau)

12th (1st Saxon) Army Corps (Dresden, Saxony)

• 23rd Division (Dresden, Dresden District, Saxony)
  • 45th Infantry Brigade (Non-departmental City of Dresden)
  • 56th Infantry Brigade (Non-departmental City of Dresden)
• 32nd Division (Bautzen, Amt Bautzen, Bautzen District, Saxony)
  • 63rd Saxon Infantry Brigade (City of Bautzen)
  • 64th Saxon Infantry Brigade (Non-departmental City of Dresden)

19th (2nd Saxon) Army Corps (Leipzig, Leizig District, Saxony)

• 24th Division (2nd Saxon) (Leipzig, Leipzig District, Saxony)
  • 47th Saxon Infantry Brigade (City of Döbeln, Amt Döbeln, Leipzig District, Kingdom of Saxony)
  • 48th Saxon Infantry Brigade (Non-departmental City of Leipzig)
• 40th Division (4th Saxon) (Chemnitz, Zwickau District, Saxony)
  • 88th Saxon Infantry Brigade (Non-Departmental City of Chemnitz, District of Zwickau, Kingdom of Saxony)
  • 89th Saxon Infantry Brigade (Non-Departmental City of Zwickau, District of Zwickau, Kingdom of Saxony)

3rd Army Inspectorate (Hannover)

7th Army Corps (Munster, Province of Westphalia, Prussia)

• 13th Division (Munster, Administrative District of Munster, Province of Westphalia, Prussia)
  • 25th Infantry Brigade (City area Munster)
  • 26th Infantry Brigade (Minden City Area, Minden Administrative Region, Province of Westphalia)
• 14th Division (Düsseldorf, Administrative District of Düsseldorf, Rhine Province, Prussia)
  • 27th Infantry Brigade (City area of ​​Cologne, Administrative district of Cologne, Rhine Province)
  • 28th Infantry Brigade (Düsseldorf City Area, Düsseldorf Administrative District, Rhine Province)
  • 79th Infantry Brigade (City of Wesel, District of Rees, Administrative District of Düsseldorf, Province of the Rhine)

9th Army Corps (Altona, Schleswig-Holstein Province)

• 17th Division (Schwerin, Mecklenburg)
  • 33rd Infantry Brigade (Urban area of ​​Altona, Administrative district of Holstein, Province of Schleswig-Holstein, Kingdom of Prussia)
  • 34th Mecklenburg Infantry Brigade (Schwerin, Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin)
  • 81st Infantry Brigade (Free Hanseatic City of Lübeck)
• 18th Division (Flensburg, Administrative District of Schleswig, Province of Schleswig-Holstein, Prussia)
  • 25th Infantry Brigade (City of Flensburg)
  • 26th Infantry Brigade (City of Rendsburg, District of Rendsburg, Administrative District of Holstein, Province of Schleswig-Holstein, Kingdom of Prussia)

10th Army Corps (Hanover, Province of Hanover, Prussia)

• 19th Division (Hanover, Administrative District of Hanover, Province of Hanover, Prussia)
  • 37th Infantry Brigade (City of Oldenburg, District of Oldenburg, Oldenburg)
  • 38th Infantry Brigade (Hannover City Area)
• 20th Division (Hanover, Administrative District of Hanover, Province of Hanover, Prussia)
  • 39th Infantry Brigade (City area Hannover)
  • 40th Infantry Brigade (City area Hannover)

4th Army Inspectorate (Munich)

3rd Army Corps (Berlin, Brandenburg Province, Prussia)

• 5th Division (Frankfurt an der Oder, Administrative District of Frankfurt, Province of Brandenburg, Prussia)
  • 9th Infantry Brigade (City area Brandenburg an der Havel, Postdam administrative district, Province of Brandenburg, Kingdom of Prussia)
  • 10th Infantry Brigade (Küstrin City, Königsberg District, Frankfurt Administrative District, Brandenburg Province)
• 6th Division (Brandenburg an der Havel, Administrative District of Potsdam, Province of Brandenburg, Prussia)
  • 11th Infantry Brigade (Urban area of ​​Brandenburg an der Havel)
  • 12th Infantry Brigade (City area Brandenburg an der Havel)

1st Bavarian Army Corps (Munich, Bavaria)

• 1st Bavarian Division (External City of Munich, Upper Bavaria District, Kingdom of Bavaria)
  • 1st Infantry Brigade (Outer District City of Munich)
  • 2nd Infantry Brigade (Outer District City of Munich)
• 2nd Bavarian Division (External city of Augsburg District of Swabia and Neuburg)
  • 3rd Infantry Brigade (Outer District City of Augsburg)
  • 4th Infantry Brigade (City of Neu-Ulm, District of Neu-Ulm, Region of Swabia and Neuburg)

2nd Bavarian Army Corps (Würzburg, Bavaria)

• 3rd Bavarian Division (City of Landau, Landau District, Palatinate District)
  • 5th Infantry Brigade (City of Zweibrücken, Zweibrücken District, Palatinate District)
  • 6th Infantry Brigade (City of Landau)
• 4th Bavarian Division (Outer District City of Würzburg, Lower Franconia Region and Aschaffenburg)
  • 7th Infantry Brigade (Outer District City of Würzburg)
  • 8th Infantry Brigade (Urban area of ​​Metz, District of Lorraine, Imperial State of Alsace-Lorraine)

3rd Bavarian Army Corps (Nuremberg, Bavaria)

• 5th Bavarian Division (Outer District City of Nuremberg, Middle Franconia Region)
  • 9th Infantry Brigade (Outer District City of Nunberg)
  • 10th Infantry Brigade (Out-of-area city of Bayreth, Upper Franconia Region)
• 6th Bavarian Division (External City of Regensburg, Upper Palatinate Region and Regensburg)
  • 11th Infantry Brigade (Outside District City of Ingolstadt, Upper Bavaria Region)
  • 12th Infantry Brigade (Outer District City of Regensburg)

5th Army Inspectorate (Karlsruhe)

8th Army Corps (Koblenz, Rhine Province, Prussia)

• 15th Division (Cologne, Administrative District of Cologne, Rhine Province, Prussia)
  • 29th Infantry Brigade (Aachen City District, Aachen Administrative District, Rhine Province)
  • 30th Infantry Brigade (Koblenz City Area, Koblenz Administrative District, Rhine Province)
• 16th Division (Trier, Administrative District of Trier, Rhine Province, Prussia)
  • 31st Infantry Brigade (City area Trier)
  • 32nd Infantry Brigade (Urban area of ​​Saarbrücken, Administrative district of Trier, Province of the Rhine)
  • 80th Infantry Brigade (City area of ​​Bonn, Administrative district of Cologne, Rhine Province)

14th Army Corps (Karlsruhe, Baden)

• 28th Division (Karlsruhe, Land Commissar District Karlsruhe, Baden)
  • 55th Infantry Brigade (Karlsruhe)
  • 56th Infantry Brigade (Rastatt, Land Commissar District Karlsruhe, Baden)
• 29th Division (Freiburg, State Commissioner District Freiburg, Baden)
  • 57th Infantry Brigade (Freiburg)
  • 58th Infantry Brigade (Mühlhausen, District of Mühlhausen, District of Upper Alsace, Imperial State of Alsace-Lorraine)
  • 84th Infantry Brigade (Lahr, State Commissioner District Freiburg, Baden)

15th Army Corps (Strasbourg, Alsace-Lorraine)

• 30th Division (Strassburg, District of Lower Alsace, Alsace-Lorraine)
  • 60th Infantry Brigade (City area of ​​Strassburg)
  • 85th Infantry Brigade (City area of ​​Strassburg)
• 39th Division (Colmar, Haute-Alsace, Alsace-Lorraine)
  • 61st Infantry Brigade (City area of ​​Strassburg)
  • 62nd Infantry Brigade (City of Colmar, District of Colmar, District of Haute-Alsace, Imperial State of Alsace-Lorraine)

6th Army Inspectorate (Stuttgart)

4th Army Corps (Magdeburg, Province of Saxony, Prussia)

• 7th Division (Magdeburg, Administrative District of Magdeburg, Province of Saxony, Prussia)
  • 13th Infantry Brigade (City area of ​​Magdeburg, Administrative district of Magdeburg, Province of Saxony, Kingdom of Prussia)
  • 14th Infantry Brigade (City area Halberstadt, Administrative district of Magdeburg, Province of Saxony, Kingdom of Prussia)
• 8th Division (Halle, Administrative District of Merseburg, Province of Saxony, Prussia)
  • 15th Infantry Brigade (City area of ​​Halle, Administrative district of Merseburg, Province of Saxony, Kingdom of Prussia)
  • 16th Infantry Brigade (City of Torgau, Torgau District, Administrative District of Merseburg, Province of Saxony, Kingdom of Prussia)

11th Army Corps (Kassel, Province of Hesse-Nassau, Prussia)

• 21st Division (Kassel, Administrative District of Kassel, Province of Hesse-Nassau, Prussia)
  • 41st Infantry Brigade (City of Mainz, District of Mainz, Province of Rheinhessen, Grand Duchy of Hesse)
  • 42nd Infantry Brigade (City District of Frankfurt am Main, Administrative District of Wiesbaden, Province of Hesse-Nassau, Kingdom of Prussia)
• 22nd Division (Erfurt, Administrative District of Erfurt, Province of Saxony, Prussia)
  • 43rd Infantry Brigade (City area of ​​Kassel, Administrative district of Kassel, Province of Hesse-Kassel, Kingdom of Prussia)
  • 44th Infantry Brigade (Kassel City District)

13th (Württemberg) Army Corps (Stuttgart, Württemberg)

• 26th Württemberg Division (Stuttgart, Neckar District, Württemberg)
  • 51st Württemberg Infantry Brigade (Stuttgart)
  • 52nd Württemberg Infantry Brigade (Ludwigsburg, Neckar District of Württemberg)
• 27th Division (Ulm, Donau District, Württemberg)
  • 53rd Württemberg Infantry Brigade (Ulm)
  • 54th Württemberg Infantry Brigade (Ulm)

7th Army Inspectorate (Saarbrücken)

16th Army Corps (Metz, Alsace-Lorraine)

• 33rd Division (Metz, District of Lorraine, Alsace-Lorraine)
  • 66th Infantry Brigade (Metz City District)
  • 67th Infantry Brigade (Metz City District)
• 34th Division (Metz, District of Lorraine, Alsace-Lorraine)
  • 68th Infantry Brigade (Metz City District)
  • 86th Infantry Brigade (Saarlouis, Saarlouis District, Administrative District of Trier, Rhine Province, Kingdom of Prussia)

18th Army Corps (Frankfurt am Main, Province of Hesse-Nassau, Prussia)

• 21st Division (Frankfurt am Main, Administrative District of Wissbaden, Province of Hesse-Nassau, Prussia)
  • 41st Infantry Brigade (City of Mainz, District of Mainz, Rheinhessen Province)
  • 42nd Infantry Brigade (City area Frankfurt am Main)
• 25th Hessian Division (Darmstadt, Starkenburg Province, Hesse)
  • 49th Hessian Infantry Brigade (City of Darmstadt, Darmstadt District, Starkenburg Province, Grand Duchy of Hesse)
  • 50th Hessian Infantry Brigade (City of Mainz)

21st Army Corps (Saarbrücken, Rhine Province, Prussia)

• 31st Division (Saarbrücken, Trier Administrative District, Rhine Province, Prussia)
  • 32nd Infantry Brigade (Saarbrücken City Area)
  • 62nd Infantry Brigade (City of Haguenau, District of Haguenau, District of Lower Alsace, Imperial State of Alsace-Lorraine)
• 42nd Division (Saarburg, Trier Administrative District, Rhine Province, Prussia)
  • 59th Infantry Brigade (City of Saarburg, District of Saarburg, District of Lorraine, Imperial State of Alsace-Lorraine)
  • 65th Infantry Brigade (Mörchingen City, Forbach District, Lorraine District, Alsace-Lorraine Imperial State)

8th Army Inspectorate (Berlin)

2nd Army Corps (Stettin, Pomerania Province, Prussia)

• 3rd Division (Stettin, Administrative District of Stettin, Province of Pomerania, Prussia)
  • 5th Infantry Brigade (Stettin)
  • 6th Infantry Brigade (Stettin)
• 4th Division (Bromberg, Administrative District of Bromberg, Province of Posen, Prussia)
  • 7th Infantry Brigade (Bromberg)
  • 8th Infantry Brigade (City of Gniesen, District of Gniesen, Administrative District of Bromberg, Province of Posen, Kingdom of Prussia)

5th Army Corps (Posen, Posen Province, Prussia)

• 9th Division (Glogau, Liegnitz Administrative District, Province of Silesia, Prussia)
  • 17th Infantry Brigade (City of Glogau, District of Glogau, Administrative District of Liegnitz, Province of Silesia, Kingdom of Prussia)
  • 18th Infantry Brigade (Lignitz City District, Liegnitz Administrative District, Province of Silesia, Kingdom of Prussia)
• 10th Division (Posen, Posen Administrative District, Posen Province, Prussia)
  • 19th Infantry Brigade (City area Posen)
  • 20th Infantry Brigade (City area Posen)
  • 77th Infantry Brigade (City of Ostrovo, Ostrovo District, Posen Administrative District, Posen Province, Kingdom of Prussia)

6th Army Corps (Breslau, Province of Silesia, Prussia)

• 11th Division (Breslau, Administrative District of Breslau, Province of Silesia, Prussia)
  • 21st Infantry Brigade (City area of ​​Schweidnitz, Administrative district of Breslau, Province of Silesia, Kingdom of Prussia)
  • 22nd Infantry Brigade (City area Posen)
• 12th Division (Neisse, Administrative District of Oppeln, Province of Silesia, Prussia)
  • 23rd Infantry Brigade (Gleiwitz City District, Oppeln Administrative District, Province of Silesia, Kingdom of Prussia)
  • 24th Infantry Brigade (City of Neisse, District of Neisse, Administrative District of Oppeln, Province of Silesia, Kingdom of Prussia)
  • 78th Infantry Brigade (Brig City District, Oppeln Administrative District, Province of Silesia, Kingdom of Prussia)

Ranks

• Field Marshal General ( Generalfeldmarschall)
• Colonel General ( Generaloberst), assigned to army inspectors
• General of Infantry ( General der Infanterie), Cavalry General ( General der Kavallerie) in the cavalry, General of artillery ( General der Artillerie) in artillery, assigned to commanders of army corps
• lieutenant general ( Generalleutnant), assigned to division commanders
• Major General ( Generalmajor), assigned to brigade commanders
• Colonel ( Oberst), assigned to regimental commanders
• lieutenant colonel ( Oberstleutnant), assigned to deputy regiment commanders
• Major ( Major), assigned to battalion commanders
• Captain ( Hauptmann) or ( Captain), Captain ( Rittmeister) in the cavalry, assigned to company commanders
• Senior lieutenant ( Oberleutnant) or Prime Lieutenant ( Premier Lieutenant) or fireworks-chief lieutenant ( Feuerwerksoberleutnant) in artillery
• Lieutenant ( Leutnant) or Second Lieutenant ( Secondelieutenant) or fireworks lieutenant ( Feuerwerksleutnant) in artillery
• Feldwebel Lieutenant ( Feldwebelleutnant)
• Ensign ( Fahnrich)
• Zauryad officer ( Officierstellvertreter)
• Feldwebel ( Feldwebel) in the infantry, in the cavalry and artillery - sergeant major ( Watchmeister)
• Vice Feldwebel ( Vizefeldwebel) in the infantry, in the cavalry and artillery - vice-sergeant major ( Vizewatchmeister)
• Sergeant ( Sergeant)
• non-commissioned officer ( Unteroffizier) or corporal ( Corporal)
• Corporal ( Obergefreiter), scorer ( bombardier) in artillery
• Corporal ( Gefreiter)
• Grenadier ( grenadier), fusilier ( Fusilier), mountain shooter ( Jager), musketeer ( Musketier), guardsman ( Gardist), infantryman ( Infanterist), soldier ( Soldier), sapper ( Pionier), dragoons ( Dragoner), hussar ( Husar), cuirassier ( Kurassier), lancer ( Ulan), reiter ( Reiter), cavalryman ( Chevauleger), gunner ( Canonier), riding ( Fahrer)

see also

Army of Germany since the year
Reichsheer imperial army	Reichswehr Imperial Defense	Wehrmacht Military establishment	Nationale Volksarmee National People's Army	Bundeswehr Federal Defense
-	-	-	-	c

An excerpt characterizing the German Imperial Army

- Well, mon cher, well, did you get the manifesto? asked the old count. - And the countess was at the mass at the Razumovskys, she heard a new prayer. Very good, she says.
“Got it,” Pierre answered. - Tomorrow the sovereign will be ... An extraordinary meeting of the nobility and, they say, ten thousand a set. Yes, congratulations.
- Yes, yes, thank God. Well, what about the army?
Ours retreated again. Near Smolensk already, they say, - answered Pierre.
- My God, my God! the count said. - Where is the manifesto?
- Appeal! Oh yes! Pierre began looking in his pockets for papers and could not find them. Continuing to flap his pockets, he kissed the hand of the countess as she entered and looked around uneasily, obviously expecting Natasha, who did not sing anymore, but did not come into the drawing room either.
“By God, I don’t know where I’ve got him,” he said.
“Well, he will always lose everything,” said the countess. Natasha entered with a softened, agitated face and sat down, silently looking at Pierre. As soon as she entered the room, Pierre's face, previously cloudy, shone, and he, continuing to look for papers, looked at her several times.
- By God, I'll move out, I forgot at home. Certainly…
Well, you'll be late for dinner.
- Oh, and the coachman left.
But Sonya, who went into the hall to look for the papers, found them in Pierre's hat, where he carefully put them behind the lining. Pierre wanted to read.
“No, after dinner,” said the old count, apparently foreseeing great pleasure in this reading.
At dinner, at which they drank champagne for the health of the new Knight of St. George, Shinshin told the city news about the illness of the old Georgian princess, that Metivier had disappeared from Moscow, and that some German had been brought to Rostopchin and announced to him that it was champignon (as Count Rastopchin himself told), and how Count Rostopchin ordered the champignon to be released, telling the people that it was not champignon, but just an old German mushroom.
“They grab, they grab,” said the count, “I tell the countess even so that she speaks less French.” Now is not the time.
– Have you heard? Shinshin said. - Prince Golitsyn took a Russian teacher, he studies in Russian - il commence a devenir dangereux de parler francais dans les rues. [It becomes dangerous to speak French on the streets.]
- Well, Count Pyotr Kirilych, how will they gather the militia, and you will have to get on a horse? said the old count, turning to Pierre.
Pierre was silent and thoughtful throughout this dinner. He, as if not understanding, looked at the count at this appeal.
“Yes, yes, to the war,” he said, “no!” What a warrior I am! And yet, everything is so strange, so strange! Yes, I don't understand myself. I do not know, I am so far from military tastes, but in these times no one can answer for himself.
After dinner, the count sat quietly in an armchair and with a serious face asked Sonya, who was famous for her skill in reading, to read.
– “To the capital of our capital, Moscow.
The enemy entered with great forces into the borders of Russia. He is going to ruin our dear fatherland, ”Sonya diligently read in her thin voice. The Count, closing his eyes, listened, sighing impetuously in some places.
Natasha sat stretched out, searchingly and directly looking first at her father, then at Pierre.
Pierre felt her eyes on him and tried not to look back. The countess shook her head disapprovingly and angrily at every solemn expression of the manifesto. She saw in all these words only that the dangers threatening her son would not end soon. Shinshin, folding his mouth into a mocking smile, obviously prepared to mock at what would be the first to be mocked: at Sonya's reading, at what the count would say, even at the very appeal, if no better excuse presented itself.
Having read about the dangers threatening Russia, about the hopes placed by the sovereign on Moscow, and especially on the famous nobility, Sonya, with a trembling voice, which came mainly from the attention with which they listened to her, read the last words: “We ourselves will not hesitate to stand among our people in this capital and in other states of our places for conference and leadership of all our militias, both now blocking the path of the enemy, and again arranged to defeat it, wherever it appears. May the destruction into which he imagines to cast us down upon his head turn, and may Europe, liberated from slavery, glorify the name of Russia!
- That's it! cried the count, opening his wet eyes and halting several times from snuffling, as if a flask of strong acetic salt was being brought to his nose. “Just tell me, sir, we will sacrifice everything and regret nothing.”
Shinshin had not yet had time to tell the joke he had prepared on the count's patriotism, when Natasha jumped up from her seat and ran up to her father.
- What a charm, this dad! she said, kissing him, and she again looked at Pierre with that unconscious coquetry that returned to her along with her animation.
- That's so patriotic! Shinshin said.
“Not a patriot at all, but simply ...” Natasha answered offendedly. Everything is funny to you, but this is not a joke at all ...
- What jokes! repeated the Count. - Just say the word, we will all go ... We are not some kind of Germans ...
“Did you notice,” said Pierre, “that he said: “for a meeting.”
“Well, whatever it is…
At this time, Petya, whom no one paid any attention to, went up to his father and, all red, in a breaking voice, now rough, now thin, said:
“Well, now, papa, I will say decisively - and mother too, as you wish, - I will say decisively that you let me go into military service, because I can’t ... that’s all ...
The countess raised her eyes to heaven in horror, clasped her hands and angrily turned to her husband.
- That's the deal! - she said.
But the count recovered from his excitement at the same moment.
“Well, well,” he said. "Here's another warrior!" Leave the nonsense: you need to study.
“It’s not nonsense, daddy. Obolensky Fedya is younger than me and also goes, and most importantly, anyway, I can’t learn anything now, when ... - Petya stopped, blushed to a sweat and said the same: - when the fatherland is in danger.
- Full, full, nonsense ...
“But you yourself said that we would sacrifice everything.
“Petya, I’m telling you, shut up,” the count shouted, looking back at his wife, who, turning pale, looked with fixed eyes at her younger son.
- I'm telling you. So Pyotr Kirillovich will say ...
- I'm telling you - it's nonsense, the milk has not dried up yet, but he wants to serve in the military! Well, well, I'm telling you, - and the count, taking the papers with him, probably to read it again in the study before resting, left the room.
- Pyotr Kirillovich, well, let's go for a smoke ...
Pierre was confused and indecisive. Natasha's unusually brilliant and lively eyes incessantly, more than affectionately addressed to him, brought him to this state.
- No, I think I'm going home ...
- Like home, but you wanted to have an evening with us ... And then they rarely began to visit. And this one is mine ... - the count said good-naturedly, pointing to Natasha, - it’s only cheerful with you ...
“Yes, I forgot ... I definitely need to go home ... Things ...” Pierre said hastily.
“Well, goodbye,” said the count, leaving the room completely.
- Why are you leaving? Why are you upset? Why? .. - Natasha asked Pierre, defiantly looking into his eyes.
"Because I love you! he wanted to say, but he did not say it, blushed to tears and lowered his eyes.
“Because it’s better for me to visit you less often ... Because ... no, I just have business to do.”
- From what? no, tell me, - Natasha began decisively and suddenly fell silent. They both looked at each other in fear and embarrassment. He tried to smile, but could not: his smile expressed suffering, and he silently kissed her hand and went out.
Pierre decided not to visit the Rostovs with himself anymore.

Petya, after receiving a decisive refusal, went to his room and there, locking himself away from everyone, wept bitterly. Everyone did as if they had not noticed anything when he came to tea silent and gloomy, with tearful eyes.
The next day the Emperor arrived. Several of the Rostovs' servants asked to go and see the tsar. That morning, Petya spent a long time dressing, combing his hair and arranging his collars like the big ones. He frowned in front of the mirror, made gestures, shrugged his shoulders, and finally, without telling anyone, put on his cap and left the house from the back porch, trying not to be noticed. Petya decided to go straight to the place where the sovereign was, and directly explain to some chamberlain (it seemed to Petya that the sovereign was always surrounded by chamberlains) that he, Count Rostov, despite his youth, wants to serve the fatherland, that youth cannot be an obstacle for devotion and that he is ready ... Petya, while he was getting ready, prepared many beautiful words that he would say to the chamberlain.
Petya counted on the success of his presentation to the sovereign precisely because he was a child (Petya even thought how surprised everyone would be at his youth), and at the same time, in the arrangement of his collars, in his hairstyle and in a sedate, slow gait, he wanted to present himself as an old man. But the farther he went, the more he entertained himself with the people arriving and arriving at the Kremlin, the more he forgot to observe the degree and slowness characteristic of adults. Approaching the Kremlin, he already began to take care that he was not pushed, and resolutely, with a menacing look, put his elbows on his sides. But at the Trinity Gate, in spite of all his determination, people who probably did not know for what patriotic purpose he was going to the Kremlin pressed him against the wall so that he had to submit and stop, while at the gate with a buzzing under the arches the sound of carriages passing by. Near Petya stood a woman with a footman, two merchants and a retired soldier. After standing for some time at the gate, Petya, without waiting for all the carriages to pass, wanted to move on before the others and began to work decisively with his elbows; but the woman standing opposite him, on whom he first directed his elbows, angrily shouted at him:
- What, barchuk, pushing, you see - everyone is standing. Why climb then!
“That’s how everyone will climb,” said the footman, and, also beginning to work with his elbows, squeezed Petya into the stinking corner of the gate.
Petya wiped away the sweat that covered his face with his hands and straightened his collars, soaked with sweat, which he arranged as well as the big ones at home.
Petya felt that he had an unpresentable appearance, and was afraid that if he presented himself to the chamberlains like that, he would not be allowed to see the sovereign. But there was no way to recover and go to another place because of the tightness. One of the passing generals was an acquaintance of the Rostovs. Petya wanted to ask for his help, but considered that it would be contrary to courage. When all the carriages had passed, the crowd poured in and carried Petya out to the square, which was all occupied by people. Not only in the area, but on the slopes, on the roofs, there were people everywhere. As soon as Petya found himself on the square, he clearly heard the sounds of bells and joyful folk talk that filled the entire Kremlin.
At one time it was more spacious on the square, but suddenly all the heads opened, everything rushed somewhere forward. Petya was squeezed so that he could not breathe, and everyone shouted: “Hurrah! hooray! hurrah! Petya stood on tiptoe, pushed, pinched, but could see nothing but the people around him.
On all faces there was one common expression of tenderness and delight. One merchant's wife, who was standing near Petya, was sobbing, and tears flowed from her eyes.
- Father, angel, father! she said, wiping her tears with her finger.
- Hooray! shouted from all sides. For a minute the crowd stood in one place; but then she rushed forward again.
Petya, not remembering himself, clenching his teeth and brutally rolling his eyes, rushed forward, working with his elbows and shouting "Hurray!", as if he was ready to kill himself and everyone at that moment, but exactly the same brutal faces climbed from his sides with the same cries of "Hurrah!".
"So that's what a sovereign is! thought Petya. – No, I can’t apply to him myself, it’s too bold! but at that moment the crowd staggered back (from the front the policemen were pushing those who had approached too close to the procession; the sovereign was passing from the palace to the Assumption Cathedral), and Petya unexpectedly received such a blow to the ribs in the side and was so crushed that suddenly everything became dim in his eyes and he lost consciousness. When he came to his senses, some clergyman, with a tuft of graying hair behind him, in a shabby blue cassock, probably a sexton, held him under the arm with one hand, and guarded him from the oncoming crowd with the other.
- Barchonka crushed! - said the deacon. - Well, so! .. easier ... crushed, crushed!
The sovereign went to the Assumption Cathedral. The crowd leveled off again, and the deacon led Petya, pale and not breathing, to the Tsar Cannon. Several people took pity on Petya, and suddenly the whole crowd turned to him, and there was already a stampede around him. Those who stood closer served him, unbuttoned his frock coat, seated cannons on a dais and reproached someone - those who crushed him.
- That way you can crush to death. What is this! Murder to do! Look, my heart, it has become white as a tablecloth, - said the voices.
Petya soon came to his senses, the color returned to his face, the pain disappeared, and for this temporary inconvenience he received a place on the cannon, with which he hoped to see the sovereign who was due to go back. Petya no longer thought about filing a petition. If only he could see him - and then he would consider himself happy!
During the service in the Assumption Cathedral - a joint prayer service on the occasion of the arrival of the sovereign and a prayer of thanksgiving for making peace with the Turks - the crowd spread; sellers of kvass, gingerbread, poppy seeds, which Petya was especially fond of, appeared shouting, and ordinary conversations were heard. One merchant's wife showed her torn shawl and reported how expensive it was bought; another said that nowadays all silk fabrics have become expensive. The sexton, Petya's savior, was talking to the official about who and who is serving with the bishop today. The sexton repeated the word soborne several times, which Petya did not understand. Two young tradesmen were joking with yard girls gnawing nuts. All these conversations, especially jokes with girls, which for Petya at his age had a special attraction, all these conversations now did not interest Petya; ou sat on his cannon dais, still agitated at the thought of the sovereign and of his love for him. The coincidence of the feeling of pain and fear, when he was squeezed, with the feeling of delight, further strengthened in him the consciousness of the importance of this moment.
Suddenly, cannon shots were heard from the embankment (these were fired in commemoration of peace with the Turks), and the crowd quickly rushed to the embankment - to watch how they were shooting. Petya also wanted to run there, but the deacon, who took the barchon under his protection, did not let him go. Shots were still going on when officers, generals, chamberlains ran out of the Assumption Cathedral, then others came out more slowly, their hats were again taken off their heads, and those who had run away to look at the guns ran back. Finally, four more men in uniforms and ribbons came out of the doors of the cathedral. "Hooray! Hooray! the crowd shouted again.
- Which? Which? Petya asked around him in a weeping voice, but no one answered him; everyone was too carried away, and Petya, choosing one of these four faces, whom he could not clearly see because of the tears that came out of his eyes with joy, concentrated all his delight on him, although it was not the sovereign, shouted “Hurrah! in a frantic voice and decided that tomorrow, no matter what it cost him, he would be a military man.
The crowd ran after the sovereign, escorted him to the palace and began to disperse. It was already late, and Petya hadn't eaten anything, and the sweat was pouring down from him; but he did not go home, and together with a smaller, but still rather large crowd, stood in front of the palace, during the emperor’s dinner, looking into the windows of the palace, expecting something else and envying the dignitaries who drove up to the porch - for the emperor’s dinner, and the lackeys of the chambers who served at the table and flashed through the windows.
At dinner, the sovereign Valuev said, looking out the window:
“The people still hope to see Your Majesty.
Dinner was already over, the emperor got up and, finishing his biscuit, went out onto the balcony. The people, with Petya in the middle, rushed to the balcony.
"Angel, father!" Hurray, father! .. - the people and Petya shouted, and again the women and some weaker men, including Petya, wept with happiness. A rather large piece of biscuit, which the sovereign held in his hand, broke off and fell on the railing of the balcony, from the railing to the ground. The coachman in the coat, who was standing nearest, rushed to this piece of biscuit and grabbed it. Some of the crowd rushed to the coachman. Noticing this, the sovereign ordered a plate of biscuits to be served to him and began to throw biscuits from the balcony. Petya's eyes were filled with blood, the danger of being crushed excited him even more, he threw himself on the biscuits. He did not know why, but it was necessary to take one biscuit from the hands of the king, and it was necessary not to succumb. He rushed and knocked down an old woman who was catching a biscuit. But the old woman did not consider herself defeated, although she lay on the ground (the old woman caught biscuits and did not hit with her hands). Petya knocked her hand away with his knee, grabbed the biscuit and, as if afraid of being late, again shouted "Hurrah!", in a hoarse voice.
The sovereign left, and after that most of the people began to disperse.
“So I said that we still have to wait - and it happened,” the people said joyfully from different sides.
Happy as Petya was, he was still sad to go home and know that all the enjoyment of that day was over. From the Kremlin, Petya did not go home, but to his comrade Obolensky, who was fifteen years old and who also entered the regiment. Returning home, he resolutely and firmly announced that if they did not let him in, he would run away. And the next day, although not yet completely surrendered, Count Ilya Andreich went to find out how to put Petya somewhere safer.

On the morning of the 15th, on the third day after that, an innumerable number of carriages stood at the Sloboda Palace.
The halls were full. In the first there were nobles in uniforms, in the second, merchants with medals, in beards and blue caftans. There was a buzz and movement in the hall of the Nobility Assembly. At one large table, under the portrait of the sovereign, the most important nobles were sitting on chairs with high backs; but most of the nobles walked about the hall.
All the nobles, the same ones that Pierre saw every day either in the club or in their houses, were all in uniforms, some in Catherine’s, some in Pavlov’s, some in new Alexander’s, some in a general noble one, and this general character of the uniform gave something strange and fantastic to these old and young, the most diverse and familiar faces. Especially striking were the old people, blind, toothless, bald, swollen with yellow fat or shriveled, thin. For the most part they sat in their places and were silent, and if they walked and talked, they would attach themselves to someone younger. Just as on the faces of the crowd that Petya saw in the square, all these faces showed a striking feature of the opposite: a common expectation of something solemn and ordinary, yesterday's - the Boston party, Petrushka the cook, the health of Zinaida Dmitrievna, etc.
Pierre, from early morning pulled together in an awkward, narrow noble uniform that had become him, was in the halls. He was in a state of agitation: the extraordinary assembly not only of the nobility, but also of the merchants - estates, etats generaux - evoked in him a whole series of thoughts long abandoned, but deeply embedded in his soul, about the Contrat social [Social contract] and the French revolution. The words he noticed in the appeal, that the sovereign would arrive in the capital for a conference with his people, confirmed him in this look. And he, believing that in this sense something important was approaching, something that he had been waiting for a long time, he walked, looked closely, listened to the conversation, but nowhere did he find an expression of those thoughts that occupied him.
The sovereign's manifesto was read, which caused delight, and then everyone dispersed, talking. In addition to the usual interests, Pierre heard rumors about where the leaders should stand at the time the sovereign entered, when to give the sovereign a ball, whether to be divided into districts or the entire province ... etc.; but as soon as the matter concerned the war and what the nobility was gathered for, the rumors were indecisive and indefinite. They were more willing to listen than to speak.
One middle-aged man, courageous, handsome, in a retired naval uniform, was talking in one of the halls, and people crowded around him. Pierre went up to the circle formed near the talker and began to listen. Count Ilya Andreich, in his Catherine’s voivodship caftan, walking with a pleasant smile among the crowd, familiar with everyone, also approached this group and began to listen with his kind smile, as he always listened, nodding his head approvingly in agreement with the speaker. The retired sailor spoke very boldly; this was evident from the expressions of the faces listening to him, and from the fact that Pierre, known for being the most submissive and quiet people, disapprovingly departed from him or contradicted him. Pierre pushed his way into the middle of the circle, listened, and became convinced that the speaker was really a liberal, but in a completely different sense than Pierre thought. The sailor spoke in that especially sonorous, melodious, noble baritone, with pleasant grazing and contraction of consonants, in that voice with which they shout: “Cheak, pipe!”, And the like. He spoke with a habit of revelry and power in his voice.
- Well, that the Smolensk people offered the militias to the gosuai. Is it a decree for us Smolensk? If the bourgeois nobility of the Moscow province finds it necessary, they can show their devotion to the Emperor by other means. Have we forgotten the militia in the seventh year! Caterers and robber thieves have just made a profit...
Count Ilya Andreich, smiling sweetly, nodded his head approvingly.
- And what, did our militias make a benefit to the state? No! only ruined our farms. Better still a set ... otherwise neither a soldier nor a peasant will return to you, and only one debauchery. The nobles do not spare their lives, we ourselves will go without exception, we will take another recruit, and all of us just call the goose (he pronounced the sovereign so), we will all die for him, - the orator added, animated.
Ilya Andreich swallowed his saliva with pleasure and pushed Pierre, but Pierre also wanted to speak. He moved forward, feeling animated, not knowing what else and not knowing what he would say. He had just opened his mouth to speak, when one senator, completely without teeth, with an intelligent and angry face, standing close to the speaker, interrupted Pierre. With a visible habit of debating and holding questions, he spoke quietly, but audibly:
“I believe, my dear sir,” said the senator, mumbling his toothless mouth, “that we are not called here to discuss what is more convenient for the state at the present moment - recruitment or militia. We are called to respond to the proclamation with which the Sovereign Emperor honored us. And to judge what is more convenient - a recruitment or a militia, we will leave to judge the highest authority ...
Pierre suddenly found an outlet for his animation. He became hardened against the senator, who introduced this correctness and narrowness of views into the upcoming classes of the nobility. Pierre stepped forward and stopped him. He himself did not know what he was going to say, but he began animatedly, occasionally breaking through in French and expressing himself bookishly in Russian.
“Excuse me, Your Excellency,” he began (Pierre was well acquainted with this senator, but considered it necessary to address him officially here), “although I do not agree with the lord ... (Pierre faltered. He wanted to say mon tres honorable preopinant), [my esteemed opponent,] - with the lord ... que je n "ai pas L" honneur de connaitre; [whom I do not have the honor to know] but I believe that the estate of the nobility, in addition to expressing their sympathy and delight, is also called upon to discuss and discuss those measures by which we can help the fatherland. I believe, - he said, inspired, - that the sovereign himself would be dissatisfied if he found in us only the owners of the peasants whom we give him, and ... chair a canon [meat for cannons], which we make of ourselves, but would not have found co-co-counsel in us.
Many moved away from the circle, noticing the contemptuous smile of the senator and the fact that Pierre speaks freely; only Ilya Andreich was pleased with Pierre's speech, as he was pleased with the speech of the sailor, the senator, and in general always with the speech that he had last heard.
“I believe that before discussing these issues,” Pierre continued, “we should ask the sovereign, most respectfully ask His Majesty to communicate to us how many troops we have, what is the position of our troops and armies, and then ...
But Pierre did not have time to finish these words, when they suddenly attacked him from three sides. The Boston player Stepan Stepanovich Apraksin, who had long been known to him and was always well disposed towards him, attacked him most strongly. Stepan Stepanovich was in a uniform, and, whether from a uniform or from other reasons, Pierre saw a completely different person in front of him. Stepan Stepanovich, with suddenly manifested senile anger on his face, shouted at Pierre:
- Firstly, I will tell you that we have no right to ask the sovereign about this, and secondly, if the Russian nobility had such a right, then the sovereign cannot answer us. The troops move in accordance with the movements of the enemy - the troops decrease and arrive ...
Another voice of a man of medium height, about forty years old, whom Pierre had seen in former times among the gypsies and knew for a bad card player and who, also changed in uniform, moved closer to Pierre, interrupted Apraksin.
“Yes, and this is not the time to argue,” said the voice of this nobleman, “but you need to act: there is a war in Russia. Our enemy is coming to destroy Russia, to scold the graves of our fathers, to take away our wives and children. The nobleman thumped his chest. - We will all get up, all of us will go, all for the king, father! he shouted, rolling his bloodshot eyes. Several approving voices were heard from the crowd. - We are Russians and will not spare our blood to defend the faith, the throne and the fatherland. And nonsense must be left, if we are sons of the fatherland. We will show Europe how Russia rises for Russia, the nobleman shouted.
Pierre wanted to object, but could not say a word. He felt that the sound of his words, no matter what thought they conveyed, was less audible than the sound of an animated nobleman's words.
Ilya Andreevich approved from behind the circle; some briskly turned their shoulders to the speaker at the end of a sentence and said:
- That's it, that's it! This is true!
Pierre wanted to say that he was not averse to donations either in money, or peasants, or himself, but that one would have to know the state of affairs in order to help him, but he could not speak. Many voices shouted and spoke together, so that Ilya Andreevich did not have time to nod to everyone; and the group grew larger, disintegrated, again converged and moved all, humming in conversation, into the large hall, to the large table. Pierre not only failed to speak, but he was rudely interrupted, pushed away, turned away from him, as from a common enemy. This did not happen because they were dissatisfied with the meaning of his speech - and it was forgotten after a large number of speeches that followed it - but to inspire the crowd, it was necessary to have a tangible object of love and a tangible object of hatred. Pierre became the last. Many speakers spoke after the animated nobleman, and all spoke in the same tone. Many spoke beautifully and originally.

In the vast expanses of the East European theater of operations, the German cavalry had many opportunities to prove themselves.

She didn't always implement them properly. Nevertheless, the 1st Cavalry Division during the East Prussian operation of 1914 carried out the task of organizing a curtain against the army of P.G.K.

On the eve of the Lodz operation of 1914, 4 more cavalry divisions operated on the Russian front - the 5th, 8th (together with the Austrian 7th cavalry division they made up the 3rd Cavalry Corps) and the 6th, 9th (1 th Cavalry Corps). The 3rd Cavalry Corps fought on the right flank of the 9th Army - and was stopped by units of the Russian 5th Army. And the 1st Cavalry operated on the left flank of the 9th Army - inflicting a flank attack near Lodz as part of the shock group of R. von Schaeffer-Boyadel. The divisions of the 1st Cavalry Corps ended up in the Lodz cauldron, where they were seriously injured. They covered the movement of the 3rd Guards Infantry Division and the 25th Reserve Corps when leaving the encirclement - acting both on horseback and on foot.

Battle of German lancers and Hungarian hussars with Russian Cossacks near Warsaw. 1914

In the winter of 1914 - 1915. German cavalry on the Eastern Front acted both on horseback and on foot - in particular, taking part in the trench war between Pilica and the Vistula.

The cavalry grouping on the Eastern Front continued to grow stronger - and in the spring-summer of 1915, 7.5 cavalry divisions operated only in the Baltic states (1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 6th, 8th and Bavarian cavalry divisions, the Guards Cavalry Brigade), who took an active part in maneuverable combat operations. The 5th cavalry division operated in the Galician theater of operations - as part of the Marshall group (Austro-Hungarian army group Pflanzer-Baltin), and the 9th cavalry division - in the Polish theater of operations as part of the 9th army.

In September 1915, a cavalry group of 4 cavalry divisions under the command of General O. von Garnier carried out the Sventsyansky breakthrough. O. von Garnier passed through Smorgon and almost reached Molodechno. In this case, the Germans used both foot combat and horse attacks. The squadrons that penetrated the rear of the Russian army interrupted communications at the Molodechno-Polotsk and Minsk-Smolensk railway sections. But the active actions of the Russian troops, the group of O. von Garnier was pushed back into the Naroch swamps and partially destroyed.

Unlike the Russian front, the German cavalry managed to achieve success on another eastern front - the Romanian. The army group of General V. Kühne, which invaded Romania, included the cavalry corps of E. von Schmettov. On the plains of Wallachia, he showed himself to the right extent - both in terms of intelligence, and in carrying out the veil and persecution.

With the transition to trench warfare on the Western Front, the main reconnaissance functions were transferred to aviation. The planes could see what was being done behind the enemy front. No matter how fruitful the very energetic reconnaissance work of the patrols was, but, as G. Freytag-Loringofen notes, one has to regret those heavy losses in the best officers, soldiers and horses that the German cavalry suffered at the same time.

At the same time, despite the strength of modern fire, large cavalry units retained their importance even in the second half of the war (the actions of the German cavalry in the Baltic states and Romania).

In the last two years of the war, the trends for the German cavalry on the Western Front were disappointing. Almost all of the German cavalry remaining in this theater of operations (already quite small) had their horses taken away. The divisional cavalry was reduced from 3 squadrons to only the 1st. If, taking into account the realities of trench warfare (when cavalry units were periodically replaced by advanced infantry), a rifle regiment appeared in Russian cavalry divisions (in addition to cavalry ones), then the German cavalry regiments were turned into cavalry rifle regiments (Kavallerie - Schutzenregimenter) and were used as infantry. Thus - from 11 cavalry divisions in 1914, the German cavalry was reduced to 7 cavalry divisions in 1917 and to 3 cavalry divisions by the beginning of 1918 - and all 3 of the latter were on the Eastern Front.

And this at a time when the cavalry divisions were very much needed on the eve of large-scale offensive operations being prepared - as a means of developing success.

At the same time, the French and British in 1915-1916. they kept their cavalry divisions in readiness - on the eve of their offensive operations. But since operational breakthroughs during this period did not succeed, then, naturally, their cavalry only suffered unjustified losses. The situation changed somewhat in 1917 - 1918, when the Allied cavalry on the Western Front (primarily the British) again managed to prove themselves - albeit not as decisively as we would like.

What are the conclusions in relation to the trends in the development of the German cavalry during the First World War?

During the mobilization, the German cavalry underwent an organizational breakdown. In peacetime, there were no large cavalry formations (with the exception of one cavalry division), as noted. But during mobilization, most of the cavalry was reduced to very large formations - four cavalry corps and one separate cavalry division, and the infantry was also included in the corps in the form of a significant number of chasseur battalions. Other peacetime cavalry brigades, during mobilization, were dispersed into squadrons, distributed among infantry divisions - 3 for each.

But the fact that such serious organizational changes were carried out in a short time could not but affect the effectiveness of the actions of new large formations (first of all, this concerned interaction with other types of troops).

At the same time, the cavalry was active - on the French front during the campaign of 1914, on the Russian front - in the campaigns of 1914 - 1915, on the Romanian front in 1916. - the end of 1915) radically influenced the prospects for the use of the German cavalry. Speaking of the dismounting of cavalry formations and their concentration on the Eastern Front, German generals and historians point to this as a very serious strategic mistake of the High Command - on the eve of the 1918 campaign, when large enemy offensives on the French front brought their troops into operational space. Cavalry is a fragile branch of the military. And, having gradually turned their cavalry into infantry during the period of trench warfare, the Germans could no longer restore it - which, when switching back to mobile warfare in 1918, deprived them of the opportunity to use their big breakthroughs on the French front. And the active cavalry divisions remained on the Russian front.

If we characterize the actions of the German cavalry in France and Belgium in 1914, it is worth noting that out of the four cavalry corps assigned to operate in front of the front of the seven armies, two successfully completed this task (1st and 2nd), advancing ahead of the right wing of the setting front - that is, those who worked for the 1st, 2nd and 3rd armies.

The 4th Cavalry Corps, which worked on the left wing of the setting front, i.e., on the 4th and 5th armies, was not able to do much - because “soon stumbled upon the deployed masses of the enemy; although he hung over the retreating enemy, he always met with a strong rebuff, forcing him to stop.

The 3rd cavalry corps, assigned to operate with the 6th and 7th armies in Alsace-Lorraine, could not show itself widely due to close contact with the enemy and the proximity of enemy fortresses.

But even successful formations were hampered by the presence of the following difficulties: the rapid exhaustion of horses, the question of the availability of fodder, insufficient firepower (despite the addition of Jaeger battalions to the Cavalry Corps).

The German cavalry corps, for all the success of their actions, did not always stand up to the task. So, Professor V. F. Novitsky in his work “The World War of 1914–1918. Campaign of 1918 in Belgium and France", notes that on August 25 and 26 "the German cavalry did not justify itself: despite their large numbers (corps of 72 squadrons) and favorable conditions for energetic pursuit (the defeated left-flank French army - the 5th ), she achieved very little results. V. F. Novitsky explains this by “the exhaustion of the horse staff, which was continuously for three weeks in intense combat work associated with running long distances.” As a result, “three right-flank armies of the Germans (1st, 2nd and 3rd) from September 2, 1914 lost contact with the enemy, which is why until September 4 the German headquarters had no information about what was happening on the left flank enemy”, as a result of which the appearance behind the right flank of the German armies of the new French army (General Maunoury) turned out to be unexpected for her.

The German 1st and 2nd Cavalry Corps proved themselves in the Battle of Marne - acting in combined formations (mainly on foot). The cavalry filled the gap between the 1st and 2nd armies - four cavalry divisions (96 squadrons) participated in this operation, and the infantry (one brigade) only supplemented the cavalry. Similarly, these two corps acted during the retreat of the German armies after the Marne - in the battle at Bapom. The cavalry also carried out searches behind enemy lines (for example, the 4th Cavalry Corps).

The Germans began to gradually transfer a significant part of their army cavalry from the Western to the Eastern Front - and in the First Battle of the Masurian Lakes against the Russian 1st Army at the end of August 1914, 2 cavalry divisions were already operating as part of the German 8th Army - the 1st and 8th, by the time the Lodz operation began - 5, etc.

On the Eastern Front (including Romanian), cavalry was used as an advanced cavalry curtain, for communication between operating military groups, directly in battles (both on horseback and on foot), to search for the flanks and behind enemy lines (Vilna operation) etc.

We wrote about the essence of positional impasse and ways to overcome it (see ). A positional war ended when the positional defense of the enemy was crushed on a vast front - and the attacker entered the operational space. And then a war of maneuver began again - as happened for the Germans at the end of March 1918, and for the Allies at the beginning of August 1918. And in this situation, cavalry was urgently needed - as a mobile tool for developing success. The characteristics of armored vehicles (and not all of them had them), the search for organizational forms of their use, and other circumstances have not yet allowed the active use of young armored forces as a full-fledged tool for developing operational success - and the value of a technically equipped one that had rich combat experience and a serious organization cavalry was out of competition. And, as noted, the Germans lament the fact of dismounting their cavalry - depriving them of the opportunity to use their victories in the first half of 1918, while their opponents kept theirs - and used it more or less successfully.

Among German military historians, not all, like G. Freytag-Loringofen, were pessimistic about the prospects for the post-war development of the German cavalry. So, F. Bernhardi in his work “On the War of the Future” noted that not the tactical (horse attacks), but the strategic activity of the cavalry will come to the fore - when the speed of the horse will no longer be used for attack, but for quick operational movements. It is the latter aspect that will allow the cavalry to achieve great and strategically important successes. The organization of the strategic cavalry according to F. Bernhardi: the 10-squadron cavalry regiment is equipped with heavy machine guns (machine-gun squadron) and strong artillery (special design guns), the division consists of 3 brigades of 2-3 regiments. Squadron - a tactical unit for foot combat (2 squadrons minus horse guides and patrols - give about 150 shooters). To reinforce a cavalry division, a battalion of scooters or infantry in wagons or vehicles may be attached to it.

However, turning cavalry into riding infantry is a mistake, and cavalry must be real.

The Treaty of Versailles, which limited the total strength of the German army to 100,000, allowed the deployment of 7 infantry (with 7 separate squadrons) and 3 cavalry divisions. Cavalry division - 6 cavalry regiments (4 active and 1 training squadrons each with a machine-gun platoon of 4 heavy machine guns) and a horse artillery division (three horse-drawn 4-gun 77-mm batteries).

Finally, in 1934, the Germans formed 2 more cavalry divisions. 5 cavalry divisions of 6 regiments each made it possible to have 30 cavalry regiments. Each cavalry division (except for 6 cavalry regiments) included: a mounted artillery regiment consisting of 6 cannon and 3 anti-aircraft batteries, a scooter battalion consisting of 3 rifle and 1 machine-gun companies; motorized reconnaissance detachment; motorized infantry battalion; a company of anti-tank guns (of six 37-mm guns); squadron; motorcyclist platoon. The cavalry division has turned into a modern unit of units of all branches of the military.

As a Soviet source in 1934 noted: “in the event of war, the Germans will be able to deploy 10 cavalry divisions from the existing 5 cavalry divisions. The modern German cavalry is equipped with a good horse composition. The senior and senior command personnel, as well as the junior command personnel of long-term service, have rich experience in the war of 1914-1918. and solid methodological training for training fighters. A characteristic feature of the tactics of modern German cavalry is the widespread use of maneuver. The Germans are carefully studying all issues of the operational use of strategic cavalry in a difficult situation. The main attention in the preparation of cavalry formations and units is drawn to the development of all issues related to the performance of marches by cavalry under the threat of air attack, and to the technique of horse and foot combat using modern technical means of combat.

We see that even for the German cavalry, which went through dismounting during the First World War, this war did not become the last “swan song”, as some modern researchers write: the cavalry survived as a powerful and modern branch of the military in order to take an active part in the next world war.

The new German army consisted of contingents of 26 states: 4 kingdoms, 5 grand duchies, 12 principalities and duchies, 3 free cities and Alsace-Lorraine.
The armies of Saxony and Württemberg had their own military ministries, general staffs, inspectorates and other structures. Even the armies of the grand duchies of Hesse and Mecklenburg retained some autonomy, although they came under the auspices of Prussia.
The second largest military contingent for the army of united Germany was provided by Bavaria. The three Bavarian army corps operated autonomously.

Numerous Bavarian General Staff and the Ministry of War were located in Munich, with powerful inspectorates, officer academies and non-commissioned officer schools created according to the Prussian model.
The officers of the Saxon and Bavarian armies were promoted on separate lists, while the Prussian and Württemberg officers could replace each other.
Between 1880 and 1914 Moltke's brilliantly organized General Staff managed to transform the motley army of the united Empire into an efficient military machine, perfectly trained and prepared for the conditions of modern warfare.

In August 1914, the mobilized German army had the following units:
5 regiments of the Prussian Foot Guards.
5 regiments of Prussian Guards Grenadiers.
1 Regiment of Prussian Guards Fusiliers.
12 linear grenadier regiments.
170 infantry and fusilier line regiments.
24 Bavarian infantry regiments, incl. one life regiment.
18 chasseurs and rifle battalions, including the Prussian guards rifle battalion.
2 Prussian guards machine-gun divisions.
9 linear machine-gun divisions, incl. one Saxon and one Bavarian divisions.

15 fortress machine-gun divisions.

colonial infantry.

10 cuirassier regiments, incl. the Prussian Guards Regiment and the Prussian Regiment Gare du Cor.
2 Saxon cavalry regiments, incl. one regiment of guards.
2 Bavarian regiments of heavy cavalry.
28 dragoon regiments, including two Prussian guard regiments.
8 Bavarian regiments of chevaliers.
21 hussar regiments, incl. Prussian Life Guards Regiment, 2 Life Hussar Regiments, 3 Saxon Regiments.
26 lancers regiments, incl. 3 Prussian guards regiments, 3 Saxon and 2 Bavarian regiments.
13 regiments of horse rangers.
as well as artillery, sapper, spare, aviation, communications, medical and veterinary units.
113 reserve infantry regiments.
96 Landwehr infantry regiments.
86 reserve infantry regiments.
21 Landwehr reserve battalions.

Before the start of mobilization in 1914, the size of the German army was 840,000 people. By the end of 1917, the number had risen to 6,000,000, excluding soldiers in spare parts.
Instead of 217 regular infantry regiments, 113 reserve regiments and 96 Landsturm regiments by 1918. the German army already had 698 regular regiments, 114 reserve regiments and 106 landwehr regiments, not counting the units of the 1st and 2nd echelon Landsturm.

The cavalry units formed during the war acted on foot and were regarded as infantry units. By November 1918, 24 reserve corps were added to the 25 army corps, including three Bavarian corps, as well as Landwehr, Landsturm and even the Marine Corps. There were 218.5 divisions in all army corps. Of these, three remained in Germany.

The divisions were on the following fronts:

Western Front - 187.5

Eastern Front - 20

Southern and Balkan Front - 8

Germany - 3

In August 1914 the various states of Germany were represented in the army in the following proportion:

Prussia and small states (Braunschweig, Baden, Oldenburg, Hesse, etc.) - 78%

Bavaria - 11%

Saxony - 7%

Württemberg - 4%

Thanks to an efficient recruiting system, Germany was able to field a large and well-trained army in just a few days.
In peacetime, all German males between the ages of 17 and 45 were required to complete military service. Those who reached the age of 17 were enrolled in the landshturm (militia), and at the age of 20 they went to serve in active service.
Active service lasted two years (three in cavalry and artillery). After completing the service, a young man was enlisted in the reserve for 7 years. Then for 11 years he was in the Landwehr.

Being in the reserve, a man could be called up for training twice a year. Thus, Germany had a sufficient number of trained soldiers.
In wartime, soldiers were drafted into the active army until they reached the age of 20, and were not subject to dismissal upon reaching the 45th anniversary.
It also did not provide for the transfer from one category to another, for example, from Landwehr to Landsturm. A person could be recognized as unfit for military service only for health reasons.

In 1913, the annual draft into the army was 305,000 people. In fact, there were significantly more fit for service, despite the rather strict medical selection criteria. They, as well as those of limited service, were assigned to the reserve reserve.
In the reserve reserve, people were listed for 12 years, during which they could be called up for training three times a year. Subsequently, they were transferred to the Landsturm of the 2nd echelon. In 1914, the reserve reserve had a million people between the ages of 20 and 32. These people completed the reserve divisions.

The German command drew manpower for the army from two more sources. The first was the so-called Restanten Liste, which included able-bodied men who did not serve due to a delay. If a person received a legal deferral three times, he was released from military service and enrolled in the category of untrained Landsturm.
The second source was the Einjahrige Freiwilligen (one-year volunteers). Usually these were highly qualified specialists who purchased uniforms and equipment at their own expense and paid for food themselves.

In the army, volunteers served in positions corresponding to their civilian professions. After a year of service, volunteers received the right to enter the reserve as a postgraduate officer.
After passing two training camps in the ranks of the reserve and passing the exam, they became reserve officers. In wartime, young men between the ages of 17 and 20 were given the right to enter active service until they reached draft age. They were called wartime volunteers.