Rules of Russian spelling and punctuation. Complete Academic Handbook

The reference book is a new edition of the current "Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation", focused on the completeness of the rules, the modernity of the language material, takes into account the existing practice of writing.
A complete academic reference book is intended for the widest range of readers.

The incompleteness of the "Rules" of 1956 is largely due to changes that have taken place in the language itself: many new words and types of words have appeared, the spelling of which is not regulated by the "Rules". For example, in the modern language, units that stand on the verge between a word and a part of a word have become more active; among them appeared such as mini, maxi, video, audio, media, retro, etc. In the "Rules" of 1956, one cannot find an answer to the question of whether to write such units together with the next part of the word or through a hyphen. Many of the guidelines for capitalization are outdated. Punctuation rules that reflect the stylistic diversity and dynamism of modern speech, especially in the mass press, need to be clarified and supplemented.
Thus, the prepared text of the rules of Russian spelling not only reflects the norms fixed in the "Rules" of 1956, but in many cases supplements and clarifies them, taking into account modern writing practice.
Regulating spelling, this guide, of course, cannot cover and exhaust all specific complex cases of spelling words. In these cases, it is necessary to refer to spelling dictionaries. The most complete standard dictionary is currently the academic "Russian Spelling Dictionary" (2nd ed., M., 2005), containing 180 thousand words.
This guide to Russian spelling is intended for teachers of the Russian language, editorial and publishing workers, all who write in Russian.
To facilitate the use of the reference book, the text of the rules is supplemented with word indexes and a subject index.

CONTENT
Preface 9
SPELLING
Introduction 11
General information about Russian writing 11
The basic principle of the use of letters 12
The basic principle of the transfer of significant parts of words in writing 14
Features of writing some categories of words 16
Rules for the use of letters 17
General rules 17
Vowels not after sibilants and ts 17
Letters a - z, y - yu 17
Letters o - ё 18
The use of the letter ё in texts for various purposes 20
Letters e - e 21
Letters and - s 24
Vowels after hissing and c 26
Letters a, y 26
Letters i,s 26
Letters o, e, e after hissing 27
Letters o, e, e in place of stressed vowels 27
Letters o, e in place of unstressed vowels 33
Letters o and e after c 34
The letter e after hissing and c 34
Letter th 35
Letters b and b 36
Dividing b and b 36
The letter ь as a sign of softness of the consonant 37
Letter ь in some grammatical forms 39
Not after sizzling 39
After the sizzling 40
Rules for writing significant parts of a word (morphemes) 40
Spelling of unstressed vowels 40
Unstressed vowels in roots 41
Features of writing individual roots 42
Unstressed vowels in prefixes 51
Unstressed vowels in suffixes 54
Features of writing individual suffixes 59
Unstressed fluent vowels in roots and suffixes of nouns and adjectives 69
Unstressed connecting vowels 72
Unstressed vowels in case endings 74
Unstressed vowels in verb forms 79
Vowels in verb endings 79
Vowels in the infinitive (indefinite form) before -ty 82
Impactless particles don't stump 83
Spelling of consonants 88
Voiceless and voiced consonants 88
Silent consonants 92
Groups of consonants at the junction of significant parts of the word 93
Letters n and w in front of n and t 97
The letter g at the end of the -th (-th) 99
Double consonants 99
Double consonants at the junction of significant parts of the word 99
Double n and single n in adjective and noun suffixes 101
Double and and one n in the suffixes of passive participles of the past tense and adjectives correlative with them 102
Full Forms 102
Short forms 105
Double n and one n in words formed from adjectives and participles 107
Double consonants in Russian roots 108
Double consonants in borrowed (foreign language) roots and suffixes 109
Rules for the use of non-alphabetic characters 111
Hyphen 111
Slash 113
Apostrophe 114
Accent 115
Rules for continuous, hyphenated and separate writing 116
General rules 117
Nouns 121
Common names 121
Proper names and compound names 129
Names, pseudonyms, nicknames, nicknames 129
Place names 131
Adjectives 134
Numerals 139
Pronominal words 140
Adverbs 141
Service words and interjections 148
Combinations with particles 150
Negative writings not 151
Continuous spelling is not 152
Separate spelling is not 153
Merged/separate spelling not 155
Corrective rules (coordination rules) 161
Rules for the use of uppercase and lowercase letters 164
General information 164
Proper names of people, animals, mythological creatures and words derived from them 167
Geographical and administrative-territorial names and words derived from them 171
Astronomical names 176
Names of historical eras and events, calendar periods and holidays, public events 176
Religious titles 178
Names of authorities, institutions, organizations, societies, parties 182
Names of documents, monuments, objects and works of art 185
Job titles, ranks, titles 187
Names of orders, medals, awards, insignia 188
Names of trademarks, product brands and varieties 188
Capital letters in special stylistic use 190
Rules for writing abbreviations and graphic abbreviations 191
Abbreviations and derivative words 191
Graphic abbreviations 194
Transfer Rules 195
PUNCTUATION
On the purpose and principles of punctuation 198
Punctuation marks at the end and at the beginning of a sentence. End signs in the middle of a sentence 201
Punctuation at the end of a sentence 201
Punctuation at the beginning of a sentence 203
End-of-sentence signs within a sentence 203
Dividing a sentence with dot 205
Dash between sentence members 206
Dash between subject and predicate 206
Dash in incomplete sentence 209
Dash in join function 211
Dash in selection function 212
Punctuation marks for nominative topics 213
Punctuation marks with homogeneous members of a sentence 214
Punctuation marks for homogeneous members of a sentence with and without unions 214
Punctuation marks with homogeneous members of a sentence with generalizing words 220
Punctuation marks for homogeneous definitions 223
Punctuation marks for homogeneous applications 227
Punctuation marks for repeating members of a sentence 228
Punctuation marks for isolated members of a sentence 229
Punctuation marks with separate agreed definitions 229
Punctuation marks with separate inconsistent definitions 235
Punctuation marks for stand-alone applications 239
Punctuation marks in isolated circumstances ... 243
Punctuation marks with restrictive-excretory turns 249
Punctuation marks with clarifying, explanatory and connecting members of a sentence 251
Punctuation marks in meaningful combinations with subordinating conjunctions or allied words 256
Punctuation marks for comparative turns 258
Punctuation marks for introductory and plug-in constructions 261
Punctuation marks for introductory words, word combinations and sentences 261
Punctuation marks when inserting 268
Punctuation marks when addressing 273
Punctuation marks for interjections and interjectional sentences 276
Punctuation marks for affirmative, negative and interrogative-exclamatory words 278
Punctuation marks in a complex sentence 280
Punctuation marks in a compound sentence 280
Punctuation marks in a complex sentence 284
Punctuation marks in non-union complex sentence 294
Punctuation marks in complex syntactic constructions 299
Punctuation marks for direct speech and quotations 301
Punctuation marks in direct speech 301
Quote Punctuation Marks 307
Quoting quotation marks and “foreign” words 310
Quoting unusually used words 311
The combination of punctuation marks, the sequence of their location; interaction of signs in complex structures 313
The combination of punctuation marks and the sequence of their location 313
Interaction of punctuation marks in complex structures 317
Punctuation marks in the design of lists and rubrication rules 320
Index of words to the section "Spelling" 325
Index to the section "Punctuation" 435
Index of words to the section "Punctuation" 460
Conditional abbreviations 478

RUSSIAN ACADEMY SCIENCES

Department of Historical and Philological Sciences Institute of the Russian Language. V.V. Vinogradova

RULES OF RUSSIAN SPELLINGFII AND PUNCTUATIONS

COMPLETE ACADEMIC HANDBOOK

N. S. Valgina, N. A. Eskova, O. E. Ivanova, S. M. Kuzmina, V. V. Lopatin, L. K. Cheltsova
Managing editor V. V. Lopatin

Rules of Russian spelling and punctuation. Complete Academic Handbook/ Ed. V.V. Lopatin.- M: AST,200 9 . - 4 32 with.

ISBN 978-5-462-00930-3

The complete academic reference book is intended for the widest range of readers..

General information about Russian writing 11

The basic principle of the use of letters 12

The basic principle of the transfer of significant parts of words in writing 14

Features of writing some categories of words 16

Signs punctuation with homogeneous members of a sentence 214

Punctuation marks for homogeneous members of a sentence with and without unions 214

Punctuation marks with homogeneous members of a sentence with generalizing words 220

Punctuation marks for homogeneous definitions 223

Punctuation marks for homogeneous applications 227

Punctuation marks for repeating members of a sentence 228

Signs punctuation for isolated members of a sentence 229

Punctuation marks with separate agreed definitions 229

Punctuation marks with separate inconsistent definitions 235

Punctuation marks for stand-alone applications 239

Punctuation marks in isolated circumstances ... 243 Punctuation marks in restrictive-excretory phrases 249

Punctuation marks with clarifying, explanatory and connecting members of a sentence 251

Punctuation marks in meaningful combinations with subordinating conjunctions or allied words 256

Punctuation marks for comparative turns 258

Signs punctuation for introductory and plug-in constructions 261

Punctuation marks for introductory words, word combinations and sentences 261

Punctuation marks when inserting 268

Signs punctuation when speaking 273

Signs punctuation for interjections and interjectional sentences 276

Punctuation marks for affirmative, negativeand interrogative and exclamatory words 278

Punctuation marks in a complex sentence 280

Punctuation marks in a compound sentence 280

Punctuation marks in a complex sentence 284

Punctuation marks in non-union complex sentence 294

Punctuation marks in complex syntactic constructions 299

Punctuation marks in direct speech 301

Quote Punctuation Marks 307

Quoting quotation marks and “foreign” words 310

Quoting unusually used words - 311 Combination of punctuation marks, the sequence of their location; interaction of signs in complex structures 313

The combination of punctuation marks and the sequence of their location 313

Interaction of punctuation marks in complex structures 317

Punctuation marks in the design of lists and rubrication rules 320

Index of words to the section "Spelling" 325

Index to the section "Punctuation" 435

Index of words to the section "Punctuation" 460

Conditional abbreviations 478

Foreword
The proposed guide was prepared by the Institute of the Russian Language. V. V. Vinogradov of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Spelling Commission at the Department of Historical and Philological Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences. It is the result of many years of work of the Spelling Commission, which includes linguists, university professors, methodologists, and secondary school teachers.

The following took part in the work of the commission, which repeatedly discussed and approved the text of the handbook: Ph.D. philol. Sciences B. 3. Buk-china, Ph.D. philol. Sciences, Professor N. S. Valgina, teacher of the Russian language and literature S. V. Volkov, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor V. P. Grigoriev, Doctor of Ped. Sciences, Professor A. D. Deikina, Ph.D. philol. Sciences, Associate Professor E. V. Dzhandzhakova, Ph.D. philol. Sciences N. A. Eskova, Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences A. A. Zaliznyak, Ph.D. philol. Sciences O. E. Ivanova, Ph.D. philol. Sciences O. E. Karmakova, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor L. L. Kasatkin, Academician of the Russian Academy of Education V. G. Kostomarov, Academician of the IANP and RANS O. A. Krylova, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor L.P. Krysin, Doctor of Philology. Sciences S. M. Kuzmina, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor O. V. Kukushkina, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor V. V. Lopatin (chairman of the commission), teacher of the Russian language and literature V. V. Lukhovitsky, head. Laboratory of the Russian Language and Literature of the Moscow Institute for Advanced Studies of Educators N. A. Nefedova, Ph.D. philol. Sciences I. K. Sazonova, Doctor of Philology. Sciences A. V. Superanskaya, Ph.D. philol. Sciences L. K. Cheltsova, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor A. D. Shmelev, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor M. V. Shulga. Active participation in the discussion and editing of the text of the rules was taken by recently deceased members of the commission: Dr. Philol. sciences, professors V. F. Ivanova, B. S. Schwarzkopf, E. N. Shiryaev, Ph.D. Sciences N. V. Solovyov.

The main task of this work was to prepare a complete text of the rules of Russian spelling that meets the current state of the Russian language. The “Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation”, which are still in force, officially approved in 1956, were the first generally binding set of rules that eliminated inconsistency in spelling. Exactly half a century has passed since their release, and numerous manuals and methodological developments have been created on their basis. Naturally, during this time, a number of significant omissions and inaccuracies were discovered in the wording of the Rules.

Thus, the prepared text of the rules of Russian spelling not only reflects the norms fixed in the "Rules" of 1956, but in many cases supplements and clarifies them, taking into account modern writing practice.

Regulating spelling, this guide, of course, cannot cover and exhaust all specific complex cases of spelling words. In these cases, it is necessary to refer to spelling dictionaries. The most complete standard dictionary is currently the academic "Russian Spelling Dictionary" (2nd ed., M., 2005), containing 180 thousand words.

This guide to Russian spelling is intended for teachers of the Russian language, editorial and publishing workers, all who write in Russian.

To facilitate the use of the reference book, the text of the rules is supplemented with word indexes and a subject index.

The compilers express their gratitude to all scientific and educational institutions that took part in the discussion of the concept and text of the Russian spelling rules that compiled this guide.

SPELLING

INTRODUCTIONGeneral information about Russian writing

Russian writing is sound-alphabetic: its main units - letters are correlated with phonetic (sound) units of the language. The rules that determine the generally accepted notation of words are called spelling rules. They are divided into four main groups: literal transmission of the sound composition of words; continuous, hyphenated and separate spelling; the use of uppercase and lowercase letters; transfer rules. In turn, the literal transmission of the sound composition of words is determined by two types of rules: the general rules for the use of letters (they are also called rules of graphics) and the rules for writing significant parts of a word.

Punctuation marks, or punctuation marks (period, comma, semicolon, colon, dash, ellipsis, question and exclamation marks, brackets, and partly quotation marks), do not participate in the design of the word, but dismember the written text, highlight syntactic units. The rules for using punctuation marks are called punctuation rules.

The Russian alphabet (a set of letters arranged in a conditional but strictly defined order) consists of 33 letters, each of which exists in two versions: uppercase (large, capital) and lowercase (small).

-1	letter name	Letter	letter name	Letter	letter name
Ah	a	Ll	ale	ts	tse
bb	bae	Mm	Em	hh	Che
Vv	ve	Hn	en	shh	sha
Gg	ge	Oo	about	Shch	shcha
dd	DE	Pp	pe	bj	solid mark
Her, Yoyo 1	her	pp	er	Yy	s
Learn	same	ss	es	b	soft sign
Zz	ze	Tt	te	uh	uh
ii	and	woo	At	Yuyu	Yu
yy	and short	FF	ef	Yaya	I
Kk	ka	xx	Ha

The basic principle of the use of letters

The general rules for the use of letters determine the transmission of paired hard and soft consonants in writing, as well as the sound C] 2 (“yot”).

An alphabet of 33 letters (with consecutive use of the letter e) used only in special purpose texts (see § 5 of the rules). In normal writing, the letter yo is used selectively (see § 5, paragraphs 1,2). 2

C] is a consonant present, for example, at the beginning of a word Christmas tree roll] or at the end of a word the battle.

There are no simple one-to-one relationships between sounds and letters of the alphabet. To convey vowels, ten letters are used, forming five letter pairs: a-i, y - yu, oh - yo 9 uh 9 s - and 1 . 21 letters are used to represent consonants: b, in, d, d, f, h, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, f, X, c, h, sh,sh, y.

There are no special letters in Russian writing to designate paired hard and soft consonants. Each pair of consonants, differing only in hardness-softness, is indicated by the same letter: b and b"(" - a sign of softness) - a letter b, and and P"- letter l, d and d"- letter d etc. The letter following them indicates the hardness-softness of paired consonants: the letters a, y, about, uh,s, for softness - the letters I, Yu, e, e, i, eg: glad - row, bow - sunroof, hutch - heifer, sir- gray, dust - drank 2 . At the end of a word or before a hard consonant, the softness of a paired consonant is indicated by the letter b (soft sign), compare: con - horse, blood - blood, treasure - luggage; ban ka- bathhouse, hill - bitterly, dull - only.

Here and below, in the entire text of the rules, sounds are indicated by direct bold font and letters in bold italics.

2 In pairs of letters e - e, s - and this hardness transfer principle is soft sti consonants are observed not quite consistently (see about this in § 9 and 11).

However, to transfer the percussion about after letters w, w, h, w uses Xia not only a letter about, but also yo, e.g. with a knife but save; after the letter c written not only and, but also s, e.g. beaver lamb, but Gypsy(see about this in § 15, 18,19).

Unpaired hardness-softness consonants w, w, h, u (hissing) and c do not need to indicate hardness or softness with the next letter. To indicate hardness w, w no need to write a letter s, and to denote softness h, w- letters i, yu. Therefore, after all hissing letters are written a, y, and, eg: heat, ball, hour, mercy; bug,noise, miracle, pike; fat, reeds, rank, shield 3 .

To convey a consonant C] there is a special letter and, but it is usually used after vowels - at the end of a word and before consonants, for example: may, t-shirt, swarm, shrew. Before vowels - at the beginning of a word and after vowels - C] is not indicated by a separate letter, but together with the next vowel it is transfused with letters I,yu, yo, e, eg: apple, fear, south, snake, tree, sings, spruce, arrived *. After the consonants in this case, before the letters i, Yu, yo 9 e are written b or ь (separator characters): hug, pre-anniversary, drove up, rise; friends, blizzard, on the bench, gun; after the separation b the combination "j + vowel" can also be transmitted by the letter and: nightingales.

So the letters I Yu, yo, e, and are used in Russian writing in two functions: to designate vowels with a simultaneous indication of the softness of the preceding paired consonant and to convey the combination j followed by a vowel.
The basic principle of conveying significant parts of words in writing

The rules of Russian spelling are based on the principle of non-designation in writing of the change of sounds under the influence of the position in the word.

The sounds in the composition of the word are in unequal conditions. In some positions (phonetic positions) all vowels or all consonants are distinguished; these are independent, strong positions. Vowels a, oh, and, uh, uh differ under stress: small, they say, sweet, mule, chalk. Paired by voiced-deafness consonants differ before vowels (goat - spit, ponds - rods) , before unpaired voiced consonants n, l, m, r(hard and soft) and "iot" (evil - layer, tear - spend, beat - drink), and also before in(hard and soft): castle - creator, animal - check. Hard and soft consonants are distinguished before vowels (knock - bale) and at the end of the word (throne - touch), as well as before hard consonants (jar - bathhouse).

For some deviations from this pattern (in words of foreign origin and in compound words), see § 26.

In other positions, not all sounds are distinguished; these are dependent, weak positions. Yes, percussive sounds. a and about(myself and som) in an unstressed position coincide in one sound a: s[a]lsh. After soft consonants in an unstressed position, they do not differ, they coincide in one sound and four vowels that differ under stress - about, a, and, uh, for example: [h "to] whip, [tl m]whack, [n "irsh, [d" and] ld, cf. under stress [t "6] swim, \tba]No, [p "i] / ib, [d "3 ]lo. Paired voiced-deafness consonants do not differ at the end of a word, as well as before voiceless and voiced consonants, for example: du[p] - su[i] 9 ska [s] ka - dye,by [d] I take - o [d] I take (cf. before vowels: oaks - soups, fairy tales - colors, pick up - select).

Sounds in the position of indistinguishability are checked in the same significant part of the word (morpheme) by the corresponding sounds in the position of distinction. For example, writing a letter about in place of an unstressed vowel a in the word b[s]r6tsya validated by the form fights, in which the root vowel is stressed. Impactless sound and in the word [t "and] yellow checked by a stressed vowel in a word gravity, in [l "and] sleep - shock e(forest), and in a fox - shock and(foxes). Paired deaf and voiced consonants in the position of indistinguishability are also checked by the position of distinction - for example, before a vowel: do[n] - oaks, soup] - soups; ska [s] ka - fairy tales, kra [s] ka - colors.

The same principle applies to the transfer of vowels and consonants in prefixes, suffixes, endings (see the relevant sections of the rules).

The spelling of words in which the sound in the indistinguishable position cannot be verified is determined in dictionary order, cf. unchecked vowels in roots: dog, deer, cabbage, now, meridian, knight; unverifiable consonants in roots: where, Tuesday, train station, elevator.

AT Russian orthography has separate deviations from the general principle of writing letters in significant parts of a word, when, by virtue of tradition, the letter that is suggested by the check is not written. For example, in the word to swim pronounced under stress a, however, without stress in cognate words swimmer and swimmer a letter is written about; in a prefix times-/roses- occurs under stress only about(e.g. painting, raffle) however, without stress, according to tradition, the letter is written a (ex.: write, play).

Such digressions are often explained by historical alternations of sounds within one root (or another morpheme). As a result, different letters can be written for one root (or another morpheme) in different words. In these cases, the rules give the wording: "should not be checked by such and such a word (such and such a form of the word)". For example, in verbal roots, a paired verb of the opposite form cannot be used for verification (see § 34, note 2).

Features of writing some categories of words

In words of foreign origin (especially in proper names), as well as in abbreviations, there are spellings that deviate from the general rules for the use of letters. For example, in some foreign words after letters well,w, c letters are written I,yu, uh (brochure, parachute, jury, pshut, Jules, Siauliai, Tsjavlovsky, Zurich; jen, Shenyang, Lao She), and after n - letters s and uh(Truong, Chengdu). Such spellings may reflect some peculiarities of pronunciation - for example, soft well and sh, solid h.

Only in words of foreign origin there are letter combinations ya, yu, ya, ya, yo, yo, eg: sequoia, sequoia (vin. p.), Goya, paranoia, paranoia (genus p.), York, district, broth. Letter combinations uncharacteristic for the Russian language are also found in abbreviations, for example: ZhEK, ChEZ (frequency electromagnetic sounding), YAR (Yemen Arab Republic).

The special role of tradition in the spelling of surnames (both Russian and foreign) is determined by their legal status: they retain the letter form recorded in official documents. For example, there are surnames black and Black, Okhapkin and Akhapkin, Komarovsky and Komorowski, Syroezhkin and Syroeshkin, Bessonov and Bezsonov, Kuzmin and Kuzmin.

RULES FOR USE OF LETTERSGeneral rules 1

Vowels not after hissing andc 2

Letters a - I, at - Yu § 1. Letters a, at are used:

To convey vowels a, y at the beginning of a word and after vowels, for example: hell, scarlet, army, gasp, liana, oasis, Loire; mind morning,goon, spider, teach.

To convey vowels a, y and at the same time to indicate the hardness of the preceding consonant, for example: ball, decoction, tie,gift, weaver, wish; storm, owl, take, sink.

Phonemic principle of Russian spelling

From the history of Russian spelling

Punctuation norms

Punctuation of ancient monuments of the XI - XIV centuries

Russian punctuation of the 15th-17th centuries

Bibliography

Introduction

Spelling norms These are the rules for naming words in writing. They include the rules for designating sounds with letters, the rules for continuous, hyphenated and separate spelling of words, the rules for using uppercase (capital) letters and graphic abbreviations. Punctuation norms determine the use of punctuation marks.

The Russian language unites the nation and at the same time is an integral and important part of our national culture, reflecting the history of the people and their spiritual quest. Modern Russianists, and in particular, experts in the culture of speech, rightly say that the Russian language, reflecting our national virtues, no less clearly shows all our troubles. The problem of the correctness of Russian speech, compliance with the norms of the literary language is widely discussed in newspapers and magazines, in radio programs. Deviations from the norms in the public speech of politicians, radio and television announcers, a decrease in the general level of literacy of the population, and especially young people, are condemned. At the same time, there is not a single area of human knowledge, human activity, for which a bad, confusing, illiterate professional or everyday speech of a performer would be a boon. A graduate of any university - technical or humanitarian, must be literate, have a culture of speech.

The culture of speech is, firstly, the possession of the norms of the literary language in its oral and written form. Allows you to use language tools with maximum effect in any communication situation, while respecting the ethics of communication. Secondly, this is the area of linguistics, which is designed to solve the problems of speech norms, to develop recommendations for the skillful use of the language. Speech normativity is the observance in speech of the current norms of stress, pronunciation, word usage, style, morphology, word formation, syntax. The questions of the culture of speech were dealt with by M.V. Lomonosov, ostokov, otebnya, inokur, A.M. Peshkovsky, Ebra, Shakov, V.V. Vinogradov, Vanesov, S.I. Ozhegov.

Based on the foregoing, the purpose of this essay is to study the problem of the norms of the Russian language, and in particular, orthoepic and spelling. To study this issue, first of all, it is necessary to define the concept of a language norm, identify its main features, indicate the sources of the norms of the modern Russian language. Secondly, it is necessary to determine what is the subject of study of orthoepy and spelling, what are the historical roots of this issue. To reveal the topic in the abstract, the works of S.I. Ozhegova, I.B. Golub, D.E. Rosenthal, N.S. Valgina, R.I. Avanesov and others, as well as materials from periodicals.

Spelling norms

Spelling (from the Greek orthos direct, correct and grapho I write) is an applied section of linguistics that determines how words are transmitted in writing using alphabetic and non-alphabetic (hyphens, spaces, dashes) graphic symbols, as well as setting. Spelling consists of several sections:

writing significant parts of the word (morphemes) - roots, prefixes, suffixes, endings, that is, the designation of the sound composition of words with letters where it is not defined by graphics;

merged, separate and hyphenated spellings;

the use of uppercase and lowercase letters;

Transfer rules

rules for graphic abbreviations.

Phonemic principle of Russian spelling

Spelling is based on certain principles: phonemic, phonetic, traditional and differentiating. The phonemic principle is that phonetically positional changes are not reflected in the letter - reduction of vowels, stunning, voicing, softening of consonants. At the same time, vowels are written as if under stress, and consonants - as in a strong position, for example, positions before a vowel. With the phonetic principle of spelling, the letter indicates not a phoneme, but a sound. For example, the spelling of prefixes ending in [з] obeys the phonetic principle in Russian. They are written either with the letter c, or with the letter z, depending on the quality of the next consonant: to break - to split. The essence of the differentiating principle is to distinguish orthographically that which does not differ phonetically. At the same time, the letters are associated directly with the meaning: set on fire (ch.) - arson (n.). The traditional principle governs the spelling of unchecked vowels and consonants (dog, pharmacy).

In the Russian spelling system, the main, leading principle is phonemic. It is on it that the main spelling rules are built, while other principles are used partially.

Continuous, separate and hyphenated spelling regulated by the traditional principle, taking into account the morphological independence of units. Separate words are written mainly separately, except for negative and indefinite pronouns with prepositions (no one) and some adverbs (in an embrace), parts of words - together or with a hyphen (cf .: in my opinion and in my opinion).

Use of uppercase and lowercase letters is regulated by the lexico-syntactic rule: proper names and denominations are written with a capital letter (Moscow State University, Moscow State University), as well as the first word at the beginning of each sentence. The rest of the words are capitalized.

Word hyphenation rules from one line to another: when transferring, first of all, the syllabic division of the word is taken into account, and then its morphemic structure: war, smash, and not * war, * smash. One letter of the word is not transferred or left on the line. Identical consonants in the root of the word are separated during transfer: kas-sa.

From the history of Russian spelling

Consider in connection with this issue a section of the book by S.I. Ozhegov "On streamlining Russian spelling", built on examples. "Russian Grammar", published by the Russian Academy in 1802, clarified and detailed the Lomonosov spelling rules and thus summed up the entire work of the 18th century. ordering spelling. But in the future, the fluctuations increase, new ones are added to the old ones. Work of acad. Ya.K. Grot "Controversial issues of Russian spelling from Peter the Great to the present", published in 1873, very fully revealed the causes and cases of inconsistency in spelling. His manual "Russian Spelling" significantly contributed to the streamlining of orthography and served spelling practice for half a century. But the leadership of Ya.K. Grotto, under the conditions of that time, could not solve many pressing issues of orthographic practice. Only the reform of 1917-1918, carried out by the Soviet government, eliminated all vestigial, outdated rules, and Russian spelling became much more harmonious and better. But there were still many unresolved issues, many spelling fluctuations continued to exist, and spelling aids published in the early years of the revolution often contradicted each other, which complicated spelling practice.

What explains the presence and occurrence of oscillations? Is it possible to avoid them in the future? As the history of orthography shows, a greater or lesser number of different spellings always remained after each successive settlement. The thing is that spelling does not keep pace with the development of the language. The source of the appearance of mass fluctuations is the development of the vocabulary of the language, especially in the 19th and 20th centuries.

The development of vocabulary at the expense of the internal means of the literary language introduced a lot of contradictions into literary practice. So, for example, one of the most disastrous phenomena in modern orthography is the continuous or separate spelling of adverbs formed from combinations of a preposition with a noun. This type of adverb formation lives on in modern language. Reflecting the needs of communication, adverbs arise constantly. Before the revolution, the combination in a draw was written separately, but after the revolution, with the development of sports, chess art, it became terminological, and now everyone understands its continuous spelling in a draw. During the Great Patriotic War, a military expression appeared on the pages of our press on the move (attack, storm, etc.). Not knowing how to treat it, the same newspapers wrote it both separately (on the go) and together (on the go). However, recently they began to write separately - on the move, given the presence of parallel formations with the noun move (for example, rebuilding on the move, etc.).

Or, for example, the category of complex adjectives in the modern language is a lively and productive category. They arise constantly, and with the same constancy, fluctuations are found in continuous writing or through a dash. Military training, military field, bakery, on the one hand, and liable for military service, bakery, on the other, are not brought under the existing rules for writing.

Fluctuations in the spelling of adverbs, compound adjectives, and other whole categories of words are especially noticeable in our spelling practice. Here it is necessary to create such clear, objectively accessible rules that could, to a certain extent, indicate the ways for writing newly formed words.

The history of orthography shows that spelling never develops by breaking the existing system. Historically expedient and socially justified is the internal improvement of spelling, taking into account the laws of language development with the elimination of remnant elements, as was the case, for example, in 1917.

Survival elements that contradict the phonetic and morphological system of the modern Russian language have been eliminated. The main task of improving the culture of written speech is not a reform, but the streamlining of spelling.

Further history of Russian writing in the XX century. is a history of attempts to further improve it. In 1956, the final version was adopted - the Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation, which are in force to this day.

Today, the need to make changes to the spelling and punctuation norms, according to linguists, is due to the fact that the current “Code of Rules”, approved in 1956, is pretty outdated. During this time, the language has acquired many neologisms for which there are no rules; the spelling of a number of words in practice has changed significantly. In the publication of spelling dictionaries and textbooks on the Russian language, confusion has begun: dictionaries are being republished under the guise of “new” which are obviously outdated and, along with this, modern ones. Today there are two spelling dictionaries (N.V. Solovieva and V.V. Lopatina), each of which is written: "Russian Academy of Sciences." Both dictionaries are in conflict with the rules of the 56th year that have not been canceled so far. Meanwhile, "... in most major European countries there is a standard representation of the national language in the form of a set of dictionaries (DUDEN, Standartwerk zur deutchen Sprache - in Germany, Standart Reference Books - in the UK, etc.). This series of reference books is designed for mass reader and is published in cheap mass circulation. This is how the mandatory, state-controlled presentation of the ideological and cultural minimum, which is recommended to every citizen. There are no equivalent language standards of the state language in the Russian Federation. In addition, the position of Russian linguists has not been consolidated"

Chairman of the Spelling Commission V.V. Lopatin emphasized that the spelling reform under discussion cannot be called a reform of the Russian language, since it does not provide for any cardinal changes in the rules: we are talking only about those 23 norms that life itself has already changed. As an example, the scientist cited the spelling of complex words. So, the word "state-monopoly" according to the current rules should be written together. It is also proposed to unify the unreasonably introduced various norms (for example, the spelling of the prefix floor- in the words half past ten, half past twelve). Thus, work on improving spelling continues in our time.

Punctuation norms

The theory of punctuation in the works of scientists of historical and modern linguistics. The history of Russian punctuation has not been fully and deeply studied. A statement made by Shapiro back in 1955 is still relevant today: “Russian punctuation has not yet been subjected to scientific research. As a system of rules, it was covered mainly in works on grammar (M.V. Lomonosov, A.A. Barsova, A.Kh. Vostokova, F.I. Buslaeva, etc.). Special works devoted to punctuation are rare... We also do not have a history of Russian punctuation” (Shapiro, 1955, 3). There are only a few studies that address the issue of the emergence and development of Russian punctuation. A brief outline of the history of punctuation until the beginning of the 18th century can be found in the article by I.I. Sreznevsky "On Russian spelling". V. Klassovsky in his work "Punctuation marks in the five most important languages". An attempt to determine the development of punctuation at its origins is made by S.A. Bulich in the article "Interpuncture". Statements about the origin and development of punctuation are in the work of A. Gusev "Punctuation marks (punctuation) in connection with a brief doctrine of the sentence and other signs in the Russian written language." L.V. Shcherba in the article "Punctuation" expressed some thoughts about the use of punctuation marks in ancient Russian writing. But the most valuable among the works on the history of punctuation are the scientific works of S.I. Abakumov. His research "Punctuation in the monuments of Russian writing of the XI-XVII centuries." is an essay on the history of Russian punctuation. The works of K.I. Belova: "From the history of Russian punctuation of the 16th century", which examines the punctuation of "Domostroy", and "From the history of Russian punctuation of the 17th century", which analyzes the use of punctuation marks in the "Cathedral Code of 1649". However, the listed works do not give a sufficient idea of the development of Russian punctuation and do not fully reflect the features of the use of punctuation marks. It is traditionally accepted that the basis of punctuation is syntax. S.K. Bulich wrote: “Interpuncture makes the syntactic structure of speech clear, highlighting individual sentences and parts of sentences” (Bulich 1894, 268]. N.I. Grech adhered to the grammatical principle in determining the main function of signs: “Punctuation marks are used in writing to show grammatical connection or the difference between sentences and their parts and to distinguish sentences by expressing them "(Grech, 1827, 512). S.I. Abakumov defended the semantic purpose of punctuation: "The main purpose of punctuation is to indicate the division of speech into parts that are important for expression of thought in writing” (Abakumov 1950, 5). A.A. Vostokov, I.I. Davydov, A.M. Peshkovsky believed that the main purpose of punctuation is to convey the intonation side of speech. Modern linguistic science proceeds from the structural-semantic principle. She considers it necessary to take into account semantic and grammatical features when using punctuation marks. The semantic purpose of punctuation marks, considered S.I. Abakumov, in many cases can be understood with sufficient clarity only by understanding the grammatical structure of the language. The question of the purpose of punctuation, its principles, was also reflected in the works of Russian grammarians of the 16th-18th centuries. During this period, the foundations of Russian punctuation began to take shape. However, almost before the invention of printing, we do not find a certain punctuation in the samples of ancient writing, although some of its rudiments were observed at the time of Aristotle in the Greek written language. So, for example, a dot at the top of the letter corresponded to the current point, against the middle of the letter - a colon, and at the bottom of the letter - a comma. However, the use of a dot as a thought-separating sign was not considered mandatory. Unlike spelling, punctuation is more international, so it should be considered as the result of a long interaction of the punctuation features of the Russian language with the features of other languages of the world. The first to use punctuation marks was Aristophanes of Byzantium. We find clear hints of punctuation marks in Aristotle: the dot at the bottom of the letter (A.) corresponded to the current comma, against the letter (A) - a colon, and against the top (A) - a point. And at the beginning of the 1st c. BC e. the system of punctuation marks was already realized theoretically and set forth by the Greek grammarian Dionysius of Thrace in the book "Grammatical Art". He distinguished three punctuation marks: 1) a dot - a sign of a completed thought, 2) a middle dot - a sign of rest, 3) a small dot - a sign of a thought not yet completed, but in need of continuation. Thus, the point was reborn before all the signs. In the middle of the 1st century BC. punctuation is influenced by the dominant role of Roman science, but no fundamentally new punctuation has been created. Nevertheless, some differences in Greek and Latin punctuation existed, and as a result, it is customary in the history of punctuation to distinguish between Greek and Latin punctuation traditions. Later, these ^ differences will be reflected in Western European punctuation systems. By the 10th century, that is, by the time the Slavic Cyrillic script was invented, the following signs were already in use in Greek and Latin manuscripts: 1) a cross (+), 2) various combinations of dots (. . . . ~ : ~), 3) period (.), 4) semicolon (; or .,), 5) two semicolons (,), 6) comma (,), 7) group of commas (,). Russian manuscripts did not know the division of phrases into words. Points were placed in the intervals between undivided segments of the text. In the middle of a speech, only one punctuation mark was used - a period, and then ¦ accidentally, inappropriately; as a final sign they used four dots on a cross (.) or another similar combination of signs, and then a line.

Punctuation of ancient monuments of the XI - XIV centuries

In the development of punctuation in the Church Slavonic language, we notice three periods: the first covers manuscripts from the 11th century to the introduction of book printing in Russia; the second period - early printed books before the correction of the text of the Holy Scriptures in the patriarchate of Nikon; the third period - books of the corrected and now used text. In the first period, the following punctuation marks were used: 1) a dot (.), 2) a straight cross (+), 3) a quarter (:), 4) a simple colon (:), 5) a colon with an intermediate curve (:). In most of the manuscripts of this period, words were written almost without gaps, sometimes scribes put a dot or a straight cross between words, but they were not guided by any punctuation rules, and the use of the above characters was vague and confusing. A special place in the history of Russian punctuation is occupied by the graphic side of the Ostromirov Gospel. “Monuments of writing, the linguistic study of which already has a rather long tradition, remain one of the most important sources for studying the history of the Russian language in all its variety of varieties” (Kolosov, 1991, 3). This is one of the few ancient monuments where the line, in addition to the dot, is also divided by other signs - a cross and a vertical wavy line - a serpent. The punctuation marks of the Ostromirov Gospel, with a single exception, designate either the boundaries of sentences or the boundaries of actual components within sentences, and the crosses are clearly contrasted in this respect with dots and serpents. A characteristic feature of the vast majority of Russian monuments of the XI - XIV centuries. is the lack of opposition between intraphrasal and interphrasal punctuation. Even if some character is used inside a paragraph in addition to the usual point, then its use from the use of a point is no different.

Russian punctuation of the 15th-17th centuries

In early printed books, when words were already separated from each other, the graphic arsenal of Russian punctuation was significantly enriched: in addition to the dot, a comma, semicolon, and colon began to be used to divide a line. There are different types of dots: the term - a dot in the middle of the line - and the dot itself, which was placed at the bottom, and the dots could be of different sizes and colors. However, having learned the external difference in signs, scribes sometimes did not know what to do with this difference, therefore, not only in the XIV-XV, but also in the XVI-XVII centuries. there are texts with fuzzy opposition of signs not only according to the drawing, but also according to their purpose. The traditions of Cyrillic writing in the use of various punctuation marks were dominant in Russia until the 16th century. In the magnificent Four Gospels of 1537. it was customary to sharply separate expressions by putting thick dots or commas between them, and each expression was written completely together. Since the 16th century, the principle of separate writing of words has been affirmed in handwritten editions, and later the use of punctuation marks between words, sentences and other syntactic constructions. This custom of writing becomes a tradition, which was supported by a new way of creating a manuscript - typography. The first works on grammar appear, in which some attention is paid to punctuation. These articles were published by Yagich in the work "Discourse of antiquity on the Church Slavonic language". (Research on the Russian language, vol. 1. Sat., 1885-1895). A common feature of all articles was their anonymity, and most often the authors could not be identified. In some articles, punctuation marks were only named, in others their use was determined. As S.I. Abakumov, the statements about punctuation set forth in the works of Russian scribes of the 16th-17th centuries undoubtedly relied on the Greek punctuation tradition, but at the same time they were not a cast from any Greek original: they were created on Russian soil, on the basis of the existing punctuation practice. Of particular note is the work of Maxim the Greek “On the Grammar of Enoch Maxim the Greek, the work of the Holy Mountaineer was announced for subtlety.” In it, punctuation issues are given a relatively small place. M. Grek considered the comma to be the main sign of Russian writing and called it hypodiastole. In his opinion, the comma indicates the incompleteness of the action and allows the speaker to pause while reading. The next punctuation mark is a dot, which marked the end of the statement. The third punctuation mark is hypodiastole with a period, which the Greek recommends to indicate a question. Thus, M. Grek emphasizes only the intonation value in the use of punctuation marks. At the same time, he tries to concretize their use, distinguishing between the functions of a comma and a semicolon. Statements about punctuation in the works of Russian scribes were based on Greek punctuation, but the system of punctuation means was formed on Russian soil, the traditions of which were shaped by practice. In 1563, in The first Russian printing house appeared in Moscow, and in 1564 the first printed book appeared in Russia - "Apostle", which already used punctuation marks - a dot and a comma. A whole independent sentence was separated by a dot, and a comma served to separate its parts. The development of book printing pointed to the need for stability of writing and required a significant improvement in the system of Russian punctuation.The first printed Slavonic Grammar was published in Lvov in 1591 under the title ADELFOTN? her rules for the use of different punctuation marks - subtle, as Zizanius called them. In addition to the dot and comma, the term (small dot) and the double line were adopted in almost the same meaning as the semicolon in modern Russian. At the end of a sentence, a question mark - a subframe - began to be used. Zizaniy himself in his book used only some of the signs he proposed. Instead of the deadline (small dot), a dot was constantly put. The double line was used only once. It seems that the author did not clearly understand the function of this sign, all the more he could not distinguish between the use of terms and double terms. A more complete correspondence between the theoretical provisions and their practical application is observed in the formulation of the underframe and the point. The underframe was consistently used by L. Zizaniy at the end of an interrogative sentence. According to S.K. Bulich, the entire chapter "On Points" was written by L. Zizaniy under the influence of those grammatical articles that appeared in Russia in the 16th century and were compiled by unknown authors. Indeed, in the grammar of L. Zizania, all those punctuation marks that are found in pre-existing grammars are named. However, his merit is that he tried to give a more detailed explanation of all existing punctuation marks. According to K.I. Belova, in the definition of punctuation marks, L. Zizaniy proceeds from their syntactic purpose. Using the definition of a comma as an example, K. I. Belov writes: “Here, a certain syntactic meaning of a comma is emphasized as a sign that defines a part of a statement that expresses a complete meaning. This principle, to one degree or another, will be traced in the future, when characterizing other punctuation marks ”(Belov, 1959, 4). T.I. does not agree with this point of view. Gaevskaya, who states: “In the definition of a comma, as well as other signs, L. Zizaniy proceeds primarily from the semantic purpose of punctuation. The syntactic functions of punctuation marks could not be substantiated theoretically, if only because syntax as a section of grammar had not yet been developed at that time. It is not represented in any way in the grammar of L. Zizania. That is why the question of the basics of punctuation, if approached from the point of view of the modern Russian language, was solved by L. Zizaniy only one-sidedly” (Gaevskaya, 1973, 12). In general, the work of L. Zizania is an attempt to systematize the information about punctuation marks that had accumulated by the end of the 16th century, the desire to determine the place of each character in the general system of punctuation. And in 1619 another, even more important work was printed in the Vilna Fraternal Printing House - "Grammar" by Melety Smotrytsky. which has been used as a teaching aid. It represented a deeper experience of the grammatical development of the Russian language, in contrast to the grammar of L. Zizania. Of course, the external schemes containing the material are copied from the Greek grammar of Laskaris, but it is important that the section on punctuation is much wider than that of Zizanius. For the first time, a definition of the concept of punctuation marks appears: “There are speeches / inscriptions of different banners in the line of separation” (M. Smotrytsky, 1619, 5). Thus, Smotrytsky regarded punctuation marks as a means of grammatical division of speech and singled out ten punctuation marks: 1) dash / 2) comma, 3) colon: 4) period. 5) razyatnaya 6) unity "7) question; 8) surprising! 9) common 10) deposition () Of the ten given names, razyatnaya and unity are not punctuation marks in the grammatical sense and are given in order to ensure clarity when reading individual words. Some signs in the grammar of M. Smotrytsky they are called differently than those of L. Zizania: instead of a double line - a colon, instead of a subframe - a question mark, instead of a connective - a single line. The author explains the feature as a slight increase in voice, not accompanied by a stop when reading. Therefore, this sign should be considered as a sign that does not have a syntactic meaning, but has only a rhythmic-melodic character. Therefore, a line that is not used in the meaning of a comma turns out to be devoid of any meaning. But it should be noted that the line was an innovation of the grammarian, before him this sign was not known to our punctuation. It is debatable whether the line can be considered a prototype of a dash. If we talk about the graphic side, then, of course, there is a relationship. But in their functions they are different, since the punctuation of the grammar was based on a fundamentally different principle. The comma at Smotrytsky is a clearly expressed punctuation mark. From the examples given in the grammar, it is possible to reveal the really syntactic purpose of only one punctuation mark - the comma. As for the colon, Smotrytsky notes that this sign is not associated with the idea of a completely complete meaning of the statement, and with the colon, a certain stop is clearly felt. So, this sign is somewhat close in meaning to the modern semicolon and partly to the modern colon.

THE RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Department of Historical and Philological Sciences

Institute of the Russian Language. V. V. Vinogradova

RULES OF RUSSIAN SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION

Complete Academic Handbook

Valgina Nina Sergeevna, Yeskova Natalya Alexandrovna, Ivanova Olga Evgenievna, Kuzmina Svetlana Maksimovna, Lopatin Vladimir Vladimirovich, Chelydova Lyudmila Konstantinovna

Managing editor V. V. Lopatin

Design by E. Enenko

Foreword

The proposed guide was prepared by the Institute of the Russian Language. V. V. Vinogradov of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Spelling Commission at the Department of Historical and Philological Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences. It is the result of many years of work of the Spelling Commission, which includes linguists, university professors, methodologists, and secondary school teachers.

The following took part in the work of the commission, which repeatedly discussed and approved the text of the handbook: Ph.D. philol. Sciences B. 3. Bookchina, Ph.D. philol. Sciences, Professor N. S. Valgina, teacher of the Russian language and literature S. V. Volkov, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor V. P. Grigoriev, Doctor of Ped. Sciences, Professor A. D. Deikina, Ph.D. philol. Sciences, Associate Professor E. V. Dzhandzhakova, Ph.D. philol. Sciences N. A. Eskova, Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences A. A. Zaliznyak, Ph.D. philol. Sciences O. E. Ivanova, Ph.D. philol. Sciences O. E. Karmakova, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor L. L. Kasatkin, Academician of the Russian Academy of Education V. G. Kostomarov, Academician of the IANP and RANS O. A. Krylova, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor L. p. Krysin, Doctor of Philology. Sciences S. M. Kuzmina, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor O. V. Kukushkina, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor V. V. Lopatin (chairman of the commission), teacher of the Russian language and literature V. V. Lukhovitsky, head. Laboratory of the Russian Language and Literature of the Moscow Institute for Advanced Studies of Educators N. A. Nefedova, Ph.D. philol. Sciences I. K. Sazonova, Doctor of Philology. Sciences A. V. Superanskaya, Ph.D. philol. Sciences L. K. Cheltsova, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor A. D. Shmelev, Doctor of Philology. Sciences, Professor M. V. Shulga. Active participation in the discussion and editing of the text of the rules was taken by recently deceased members of the commission: Dr. Philol. sciences, professors V. F. Ivanova, B. S. Schwarzkopf, E. N. Shiryaev, Ph.D. Sciences N. V. Solovyov.

This guide to Russian spelling is intended for teachers of the Russian language, editorial and publishing workers, all who write in Russian.

To facilitate the use of the reference book, the text of the rules is supplemented with word indexes and a subject index.

The compilers express their gratitude to all scientific and educational institutions that took part in the discussion of the concept and text of the Russian spelling rules that compiled this guide.

SPELLING

INTRODUCTION

General information about Russian writing

Russian alphabet(a set of letters arranged in a conditional but strictly defined order) consists of 33 letters, each of which exists in two versions: uppercase (large, capital) and lowercase (small).

Letter - The name of the letter

Her, Yoyo - e, yo

Yy - and short

Ъъ - a solid sign

b - soft sign

The basic principle of the use of letters

The general rules for the use of letters determine the transmission of paired hard and soft consonants, as well as the sound [ j] ("iot").

There are no simple one-to-one relationships between sounds and letters of the alphabet. To convey vowels, ten letters are used, forming five letter pairs: a - i, u - u, o - e, e - e, s - and . 21 letters are used to represent consonants: b, c, d, e, g, h, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, f, x, c, h, w, u, d .

There are no special letters in Russian writing to designate paired hard and soft consonants. Each pair of consonants, differing only in hardness-softness, is denoted by the same letter: b and b'(' - a sign of softness) - a letter b , P and P'- letter P , d and d'- letter d etc. The letter following them indicates the hardness-softness of paired consonants: the letters a, u, o, uh, s , for softness - letters i, yu, yo, e, and , for example: glad - row, bow - hatch, sense - heifer, sir - gray, ardor - drank. At the end of a word or before a hard consonant, the softness of a paired consonant is indicated by the letter b (soft sign), compare: horse - horse, shelter - blood, treasure - treasure; jar - bathhouse, slide - bitterly, sense - only.

Rules of Russian spelling and punctuation complete academic reference book - page No. 1/16

RUSSIAN ACADEMY SCIENCES

Department of Historical and Philological Sciences Institute of the Russian Language. V.V. Vinogradova

RULES OF RUSSIAN SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION

COMPLETE ACADEMIC HANDBOOK

N. S. Valgina, N. A. Eskova, O. E. Ivanova, S. M. Kuzmina, V. V. Lopatin, L. K. Cheltsova
Managing editor V. V. Lopatin

Rules of Russian spelling and punctuation. Complete academic reference book / Ed. V.V. Lopatin. - M: AST, 2009. - 432 p.

ISBN 978-5-462-00930-3

A complete academic reference book is intended for the widest range of readers.

Introduction I

General information about Russian writing 11

The basic principle of the use of letters 12

The basic principle of the transfer of significant parts of words in writing 14

Features of writing some categories of words 16

Rules of use letters 17

General rules 17

Vowels not after sibilants c 17

Letters a - I, at - Yu 17

Letters about - yo 18

Use of a letter yo in texts for various purposes 20

Letters e - e 21

Letters and - s 24

Vowels after hissing and c 26

Letters a,at 26

Letters and s 26

Letters about her after sizzling 27

Letters about her in place of stressed vowels 27

Letters oh e in place of unstressed vowels 33

Letters oie after c 34

Letter uh after hissing and c 34

Letter th 35

Letters b and 6 36

Dividing b and b 36

The letter b as a sign of softness of the consonant 37

Letter b in some grammatical forms 39

Not after sizzling 39

After the sizzling 40

Rules for writing significant parts of a word (morphemes) - 40

Spelling of unstressed vowels 40

Unstressed vowels in roots 41

Features of writing individual roots 42

Unstressed vowels in prefixes 51

Unstressed vowels in suffixes 54

Features of writing individual suffixes 59

Unstressed fluent vowels in roots and suffixes of nouns and adjectives 69

Unstressed connecting vowels 72

Unstressed vowels in case endings 74

Unstressed vowels in verb forms 79

Vowels in verb endings 79

Vowels in the infinitive (indefinite form) before -ty 82

Impactless particles not and neither 83

Spelling of consonants 88

Voiceless and voiced consonants 88

Silent consonants 92

Groups of consonants at the junction of significant parts of the word - 93

Letters niches before n and t 97

Letter G at the end -th (-his) 99

Double consonants 99

Double consonants at the junction of significant parts of the word 99

Double n and one n in suffixes of adjectives and nouns 101

Double n and one n in suffixes of passive participles of the past tense and adjectives correlative with them ... 102

Full Forms 102

Short forms 105

Double n and one n in words formed from adjectives and participles 107

Double consonants in Russian roots 108

Double consonants in borrowed (foreign language) roots and suffixes 109

Rules for the use of non-alphabetic characters 111

Hyphen Sh

Slash 113

Apostrophe 114

Accent 115

Rules for merged, hyphenated and separate spelling 116

General rules 117

Nouns 121

Common names 121

Proper names and compound names 129

Names, pseudonyms, nicknames, nicknames 129

Place names 131

Adjectives 134

Numerals 139

Pronominal words 140

Adverbs 141

Service words and interjections 148

Combinations with particles 150

negative spellings not 151

Consolidated spelling not 152

Separate spelling not 153

Consolidated/separate spelling not 155

Corrective rules (coordination rules) 161

Rules for the use of uppercase and lowercase letters 164

General information 164

Proper names of people, animals, mythological creatures and words derived from them 167

Geographical and administrative-territorial names and words derived from them 171

Astronomical names 176

Names of historical eras and events, calendar periods and holidays, public

events 176

Religious titles 178

Names of authorities, institutions, organizations, societies, parties 182

Names of documents, monuments, objects and works of art 185

Job titles, ranks, titles 187

Names of orders, medals, awards, insignia 188

Names of trademarks, product brands and varieties 188

Capital letters in special stylistic use 190

Rules for writing abbreviations and graphic abbreviations... 191

Abbreviations and derivative words 191

Graphic abbreviations 194

Transfer Rules 195
PUNCTUATION

On the purpose and principles of punctuation 198

Punctuation marks at the end and at the beginning of a sentence. Final

signs in the middle of a sentence 201

Punctuation at the end of a sentence 201

Punctuation at the beginning of a sentence 203

End-of-sentence signs within a sentence 203

Dividing a sentence with dot 205

Dash between members of a sentence 206

Dash between subject and predicate 206

Dash in incomplete sentence 209

Gire in connection function 211

Dash in selection function 212

Signs punctuation for nominative topics 213

Signs punctuation with homogeneous members of a sentence 214

Punctuation marks for homogeneous members of a sentence with and without unions 214

Punctuation marks with homogeneous members of a sentence with generalizing words 220

Punctuation marks for homogeneous definitions 223

Punctuation marks for homogeneous applications 227

Punctuation marks for repeating members of a sentence 228

Signs punctuation for isolated members of a sentence 229

Punctuation marks with separate agreed definitions 229

Punctuation marks with separate inconsistent definitions 235

Punctuation marks for stand-alone applications 239

Punctuation marks in isolated circumstances ... 243 Punctuation marks in restrictive-excretory phrases 249

Punctuation marks with clarifying, explanatory and connecting members of a sentence 251

Punctuation marks in meaningful combinations with subordinating conjunctions or allied words 256

Punctuation marks for comparative turns 258

Signs punctuation for introductory and plug-in constructions 261

Punctuation marks for introductory words, word combinations and sentences 261

Punctuation marks when inserting 268

Signs punctuation when speaking 273

Signs punctuation for interjections and interjectional sentences 276

Punctuation marks for affirmative, negative and interrogative-exclamatory words 278

Punctuation marks in a complex sentence 280

Punctuation marks in a compound sentence 280

Punctuation marks in a complex sentence 284

Punctuation marks in non-union complex sentence 294

Punctuation marks in complex syntactic constructions 299

Punctuation marks for direct speech and quotations 301

Punctuation marks in direct speech 301

Quote Punctuation Marks 307

Quoting quotation marks and “foreign” words 310

Quoting unusually used words - 311 Combination of punctuation marks, the sequence of their location; interaction of signs in complex structures 313

The combination of punctuation marks and the sequence of their location 313

Interaction of punctuation marks in complex structures 317

Punctuation marks in the design of lists and rubrication rules 320

Index of words to the section "Spelling" 325

Index to the section "Punctuation" 435

Index of words to the section "Punctuation" 460

Conditional abbreviations 478

This guide to Russian spelling is intended for teachers of the Russian language, editorial and publishing workers, all who write in Russian.

To facilitate the use of the reference book, the text of the rules is supplemented with word indexes and a subject index.

The compilers express their gratitude to all scientific and educational institutions that took part in the discussion of the concept and text of the Russian spelling rules that compiled this guide.

SPELLING

INTRODUCTION General information about Russian writing

-1	letter name	Letter	letter name	Letter	letter name
Ah	a	Ll	ale	ts	tse
bb	bae	Mm	Em	hh	Che
Vv	ve	Hn	en	shh	sha
Gg	ge	Oo	about	Shch	shcha
dd	DE	Pp	pe	bj	solid mark
Her, Yoyo 1	her	pp	er	Yy	s
Learn	same	ss	es	b	soft sign
Zz	ze	Tt	te	uh	uh
ii	and	woo	At	Yuyu	Yu
yy	and short	FF	ef	Yaya	I
Kk	ka	xx	Ha

The basic principle of the use of letters

The general rules for the use of letters determine the transmission of paired hard and soft consonants in writing, as well as the sound C] 2 (“yot”).

C] is a consonant present, for example, at the beginning of a word Christmas tree roll] or at the end of a word the battle.

There are no simple one-to-one relationships between sounds and letters of the alphabet. To convey vowels, ten letters are used, forming five letter pairs: a-i, y - yu, oh - yo 9 uh 9 s - and 1 . 21 letters are used to represent consonants: b, c, d, e, g, h, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, f, x, c, h, sh,sh, y.

There are no special letters in Russian writing to designate paired hard and soft consonants. Each pair of consonants, differing only in hardness-softness, is denoted by the same letter: b and b"(" - a sign of softness) - a letter b, i and P"- letter l, d and d"- letter d etc. The letter following them indicates the hardness-softness of paired consonants: the letters a, uh, oh uh,s, for softness - the letters I, yu, yo, e, and, eg: glad - row, bow - sunroof, hutch - heifer, sir- gray, dust - drank 2 . At the end of a word or before a hard consonant, the softness of a paired consonant is indicated by the letter b (soft sign), compare: con - horse, blood - blood, treasure - luggage; ban ka- bathhouse, hill - bitterly, dull - only.

Here and below, in the entire text of the rules, sounds are indicated by direct bold font and letters in bold italics.

2 In pairs of letters e - e, s - and this hardness transfer principle is soft sti consonants are observed not quite consistently (see about this in § 9 and 11).

Unpaired hardness-softness consonants w, w, h, u (hissing) and c do not need to indicate hardness or softness with the next letter. To indicate hardness w, w no need to write a letter s, and to denote softness h, w- letters i, yu. Therefore, after all hissing letters are written a, u, i, eg: heat, ball, hour, mercy; bug,noise, miracle, pike; fat, reeds, rank, shield 3 .

To convey a consonant C] there is a special letter and, but it is usually used after vowels - at the end of a word and before consonants, for example: may, t-shirt, swarm, shrew. Before vowels - at the beginning of a word and after vowels - C] is not indicated by a separate letter, but together with the next vowel it is transfused with letters I,yu, yo, e, eg: apple, fear, south, snake, tree, sings, spruce, arrived *. After the consonants in this case, before the letters i, yu, yo 9 e are written b or ь (separator characters): hug, pre-anniversary, drove up, rise; friends, blizzard, on the bench, gun; after the separation b the combination "j + vowel" can also be transmitted by the letter and: nightingales.

So the letters I yu, yo, e, and are used in Russian writing in two functions: to designate vowels with a simultaneous indication of the softness of the preceding paired consonant and to convey the combination j followed by a vowel.
The basic principle of conveying significant parts of words in writing

The rules of Russian spelling are based on the principle of non-designation in writing of the change of sounds under the influence of the position in the word.

For some deviations from this pattern (in words of foreign origin and in compound words), see § 26.

In other positions, not all sounds are distinguished; these are dependent, weak positions. Yes, percussive sounds. a and about(myself and som) in an unstressed position coincide in one sound a: s[a]lsh. After soft consonants in an unstressed position, they do not differ, they coincide in one sound and four vowels that differ under stress - about, a, and, uh, for example: [h "to] whip, [t l m]whack, [n "irsh, [d" and] ld, cf. under stress [t "6] swim, \t b a]No, [p "i] / ib, [d "3 ]lo. Paired voiced-deafness consonants do not differ at the end of a word, as well as before voiceless and voiced consonants, for example: du[p] - su[i] 9 ska [s] ka - dye,by [d] I take - o [d] I take (cf. before vowels: oaks - soups, fairy tales - colors, pick up - select).

The same principle applies to the transfer of vowels and consonants in prefixes, suffixes, endings (see the relevant sections of the rules).

Features of writing some categories of words

In words of foreign origin (especially in proper names), as well as in abbreviations, there are spellings that deviate from the general rules for the use of letters. For example, in some foreign words after letters well,w, c letters are written I,yu, e (brochure, parachute, jury, pshut, Jules, Siauliai, Tsjavlovsky, Zurich; jen, Shenyang, Lao She), and after n - letters s and uh(Truong, Chengdu). Such spellings may reflect some peculiarities of pronunciation - for example, soft well and sh, solid h.

Only in words of foreign origin there are letter combinations ya, yu, ya, ya, yo, yo, eg: sequoia, sequoia (vin. p.), Goya, paranoia, paranoia (genus p.), York, district, broth. Combinations of letters that are uncharacteristic for the Russian language are also found in abbreviations, for example: ZhEK, ChEZ (frequency electromagnetic sounding), YAR (Yemen Arab Republic).

RULES FOR USE OF LETTERS General rules 1

Vowels not after hissing andc 2

Letters a - i, at - Yu § 1. Letters a, y are used:

To convey vowels a, y at the beginning of a word and after vowels, for example: hell, scarlet, army, gasp, liana, oasis, Loire; mind morning,goon, spider, teach.

To convey vowels a, y ball, decoction, tie,gift, weaver, wish; storm, owl, take, sink.

§ 2. Letters i, yu are used:

1. To convey vowels a, y and at the same time to indicate

on the softness of the preceding consonant, for example: woodpecker, chilly
poke,soft, invigorating, whole; dunes, loves, I drive, everywhere, cos-
tyum.

Note. Letters i, yu after the consonants g, k, x are found only in words of foreign origin, including in proper names, for example: Gyaur, Ganja, Gyurza, Guys, Hugo, Gunther; Kyakhta, manicure, ditch, Kuchelbecker, Kyushu; Hyanga, Huebner.

2. To convey a combination \ followed by a vowel a
or at:

Some general rules for the use of letters have features associated with the writing of individual words or significant parts of words. This is applies, for example, to the rules for writing letters and- s, writing about- yoafter hissing and c. However, for the convenience of the user, in the set of spelling rules, these features are traditionally given along with general rules.

2 The rules in this section are illustrated primarily by ramie with an accented vowel. About writing letters that convey unstressed nye vowel sounds, see the following sections of the rules.

apple, lighthouse, Yalta;southern, cabin, Yura;

Note. About writing in some words of foreign origin the letter combinations “I, yuu see § 26, paragraph 3.

b) after consonants; in this case before the letters I,Yu delimiters are written b or b (see § 27-28), e.g.: tub, monkey, blizzard, fifty; nuclear-free, awake, bunk, pre-anniversary.

Letters about - yo 1 § 3. Letter about used:

one . To convey a vowel about at the beginning of a word and after vowels
eg: axis, correspondence, theory, biographer, personally, peninsula.

To convey a vowel about and at the same time to indicate the hardness of the preceding consonant, for example: fight, plant, dove, kind, bundle, yoke, wears, forehead, liter, juice, steam room, one hundred.

In a limited circle of words of foreign origin, the letter about used:

a) to convey a vowel about after ) transmitted by the letter th

at the beginning of a word and in the middle of a word after vowels, for example: iodine,
major (for a list of such words, see § 26, paragraph 2);

In that variety of Russian writing, where the letter yo is used only selectively (see § 5), a letter pair oh - yo matching pair about- e.

b) to convey a combination) followed by a vowel about in

as part of a letter combination o after a consonant; list of basics
words 2: battalion, broth, canyon, companion, cotillion, car-
magnola, Cro-Magnon, lotion, medallion, minion, pavilion, pa-
Pilotki, postman, señor, señora, signor, signora, champignon-
he, chignon; quadrillion, quintillion, sextillion (as well as
options quadrillion, quintillion, sextillion, I pass-
using a different pronunciation); million (writing conveying
one of the pronunciations words million); in own
puffy names: Avignon, Asuncion, Guillaume, Mignon, Taglioni, Frshpjof. In rare cases, the letter combination yo written to convey the sounds of an unstressed syllable: guillotine, guillotine, senorat, senorita, senoria, signorina, signoria, Murillo.

§ 4. Letter yo used:

1. To convey a stressed vowel about and at the same time for

indications of the softness of the preceding consonant, for example:
child, oars, nail, state-owned, light, swept, deer,
motley, ribs, donkey, shabby, growing.

Note 1. Letter e after the consonants g, k, x occurs mainly in words of foreign origin, including in proper names, for example: gyozy, girls, liquor; Goethe, Hölderlin, Gothenburg, Cologne, Koestler, Höglund. Combination kyo also presented in words with a foreign suffix -yor type kiosk, alarmist and in personal forms of the verb weave: weave, weave, weave, weave.

Note 2. The letter £ can be written in place of a vowel about, having a secondary accent (ex.: three-year, four-meter, dark red), and also in place of an unstressed vowel about in words of foreign origin (for example: Goethe-Anetz, Königsberg).

2. To transfer a combination j followed by a stressed voice

nym about:

a) at the beginning of a word and after vowels, for example: tree, hedgehog, loan,

coffee pot, tip, sings, buoy;

b) after consonants; in this case before the letter yo are written

separating marks b or b(see § 27-28), e.g.: drinking,
will rise, underwear, serious, life-life; removable volume.

Note. About the use after the separator b instead of yo letters about(in words like broth, guillotine) see § 3, paragraph 36.

Note to paragraphs.1 and 2. In the unstressed position of the letter e corresponds to the letter e, for example: honey - honey, ice - ice, carried - carried, carries - takes out, hedgehog-hedgehog.

The use of the letter ё in texts for various purposes 1

§ 5. Use of a letter yo may be sequential or selective.

Consistent use of a letter yo required in the following types of printed texts:

a) in texts with consecutive characters

accents (see § 116);

b) in books addressed to young children;

c) in educational texts for elementary school students and
foreigners studying Russian.

Note 1. Consistent use e adopted for the illustrative part of these rules.

Note 3. In dictionaries, words with a letter yo are placed in the general alphabet of words with the letter e, eg: barely, unctuous, Christmas tree, spruce, crawl, herringbone, Christmas tree, spruce; to cheer up, to cheer up, to have fun, to have fun, to have fun.

In ordinary printed texts, the letter yo used selectively. It is recommended to use it in the following cases.

To prevent misidentification of a word, for example: everything, sky, in flight, perfect (as opposed to the words everything, sky, summer, perfect), including to indicate the place of stress in a word, for example: bucket, we know (Unlike bucket, we know).

To indicate the correct pronunciation of a word - either rare, not well known, or having a common mispronunciation, e.g.: gyo "zy, surfing, fleur, harder, slit, including to indicate the correct stress, for example: fable, brought, carried away, condemned, newborn, filler.

The rule of § 5 applies to all cases of the use of the letter ё, including AND AFTER HISTING F, 10, Chusch.

3. In proper names - surnames, geographical names, for example: Konenkov, Neyolova, Catherine Deneuve, Schrödinger, Dezhnev, Koshelev, Chebyshev, Vyoshenskaya, Olekma.

Letters e - e

§6. Letter uh written at the beginning of the root to convey the vowel e (without the preceding )):

At the beginning of the following native Russian pronominal words and interjections: this (this, this, these), such, such, such, such, such; eva, evon, ege, ege-ge, hey, ek, eh, ehma, eh-he.

At the beginning of words of foreign origin (including proper names), for example: eureka, export, emergency, hellenes, epic, era, ethics, echo, Etna, Eric (with letter uh, transmitting a stressed vowel); eucalyptus, selfishness, equator, exam, economics, electricity, element, elite, emotion, energy, epigraph, epidemic, escort, aesthetics, etymology, ether, Everest, Oedipus, Aeschylus(here a letter uh conveys an unstressed vowel).

In letter names el, em, en, er, es, ef, as well as at the beginning of abbreviations written according to the names of letters, and words formed from the names of letters and from letter abbreviations, for example: socialist-revolutionary, enny, ensky, emka.

After prefixes or components of complex and compound words (both after vowels and after consonants). Examples:

a) after vowels: anti-electron, anti-SR, deescal-

tion, unethical, re-examination, in stages, therefore, re-examination
port; dielectric, movie screen, television screen, megaerg, microelectronic
ment, polyester, mezzanine, five-story",

b) after consonants: electrodeless, subscreen, pre-examination

mentational, razedaky, save, super-economical, subequa-
torial, superelite; two-story, three-element,
lithium economy, sanitary and epidemiological station, Mosenergo, Ministry of Economy.

§ 7. Not at the beginning of the root after vowels (in words of foreign origin) are written as a letter uh, so e. Their choice depends on the preceding vowel.

1. After letters her and spelled e. List of basic words: ge-

enna, registry, extravaganza; hygiene, hyena, sharp, diet, realtor, sie-
hundred, spaniel, fiesta and words on -ent: applicant, client,
ingredient, factor, patient and others (with the letter e, I pass-
shchi stressed vowel); fan, leer, player, Jesuit, hierarchy,
hieroglyph, myelitis, pyelitis, piety, requiem, trier (here a letter
e conveys an unstressed vowel).

Note 1. In words conveyor and fireworks after e spelled ye(see § 26, paragraph 3).

Note 2. In some proper names after and written in letters, for example: Marietta, Gliere.

2. After letters ah ohu, u is written e. List of basic words:

duel, duet, maestro, minuet, pirouette, poet, poetry, poem, si-
louette, figurine (here a letter uh conveys a stressed vowel);
aloe, airfield (and other words with an initial part aero-),
firewall, canoe, coefficient, lues, maestoso, muezzin, fa-
eton, fuete (here a letter uh conveys an unstressed vowel). That
or in proper names, for example: Puerto Rico, Wales, Heming-
hey Maugham, Laertes, Aelita.

Exceptions: in words project, design, projection, projector and other single-rooted, trajectory, introjection, as well as in words -er (e.g. buer, gaer, fraer, interviewer) a letter is written e.

Note to paragraphs. 1 and 2. Regardless of the preceding letter, they are written with uh words with a second part -hedron: hexahedron, octahedron, tetrahedron, rhombohedron, trihedron, polyhedron.

§ eight. Not at the beginning of the root after the consonants, the letter e is written to convey the vowel e and at the same time to indicate the hardness of the preceding consonant in the following cases.

In a few common nouns of foreign origin. List of basic words: mayor, master "teacher, master" plein air, peer, racket, rap, sir; the same in words derived from them, for example: city hall, peerage, racketeer. The circle of other words (mainly highly specialized ones) is determined by the spelling dictionary.

In many proper names of foreign origin, for example: Bacon, David, Deng Xiaoping, Davis, Rayleigh, Rambo,

Salinger, Sam, Sasson, Thatcher, Taffy (personal names and surnames), Maryland, Taipei, Ulan-Ude, Huang He (place names). Letter uh is preserved in any words derived from such proper names, as well as when they become common nouns, for example: Ulan-Ude, Rayleigh (physical unit), sesson (a haircut).

3. In the names of letters be, ve, ge, de, ze, pe, te, as well as in

abbreviations written according to the names of letters, and words formed
bathrooms from letter abbreviations, for example: armored personnel carriers, kaveenshchik,
gepeushnik, KGBashny.

Note. In words eser, enes and sdek- old abbreviations denoting members of some political parties of the early 20th century - the letter is traditionally written e.

4. In sound abbreviations and words formed from them,

eg: HPP, CHP, VTEK, NEP, Fair (physical equivalent
x-ray), vtekovsky, nepman.

§ nine. In other cases, not at the beginning of the root after the consonants, the letter is written e.

At the same time, in all native Russian words, the letter e indicates the softness of the preceding consonant, e.g.: white, wind, word, foot, business, in the water, underground, trace, laudatory, exchange, wall, census, endure, cut, grow old, spring, reading, paths.

However, in words of foreign origin, written with the letter e, the preceding consonant may be pronounced firmly. So, after letters that convey a soft consonant, the letter e written in words asbestos, version, ghetto, despot, zebra, comet, lady, pioneer, subscriber, aspect, watercolor, sector, patent, defect and in a number of others. After letters that convey a hard consonant, e written in words baby, dandy, delta, model, eczema, cousin, slang, businessman, inertia, phonetics, cappella, rugby, rating, dispensary, setter, cottage, parterre, stand, pace and many others, as well as in indeclinable common nouns, consistently written with a final letter e, eg: meringue, chimpanzee, macrame, resume, pince-nez, tour, coupe, corrugation, puree, dash, cabaret, fricassee, highway, essay, variety show, neckline, karate, cafe, and in words with a foreign suffix -essa (type poetess, stewardess, baroness); in a number of proper names, for example: Carmen, Nehru, Roerich, Time, Dantes, Taylor, Delphi, Saint Gotthard.

§ ten. In the following cases, the letter e written to convey a combination) followed by a vowel e:

At the beginning of a word, for example: huntsman, caustic, ride, spruce, if, heresy, ride, Eva, Yelnya, Yeysk.

After vowels in Russian (not borrowed) words, for example: call in, move, beat, come, military, ecstasy, eat, bark beetle, sweet tooth, leave, vanity.

Note to paragraphs. 1 and 2. 0 spelling letter combinations ye see §26, p.3.

3. After consonants; while before the letter e are written once

fissile yi (see § 27-28), e.g.: necklace, premiere, chance-
nier, croupier, play, courier, entertainer, tub (dat. p.), in the article
Molière; enter, drive up, departure, disconnect, eat,
supernatural, pan-European, injection, courier.

Letters and - s §eleven. Letter and it is written:

To convey a vowel and at the beginning of a word and after vowels, for example: name, long since, spark; fawn, frantic, drink, win, cruise, suite, egg.

To convey a vowel and and at the same time to indicate the softness of the preceding consonant, for example: battle, cherry, perish, drive, plunge, tanker, downpour, house, lazy, drink, burn, strength, go, countess, dry.

To send a combination j followed by a vowel and after consonants; in this case before and is written dividing b (see § 28), e.g.: sparrow, vary, articles, Ilyin.

In the following cases, the letter and transmits sound s after solid consonants:

a) after prefixes of foreign origin: hyper-, dez-, inter-, counter-, post-, sub-, super-, trans-, and also after the initial element pan-, eg: hyperinflation, disinformation, disintegration, counterplay, post-impressionism, post-infarction (cf. preinfarction, see § 12, paragraph 2), sub-inspector, superinfection, trans-Iranian, pan-Islamism;

b) after the Russian prefix above-, eg: ultra-refined,
super interesting;

Note1. After the Russian prefix inter- letter and written according to the rule of § 14.

Note2. 0 writing at the beginning of the root after Russian letter prefixes s see § 12, paragraph 2.

c) after the first parts of complex and complex abbreviations

words, for example: two-needle, three-pulse, pedagogical institute,
sports equipment, political information, state property, state inspectorate
tion, financial inspector, miriskusnik (from "World of Art").

§ 12. Letter s used to convey a vowel s and at the same time to indicate the hardness of the preceding consonant:

1. Not after prefixes, e.g.: true, slave, howl, call,

guide, goats, whip, baby, thought, sick, dust, hurried,
prowl, full, desert, snort.

Note. Letter s after the consonants g, I,X used: in single interjections and words formed from them (shoo, roar, roar); in words of foreign origin, including in proper names, for example: akyn, kok-saghyz, Gy-dan, Kyzylkum, Kyshtym, Khirdalan, Khamkhyn; in colloquial forms of patronymics like Olegych, Markych(see § 43, note).

2. After Russian prefixes ending in a consonant

(except attachments above- and inter-), eg: needleless (cf. needle),
illusory (illusion), artless (skillful), hopeless
(outcome), win out (play), find (search), have
(have), similarly: seek, supra-individual, ordinary
lead, decalcification, named, play along, sub-
huddle, pre-infarction, prehistory, ridicule, wanted,
improvise.

Note1 . After other prefixes, a letter is not written on a consonant s, but it is written and (see §11, paragraphs 4a and 46).

Note 2. Letter s at the beginning of a word occurs only in words of a special type - in the name of a letter s, in an interjection uh, in words poke and yip, denoting features of pronunciation, as well as in rare foreign words, including proper names, for example: yr(the name of the songs of some Turkic peoples), Yym, Ynykchansky(river and village in Yakutia).
Vowels after hissing andc Letters a, y

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