PEOPLES OF EASTERN EUROPE. ROMANSKAYA GROUP.

The peoples of several Romanesque subgroups live on the Balkan Peninsula: Balkan-Romanesque, Italian-Romanesque and Dalmatian, which was an intermediate link between them. Italo-Romance includes only a fewistriots - residents of individual villages on the Istrian peninsula.Dalmatians underwent Slavicization and by the 20th century became an ethnic group of Croats. Their language is currently extinct. The Balkan-Romance subgroup includesRomanians (Daco-Romanians), Moldavians, Istro-Romanians, Megleno-Romanians and Aromanians . The last three peoples are very small in number, they do not have an ethnic consciousness and a literary form of their languages. Often Aromanian, Istro-Romanian and Megleno-Romanian are considered dialects of the Romanian language, but only Romanian scholars adhere to this hypothesis, and mainly for political reasons. Romanian scholars also exclude the Slavic substratum of the Balkan-Romanian languages ​​and attribute the Slavic influence to the time of the invasion of the Slavs in the 6th-7th centuries. But in reality, not only the Thracians were Romanized, but also the neighboring Slavic tribes living in the Carpathians and on the Dniester. The Balkan-Romance languages ​​sharply oppose other Romance languages ​​and stand out inEastern Romance community . This is due to the fact that Dacia and other Danubian lands underwent Romanization quite late (106 AD) and separated from Rome (275 AD) earlier than others (than Gaul, Iberia). Unlike the ancestors of the French, Spaniards and Italians, the ancestors of the Romanians did not contact the Germans to the same extent as the Western Roman peoples, but experienced a strong Slavic, Greek and, subsequently, Hungarian adstratum influence. The Latin language brought by the legionnaires already had the features of the spoken vernacular language of the Roman Empire, the predecessor of the Italian dialects, therefore, between modernBalkan-Romance (Romanian-Moldovan, Meglenite, Istro-Romanian, Aromunian) and Italo-Romanesque (Italian, Sicilian, Istrian, Dalmatian, Neapolitan Calabrian) there are common features that are absent in other subgroups of Romance languages ​​-Romansh (Romanish, Engadi, Friulian, Ladin) , tyrreno-romanesque (Sardinian and Corsican), Gallo-Roman (French, Walloon, mixed Franco-Provençal) and Ibero-Romance (Spanish, Portuguese, Galician, Provençal <по последним исследованиям, этот "диалект" французского определен в эту подгруппу, некоторые ученые даже вычленяют каталанский и провансальский языки в Iberian-Romance or Ligurian-Romance subgroup> , Catalan) , Gascon (Gascon is close to Ibero- and Franco-Romance, but arose on a special substrate).
Scientists distinguish two stages in the development of the Balkan-Romance languages.
The first lasted from the 1st to the 7th centuries. AD, when the development of Danubian Latin took place(romana comuna, romana primitiva, staromana, protor omana) , formed as a result of the transition of local Thracian and Slavic-speaking peoples to the Latin language.
On themap of the distribution of languages ​​in the 6th century. it can be seen that the territory occupied by the Romanized Dacians was limited - between the Southern and Eastern Carpathians, and was gradually reduced due to Slavic expansion. More common was the Dalmato-Romance language of the Romanized Illyrians.
Presumably in the 8th century AD, the decay began romana comuna into two zones: northern and southern. Although some scholars believe that a single Danubian Latin did not exist: languages ​​and dialects developed autonomously and independently, and have common features only because they were formed on a homogeneous ethnic substrate. Northern limit of distribution romana comuna lay near the Western Carpathians, the southern one - at the Stara Planina (Balkans).
Second period (7th-9th centuries) - the time of strong Hungarian and Slavic influence. Moreover, the Slavic influence, as a rule, is Bulgarian. The Yugoslav languages ​​retained the Old Slavic sound combinations /tzh/ and /j/, and in Bulgarian they switched to /st/ and /zd/(the so-called line of E. Petrovich - isoglosses /st/ and /zd/ - passing along the border of Serbia and Bulgaria, and separating these two languages) . Many Slavic borrowings in Balkan-Romanian have exactly the Bulgarian form:"sling (Russian) - prasta (Bulg.) - pracha (Serbo-Croatian) - prastie (Daco-Rom.) - prast" e (Istro-Rom.)" . Konstantin Zhirechek line divides the Balkan languages ​​into zones of Greek and Latin influence, it runs along the Stara Planina ridge. The Balkan-Romance languages, Albanian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian are included in the sphere of influence of Latin, and Bulgarian (and its dialect - Macedonian - in the zone of Greek influence). The percentage of coincidence of the phonetic systems of Romance languages ​​with Latin (not all phonemes are indicated in the table, but only those that are not present in all languages).

Phoneme	Port.	Use	Franz.	Italian	Romanian.	Latin.
/w/
/j/
/h/
/X/
/c/
/and/
nasal
	40 %	70 %	30 %	60 %	40 %

ITALIAN-ROMAN SUB-GROUP
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ї Istriots (Istrians).
Until recently, the Istriots were considered descendants of the Romanized Retes and were included in the Romansh group, and sometimes considered an ethnic group of Italians. Some scholars considered them to be descendants of the northern Dalmatians. Now, based on the original features of the internal structure of the Istriot language, it is customary to consider the Istriots as a separate people speaking a language belonging to the Italo-Romance subgroup. The Istriots are the descendants of the Romanized tribes that lived on the Istrian peninsula and surrounding areas. These tribes could be, with equal probability, both the Illyrians or Veneti, and the Rets (3rd-1st centuries BC), who spoke a language close to Etruscan. It is possible that the Slavic tribes of the Khorutans joined the ethnos of the Istriots in the middle I thousand AD
In the 1950s, the language was recorded only in 4 out of 8 historically Istriot villages - Rovinj, Vodnyan, Bale and Galizhano. In the 1980s, remnants of speech are only attested in Rovinj and Vodnjan. Several words have been noted:peculiar Dignan, Rovinsky, Gallesan, Piran and Pul (has a significant Venetian substratum), dialect of the village of Valle, Fezan dialect . Of these, only the first two are "alive".
In total, less than 1,000 people consider themselves isriots. to the southwest coast of the Istrian peninsula. Often identified with the Istro-Romanians. Catholics. Anthropologically, they can be attributed to the so-called.Adriatic type (mixed Dinaric-Mediterranean). (cm.Croats ).
Fragment of text in Istriot language:"Salve, o Regeina, mare de mi/aricuordia, veita, dulcisa e sparansa, salve: A Tei femo ricurso nui suspiremo, dulenduse, piurando in sta val da lagrame" .

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DALMATO-ROMAN SUBGROUP
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ї Dalmatians.
Dalmatia is a region on the east coast of the Adriatic Sea, captivating the Velebit and Dinara mountains. The name of the area comes from the Illyrian"delm" - "sheep" . BC. the Illyrians lived here, who at the beginning of our era. underwent Romanization, and soon their main part was Slavicized. Until the 7th c. AD Dalmato-Romance was spoken almost throughout the western part of the Balkan Peninsula. Separate islands of native speakers of the Dalmatian language remained until the end of the 19th century on the entire Adriatic coast and islands. It is reliably known about Dalmatian speech in the cities: Velha (Krk), Ossero, Arbe, Zadar, Trogir, Split, Dubrovnik (Ragusa), Kotar.
It is impossible to talk about a single "Dalmatian language" - this term is called the totality of dialects that were the result of the independent development of Latin on the eastern coast of the Adriatic. The term was proposed by M. Bartoli in 1906, before that the concept of "Vellot language" was in use. You can't talk about the "Dalmatian people" in this way.
Dalmatian dialects have many common elements with Balkan-Romance, but the grammar is Italian-Romance. The scientist K. Tagliavini classifies these dialects as mixed (or transitional) and gravitating towards the Italian-Romance subgroup.
According to a number of criteria(pronunciation of Latin letters "c" and "g" before "i", structural differences) dialects are divided into 3 zones:northern (velotskaya) - existed until the end of the 19th century on the island of Krk (Velha);central - took place in the city of Zadar in the 11th-15th centuries;southern (ragusan) - the dialects of this zone were used in the 13th-15th centuries. in the cities of Ragusa and Cotard.
Fragment of text in Dalmato-Romance:" ?na krestom?tia da la langa neodalm?tika ku ?na deskripsi?n grammar da la l?nga , ku ?na glos?ra , e ku des t?kstas , t?ti ku traduksi?nes in - a l a langa engl?za " .
Currently, they are included in the ethnic group of Croats and are mostly Slavicized.
Anthropologically -Adriatic racial type (cm. Croats ).

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BALKANO-ROMAN SUB-GROUP
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northern community

ї Romanians (romana) and Moldovans (moldova).
Descendants of the Romanized Thracian tribes (Dacians, Getae, Tribals, Meses, Besses, etc.). Roman rule was short-lived and was expressed only in the replacement of Thracian dialects with Danubian Latin ( romana comuna ). The Thracian tribes (about 200 ethnonyms) were very numerous, although they lived on a not very large territory: on the Lower Danube (Meuses and Tribals - to the south; Dacians and Getae - to the north), Southern and Eastern Carpathians (besses), southeast Balkan Peninsula (Odryses and Thracians), a small part, together with related Phrygians - in the northwest. Asia Minor (Misians). According to some versions, the Black Sea Cimmerians and Taurians were a mixed Adyghe-Thracian people. The main references to the Thracians date back to the 6th-3rd centuries. BC. There was a cultural difference between northern and southern Thracians. More advanced were the Dacians and Getae. Slave Spartacus was a Thracian. The Thracian was also the legendary Gordian ("Gordian knot"). In the 5th c. there was a powerful state of Odryses. In the 2nd century BC. The Celts entered the Danube. Contacted with the Daco-Getsyazigi and roxolans - Iranian tribes. In the 1st century BC. Get Burebista united the Daco-Getic lands into a state, simultaneously conquering part of the Alpine lands. The Daco-Getae claim to Moesia, which belonged to Rome, led to the destruction of Dacia in 106 AD. At the same time, the city of Sarmizegetusa (now Gradishtea-Munchelului) - the capital of Dacia - was destroyed. In the first centuries A.D. Daco-Geta underwent Romanization. They lived in a small area north of the Danube. In 275 Dacia was captured by the Goths. From the 4th c. AD Scythians settled in Dobruja. In the 6th century, the Slavs began to penetrate the Danube, and then a new wave of nomads (Bulgars). But they occupied places on the Tisza River and the Stara Planina Mountains, bypassing the Wallachian lands. In the same period, the Wallachian development of the Prut and Dniester rivers (the so-called Bessarabia - named after the Thracian Bess tribe) and the assimilation of the local Slavic population (streets and Tivertsy) began. The Germanic element was expressed in the presence of Goths, Bastarns, Skirs, Taifals. In the 9th century, the Hungarians appeared in the Carpathians, they settled in Pannonia, and some of them captured Transylvania, where the Vlachs lived. Close proximity to the Hungarians led to the appearance of many Hungarian loanwords in the Vlach language. In 1500, the principalities of Wallachia (in the Southern Carpathians) and Moldavia (to the west and east of the Prut River) already existed with a population that spoke Daco-Romanian dialects. In modern times, German settlers began to penetrate into Transylvania, who were engaged in mining.
Language: Romanians and Moldavians use the same literary form of the Daco-Romanian language, which is called differently in each case (in Moldova - Moldavian, in Romania - Romanian, in scientific literature - Daco-Romanian).
The amount of common vocabulary between Romanian and other languages ​​of the Romance group: with Italian - 77%, with French - 75%, Sardinian - 74%, with Catalan - 73%, with Romansh - 72%, with Portuguese - 72%, with Spanish - 71%.
Daco-Romanian dialects:
. Banat dialect (SW of Romania)
. Krishan dialect (NW Romania) - has many dialects.
. Muntean (Wallachian) dialect - literary (Southern Carpathians, Dobruja, south of Romania along the Danube, Bulgaria, autonomy of Vojvodina as part of Serbia).
. Moldovan dialect (n.v. Romania, Moldova, Bukovina - Chernivtsi region of Ukraine, north of Dobruja)
- Bukovinian variant (border of Ukraine and Romania)
- Moldavian variant (the literary form is close to the literary form of the Romanian language, it differs only in graphic display) - there are northwestern, northeastern, central and southwestern dialects. 40% of words have Slavic roots.
. Maramuresh dialect (northern Romania, Eastern Carpathians)
. transylvanian dialect (a group of dialects between the Eastern and Western Carpathians)
. transitional dialects: Dobrujan, Bayash (mainly spoken by Roma living in Romania, this dialect developed from Banat with strong Hungarian and Gypsy influences), Oltensh (Lower Wallachia)
Phonetic features of the Romanian language: the distinction between Latin /?/ and /?/, the transition "an > Hn" before a vowel and consonant, as well as "am + consonant > Hm" (except for words of Slavic origin), the emergence of a new morphological alternation of vowels (tot - "all", toat? - "all"). Contrasting palatalized and non-palatalized consonants; the transition of the intervocalic "l > r" is specific; labialization "qu > p, qu > b" is observed. Combinations of consonants followed by /i/ are especially developed, for example "t + i>? [ts]"; "d + i > dz > z". Typologically, the Romanian language has much in common with other languages ​​of the Balkan Peninsula.: loss of the infinitive, descriptive form of the future tense, the presence of a postpositive article ; the forms of number and gender of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, the conjugation system retain, for the most part, the morphological features of folk Latin. Numerals from 11 to 19 are formed according to the Slavic model. There are many Slavic and Greek borrowings in the vocabulary. Written monuments in Romanian have been known since the 16th century. (translations of Old Church Slavonic texts and business documents). The formation of the literary Romanian language took place in the 19th century. Cyrillic graphics in the 19th century. was replaced by the Latin alphabet. In the Moldovan language-dialect, it has been preserved.
Religion: Moldovans are Orthodox, Romanians are Orthodox and Catholics.
Surname endings: Moldovans<Пеленягрэ, Ротару>(-re, -ru), Romanians<Колонеску, Денусяну, Пушкариу, Тородан, Капидан>(-esku, -yanu, -iu, -an).
Anthropology not well studied.
It is known that the Moldovans of Moldova mostly belong to the so-called.Prut cluster of the North Pontic type , which is often calledlower Danubian . A more detailed article about these types is in the sections about the Slavs.
Bukovinian Moldavians, together with the Hutsuls and most of the Romanians (35% - center, north) belong toDinaric racial type . These are the descendants of the Dacians, the Illyrian people, who at some historical period switched to the language of the Thracian group.
The southern and eastern Romanians (25%), together with the northern Bulgarians, unite inlower Danubian racial type , which combines the features of the Dinaric and Pontic, but at the same time, the Lower Danubians differ slightly from the representativesAdriatic type (Dinaric-Mediterranean mix) and Byzantine. According to Bunak, the Lower Danubian type is a special branch of the Caucasoid race: the shape of the skull is Mediterranean (Pontic), facial features and physique are Dinaric.
Alpine type in Romania is found everywhere in the proportion of 10% - the descendants of the Celtic settlers.
In the central regions of Romania, representatives ofnordic type (3% - in Transylvania).
In the northeastern part of Romania and in Moldova, there areEastern European elements (20 % total number Romanian).
Representatives ofNoric type (7%).
Northern and western Romanians are taller and more brachycephalic (index - 84-87 versus 80) than southern Romanians and Moldavians. The head size does not vary much: the largest heads are western Romanians mixed with Hungarians, and Moldovans in the zone of contact with the Gagauz. The pigmentation of the Lower Danubians is very dark, the hairline is developed.
The Pontic component of the Lower Danubian type (the main racial type of the Thracians) can be deduced both from the contacts of the Thracians with people from Asia Minor or the North Caucasus (in particular, the Ashui group), and from the fact that the Thracians are a mixtureancient Danubian type (to which the Indo-Europeans of the western branch belonged) withdinars . The anthropological characteristics of the ancient Danubians (officially - the type of the Mediterranean branch) were as follows: short stature, high face, wide nose, mesocephaly. ї Istro-Romanians
Sometimes identified with isriots. They are descended from the Romance-speaking shepherds (Mavrovlachs, Morlaks, Chiches, Uskoks), who roamed from the 10th to the 14th centuries. in Yugoslavia and resettled in the 15-16 centuries. from Northern Dalmatia to Istria, Slovenia, Carinthia. They split from the Eastern Daco-Romanians, romanized Getae (Dobruja), before the Hungarian invasion and their language has no Hungarian loanwords. In Istro-Romanian, combinations / cl-/ and /gl -/, which in Daco-Romanian they have changed to / k / and / g /. After fixing on the island of Istria, they absorbed new settlers - Aromanians and Banatians. Many were assimilated by the Slavs, as indicated by the numerous parallels between Istro-Romanian and Serbo-Croatian.
Until the 19th century, they lived the same way. in Trieste and on about. Krk.
A language is a collection of dialects that do not have a supra-dialect form. 65% of the words are borrowed from Latin, the morphology is close to Serbo-Croatian, the early Slavic borrowings are almost all from Bulgarian. Istro-Romanian is considered a mixed Slavic-Romance language.
. andYeyan (Northern) dialect - mountains to the northeast Istria
. southern dialects (Noselo, Sukodru, Berdo, Fly)
. sushnevitsky dialect
Adriatic racial type (high stature, relatively light pigmentation of hair and eyes, high protruding nose, narrow face, sub- and brachycephaly, proportional body). (cm.Croats ). Approximately 1 million people in several villages in the eastern part of the Istrian peninsula in Slovenia. Catholics.

South Danube community

ї Aromanians (Aromanians, Kutsovlakhs, Vlekhs, Tsintsars, Karakachans, Macedonian-Romanians).
Aromunians are a group of tribes speaking dialects, united on the basis of structural features and not having a supradialectal form. Mentioned since the 10th century. AD In the 13th-14th centuries. Aromanian state formations existed in Epirus.
There are transitional Meglenite-Aromanian dialects, which indicates the close origin of these peoples.
. Pindians (the most numerous) - Thessaloniki, Pindus, Macedonia.
- sub-ethnos of the inhabitants of Mount Olympus
. gramostians - the border of Albania and Greece. After the destruction of the village of Gramoste in the 18th century by the Turks, they settled in Macedonia and in the southwest. Balkans.
. farsherots - the village of Frasheri in Albania, from where they settled to the east and Epirus, Macedonia and Thessaloniki
- subethnos of Musekers on the coast of the Adriatic and Albania
. Moskopolites - the village of Moskopolje was destroyed by the Albanians, in the 18th century they left for Macedonia and Thessaloniki
Scholars M. Caragiu and Marioceanu divide the Aromun dialects into F -dialects (Farsherot and Museker) and A dialects (everything else).
According to the classification of T. Papakhadzhi and T. Cupidaiu, there are:
. northern dialects: - farsherotsky and musekersky; - Moscow-Polish; - dialects close to the Megleno-Romanian language (1. byala de sue and byala de jos, 2. gopesh and mulovishte)
. southern dialects: - Pindian, - grammatical, - Olympian
The scientist T. Kapidan believes that the Pindian Aromanians are Albanians romanized by the Aromanians. According to another version, the Pindians are the descendants of the Dacians and Besses (Bessarabia), who moved, first under pressure from the Eastern Slavs, to the Sava River (a tributary of the Danube) in Bosnia, and then to the south, to Epirus and Macedonia.
Number: 1.5 million people; 60 thousand of them - in Albania, 50 thousand - in Pinda (Greece), the rest - in Bulgaria, Serbia, Macedonia. Weak ethnic self-consciousness, there is no desire to create autonomies. Divided into tribal branches -ramuri and tulpies , which do not always coincide with dialect articulation. By religion - Orthodox.
Anthropologically, the Pindians stand out - the Alpine type, the rest of the Aromanians - the Lower Danubian and Byzantine types. ї Megleno-Romanians (Meglenites).
The term Meglenites means tribes speaking a set of dialects that are structurally close. The name was proposed by G. Weigand.
. northern dialects (Macedonia)
. central dialects (Greece: Lumnitsy, Kupy, Oshini, Barislava, Lundzini). Lundzinsky is distinguished by the transition /c/ to /s/.
. Cernareki dialect (close to several dialects of the Aromunian).
They were discovered rather late by the scientist Weigand, who noticed that the dialects of the Meglen region in Macedonia represent a separate branch of the Balkan-Romance languages. He also suggested that the Meglenites are the descendants of the Vlachs, who in the 12th century participated in the creation of the Bulgarian-Walachian state. As an alternative, the linguist proposed a version according to which the Meglenites are streams of Romanized Pechenegs (10th century). O. Denusyanu considered the Meglenites to be the descendants of the Daco-Romanian colonists. He supported his theory with linguistic studies, which showed that the Daco-Romanian and Meglenite languages ​​opposed the Aromanian. Obviously, the Meglenites experienced Greek influence, but retained the structure of numerals, as in Latin. In Daco-Romanian and Aromanian, numerals are built according to the Slavic model.
Similarities between Meglenite and Daco-Romanian, their difference from Aromanian.
Twenty:daozots(meglen.) - douazeci(Daco-Rom.) - yingits (arum.) - (compare French.vingts) etc.

meglen.	daco-room.	arum .	russ .
antsileg arzint drum floari friguri frik kriel lek mos nas pimint skimp timp trimet utsit vink	inteleg argint drum floare friguri frig crier leac mos nas pami nt schimb timp trimet ucid inving	(prindu, duk "escu) (asime) (kale) (lilitse) (hiavro) (coare) (moduo, minte) (yatrie) (aus) (nare) (loc) (aleksesku) (k" ero, an) ( pitrek) (vatom) (nik "isesku)	intellect silver road cream fever frost head (?) potion nose watch time beat

After some time, Denusyanu changed his point of view and came to the conclusion that the Meglenites came from the west of Romania, from Bihor, from where they were driven out by the Hungarians.
In parallel, there was the theory of S. Pushkariu and T. Capidan. They considered the Meglenites to be the descendants of the Romanized Meuzes and Tribals who lived south of the Danube. And they brought their linguistic similarities and differences between Daco-Romanian, on the one hand, and, on the other hand, Meglenite and Aromanian.
At present, it is customary to consider the Meglenites to be the descendants of the Romanized Mezes, who lived south of the Danube, as a single ethno-massif with the Aromanians. The ancestors of the Aromanians left the Danube in the 10th-11th centuries, and the ancestors of the Meglenites left later - in the 13th century. The Meglenites adopted a number of features from the Bulgarian language that are not found in Aromanian. In particular, the transition / a, i / in / o / appeared in Bulgarian from the 12th century.
Number - 20 thousand people in Greece northeast of Thessaloniki and in Macedonia. Religion - Orthodox. Anthropology -Byzantine type (cm.
Slavic · Tocharian

in italics dead language groups highlighted

Indo-Europeans Albanians Armenians Balts
Veneta Germans Greeks
Illyrians Iranians Indo-Aryans
Italians ( Romantsy) Celts
Cimmerians· Slavs · Tokhary
Thracians · Hittites in italics now non-existing communities are highlighted Proto-Indo-Europeans Language Homeland Religion
Indo-European Studies

Romance peoples(from the Latin name of the city of Rome - Roma) - a group of peoples of various ethnogenetic origins, united by the use of Romance languages. Includes such geographically and ethnically distant peoples as the Portuguese, Romanians, French, Moldavians, Puerto Ricans and Cajuns. In the modern world, up to 1 billion people can be attributed to the Romanesque cultural and linguistic community, including about 2/3 of them (over 600 million) to the Latin American subgroup - that is, Hispanic (about 450 million) and Portuguese-speaking peoples (about 220 million). )

linguistic community

During the mixing of the assimilation of the peoples that became part of the Roman Empire, the Latin language played a unifying role in this process, to one degree or another assimilated by the inhabitants of many historical regions of the empire. And although the linguistic differences between them were already significant in ancient times, and then only aggravated by the Germanic, and for the Balkan-Roman group by the Slavic, Hungarian and Turkic invasions. However, the unification and standardization of the norms of literary Romance speech and writing under the influence of book Latin vocabulary, and to a lesser extent of grammatical turns, again brought them closer to each other starting from the 15th century (for Romanian from the 19th), after the discrepancies that accumulated in the 5th-15th centuries, and for Romanian in the 3rd-19th centuries.

Romance peoples of Old Romania

Old Romania is a territory of Europe where the Romance language has been preserved since the time of the Roman Empire. In the era of the early Middle Ages, as a result of the Germanic dismemberments and the preceding Romanization of the autochthonous population, the following Romance sub-ethnoi were formed:

• Gallo-Romans, from which the modern French and the Walloons close to them, the French-Provencals, the French-Swiss, and later the French-Canadians, the French-Acadians, the French-Creole groups of the New World, Africa and Oceania were subsequently formed;
• Ibero-Romans - including the Castilians and Mozarabs, from which the Spaniards, Portuguese, Galicians, Catalans, Aragonese, Mirandians, and then the Latin American and Creolized groups of Africa, Asia and Oceania formed first;
• Daco-Romans - Vlachs, who gave rise to modern Romanians and Moldavians, as well as groups of Aromanians, Megleno-Romanians, etc.
• Italo-Romans - groups of Italians, Sicilians, Corsicans, Sardinians, Rhaeto-Romans, Provencals, Dalmatians, etc., descended from him.

The borders between them were indistinct, in addition, the more "prestigious" Germanized peoples absorbed the southerners in the course of the redrawing of medieval borders. For example, the French almost completely assimilated the Provencals and Franco-Provencals, Gascons and Walloons (who retained their identity, but not their dialect). The Spaniards and Catalans swallowed up the Mozarabs, and the Italians the Sicilians.

Modern Romance communities

• Aragonese (generally considered a sub-ethnic group of Spaniards)
• Aromanians (Aromans) (sometimes regarded as a sub-ethnic group of Romanians; heavily assimilated due to Albanianization, Hellenization, or Slavicization)
• Walloons (self-name - Wallons, country name - Walonreye)
• Dalmatians (assimilated by Croats by the middle of the 19th century)
• Spaniards (self-name - españoles (españoles), pueblo español, singular - español (espanol), name of the country - España (Espana), name of the state (from the 30s) - Reino de España, (1931-1939) - República Española)
• Istriotes (often seen as a sub-ethnic group of Italians)
• Istro-Romanians (heavily assimilated by Croats)
• Italo-Swiss (Swiss sub-ethnic group)
• Italians (self-name - italiani (Italians), singular - italiano (Italian), name of the language - lingua italiana, name of the country - Italia (Italy), name of the state - Repubblica Italiana, until 1946 - Regno d'Italia)
• Catalans (including Valencians and Balearic)
• Corsicans
• Ladins (sometimes regarded as a sub-ethnic group of Italians)
• Megleno-Romanians (heavily assimilated by Turks and Macedonians)
• Moldovans (self-name - moldoveni (Moldoven), language name - limba moldovenească, country name - Moldova, state name - Republica Moldova, (in 1918) - Republica Democratică Moldovenească)
• Portuguese (self-name - portugueses (Portuguese), povo português, singular - português (Portuguese), language name - língua portuguesa, country name - Portugal (Portuguese), state name - República Portuguesa, (until 1910) Reino de Portugal)
• Provencals (including Gascons and other sub-ethnic groups; now part of the French ethnic group)
• Romansh (Romance)
• Romanians (self-name - români (Romanian), poporul român, singular - român (Romanian), name of the language - limba română, name of the country - România (Romania), name of the state (1947-1965) - Republica Populară Română, (until 1947) - Regatul Romaniei)
• Sicilians (now a sub-ethnic group of Italians)
• Franco-Provençals (now a sub-ethnic group of the French)
• Franco-Swiss (a sub-ethnic group of Swiss)
• French (self-name Français (France), peuple français, singular - Français (France), name of the language - langue française, name of the country - France (France), name of the state - République française, until 1848 - Royaume de France; originally a tribe of Franks was a Germanic people)
• Friuli (sometimes regarded as a sub-ethnic group of Italians)

Exoethnonyms and endoethnonyms

Endoethnonymically, only a small number of Romanesque peoples retained their original self-name, adopted in the empire from 212 by the edict of Emperor Caracalla - "Romanus". Surprisingly, these are Romanians (self-name "Romanians"), as well as smaller groups of Romansh (Rhetoromans), residents of the Italian cities of Rome (the language is Romanesco) and the province of Emilia-Romagna (Romagnolians). The bulk of the Romanesque population used either autochthonous names (the Spaniards< лат. Хиспаниа <финик. «Гишпано» - что значит кролик), существовавшими ещё до образования империи, латинскими образованиями (итальянцы < Италиа <Виталиа <Витулус «телёнок») или иноязычными(«Португал» < лат. «портус» и греч. «калос» - хороший). Так как в V - VIII веках большинство романских народов были завоёваны франками они взяли себе этноним "франки" (отсюда современное название французов, русские средневековые источниками называют итальянцев "фрягами "), при этом "римлянами" в средневековых русских источниках могли называть и шведов, кроме того Священная Римская Империя несмотря на своё название была заселена немцами. Кроме того многие европейские народы называли римлян "влахами", так как римлян часто путали с вольсками , поэтому румын также называют валахами, итальянцев влахами, французов Бельгии "валлонами".

Peoples of New Romania

In the course of the colonization launched by the Romanesque powers in the Middle Ages, already outside the historical Old Romania, new Romanesque peoples were formed in various regions of the world. As in the course of Roman colonization, the occupied lands were not settled by families from the metropolis, but were distributed to young soldiers who married women of Indian, African and Asian origin.

• The Levantines are the descendants of the Western Romanesque population (mainly of Italian-French-Roman origin, who settled in the Eastern Mediterranean and the northern Black Sea region in the 11th-13th centuries as a result of the Crusades or the Venetian-Genoese colonization of the Aegean Islands, Crimea, etc.
• The Moldovans are the descendants of the semi-nomadic Wallachian population, who occupied the former Slavic lands of the Tivertsy in the XIV (???) century, devastated by the Turkic nomads in the 11-13 centuries.

The following Romanesque groups formed in the New World:

With the formative Spanish nationality:

• US Hispanics - Tejano, Louisiana Creoles

With the formative Portuguese people:

With a predominance of the French nationality:

• French Canadians including:
• Franco-Quebecs

see also

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To improve this article, it is desirable: Find and arrange in the form of footnotes links to independent ones confirming what was written. [[To: Wikipedia: Articles without sources (country: Lua error: callParserFunction: function "#property" was not found. )]][[C:Wikipedia:Articles without sources (country: Lua error: callParserFunction: function "#property" was not found. )]] An excerpt characterizing the Romance peoples Dad was furious... He hated it when people didn't break down. He hated it if he was not feared... And therefore, for the "naughty" tortures continued much more stubbornly and angrier. Morone became white as death. Large drops of sweat rolled down his thin face and, breaking off, dripped to the ground. His endurance was amazing, but I understood that I couldn’t go on like this for a long time - every living body had a limit ... I wanted to help him, try to somehow anesthetize. And then a funny idea suddenly occurred to me, which I immediately tried to implement - the stone hanging on the cardinal's legs became weightless! .. Caraffa, fortunately, did not notice this. And Morone raised his eyes in surprise, and immediately closed them hastily so as not to betray. But I managed to see - he understood. And she continued to “conjure” further in order to alleviate his pain as much as possible. "Go away, madonna!" Papa exclaimed indignantly. “You prevent me from enjoying the spectacle. I have long wanted to see if our dear friend will be so proud after the "work" of my executioner? You are disturbing me, Isidora! It meant that he did understand... Caraffa was not a seer, but he somehow caught a lot with his incredibly sharp instinct. So now, sensing that something was happening, and not wanting to lose control over the situation, he ordered me to leave. But now I didn't want to leave. The unfortunate cardinal needed my help, and I sincerely wanted to help him. For I knew that if I left him alone with Caraffa, no one knew if Morone would see the coming day. But Caraffa obviously didn’t care about my desires ... Without even letting me get indignant, the second executioner literally carried me out the door and pushed me towards the corridor, returned to the room where he was left alone with Caraffa, albeit very brave, but completely helpless, good man. .. I stood in the hallway wondering how I could help him. But, unfortunately, there was no way out of his sad situation. In any case, I could not find him so quickly ... Although, to be honest, my situation was probably even sadder ... Yes, while Caraffa had not yet tormented me. But after all, physical pain was not as terrible as the torment and death of loved ones were terrible ... I did not know what was happening to Anna, and, afraid of somehow interfering, I helplessly waited ... From my sad experience, I too well I understood that I had annoyed the Pope with some rash action, and the result would only get worse - Anna would certainly have to suffer. The days went by and I didn't know if my girl was still in Meteor? Did Karaffa appear for her? .. And was everything fine with her. My life was empty and strange, if not hopeless. I couldn’t leave Caraffa, because I knew that if I just disappeared, he would immediately take out his anger on my poor Anna ... Also, I still couldn’t destroy him, because I couldn’t find the way to the protection that I gave he was once a "stranger" person. Time mercilessly flowed away, and I felt more and more helpless, which, paired with inaction, slowly began to drive me crazy... It's been almost a month since my first visit to the cellars. There was no one around with whom I could say even a word. Loneliness oppressed deeper and deeper, settling in the heart of emptiness, sharply seasoned with despair... I really hoped that Morone still survived, despite the "talents" of the Pope. But she was afraid to return to the cellars, because she was not sure if the unfortunate cardinal was still there. My second visit could bring on him the real malice of Caraffa, and Morone would have to pay really dearly for this. Remaining fenced off from any communication, I spent my days in the uttermost "silence of loneliness." Until, finally, unable to stand it any longer, she again went down to the basement ... The room where I found Morone a month ago was empty this time. One could only hope that the brave cardinal was still alive. And I sincerely wished him good luck, which, unfortunately, the prisoners of Caraffa clearly lacked. And since I was already in the basement anyway, after a little thought, I decided to look further, and carefully opened the next door.... And there, on some kind of terrible torture "instrument", lay a completely naked, bloodied young girl, whose body was a real mixture of living scorched meat, cuts and blood, covering her all from head to toe ... Neither the executioner, nor, by that more - Caraffa, fortunately for me, there was no torture in the room. I quietly approached the unfortunate woman and carefully stroked her swollen, tender cheek. The girl groaned. Then, carefully taking her fragile fingers in my palm, I slowly began to “treat” her ... Soon, clear, gray eyes looked at me in surprise ... - Quiet, dear ... Lie quietly. I will try to help you as much as possible. But I don't know if I'll have enough time... You were tortured a lot, and I'm not sure if I can quickly "patch" all this. Relax, my dear, and try to remember something good... if you can. The girl (she turned out to be just a child) groaned, trying to say something, but for some reason the words did not work out. She hummed, unable to articulate even the smallest word clearly. And then I was slashed by a terrible understanding - this unfortunate woman had no tongue !!! They pulled him out... so as not to say too much! So that she would not shout the truth when they were burning at the stake ... So that she could not say what they did to her ... Oh my God! .. Really all this was done by PEOPLE ??? Slightly calming my dead heart, I tried to turn to her mentally - the girl heard. Which meant - she was gifted! .. One of those whom the Pope hated so fiercely. And whom he so brutally burned alive on his terrifying human bonfires .... - What did they do to you, dear?! .. Why did they take away your speech ?! Trying to tighten the coarse rag that fell from her body with unruly, trembling hands, I whispered in shock. - Do not be afraid of anything, my dear, just think about what you would like to say, and I will try to hear you. What's your name, girl? “Damiana…” the answer whispered softly. “Hold on, Damiana,” I smiled as affectionately as possible. “Hold on, don’t slip away, I’ll try to help you!” But the girl only slowly shook her head, and a clean single tear rolled down her bruised cheek... “Thank you...for your kindness. But I'm not a tenant already... - her quiet "mental" voice whispered in response. “Help me... Help me 'leave'. Please... I can't take it anymore... They'll be back soon... Please! They have defiled me... Please help me "leave"... You know how. Help... I will thank you "there" and remember you... She grabbed my wrist with her thin fingers, mutilated by torture, clinging to it with a death grip, as if she knew for sure that I really could help her ... I could give the desired peace ... A sharp pain twisted my tired heart... This sweet, brutally tortured girl, almost a child, as a favor, asked me for death!!! The executioners not only injured her fragile body - they defiled her pure soul, raping her together! .. And now, Damiana was ready to “leave”. She asked for death as a deliverance, even for a moment, not thinking about salvation. She was tortured and desecrated, and did not want to live... Anna appeared before my eyes... God, was the same terrible end waiting for her?! Can I save her from this nightmare?! Damiana looked at me pleadingly with her clear gray eyes, which reflected an inhumanly deep, wild in its strength, pain ... She could no longer fight. She didn't have the strength for it. And in order not to betray herself, she preferred to leave ... What kind of "people" were they who did such cruelty ?!. What kind of monsters trampled our pure Earth, defiling it with their meanness and "black" soul?.. I quietly cried, stroking the sweet face of this courageous, unhappy girl, who never lived even a small part of her sad, failed life... And mine hatred burned my soul! Hatred for the monster who called himself the Pope of Rome... the vicar of God... and the Holy Father... enjoying his rotten power and wealth, while in his creepy basement a wonderful pure soul was leaving life. She left of her own free will ... Since she could no longer endure the transcendent pain inflicted on her by order of the same “holy” Pope ...

- (from the Latin name of the city of Rome - Roma) - a group of peoples connected by a common origin, close ethnogenetic features, the geographical area of ​​\u200b\u200btheir residence, a peculiar cultural environment and linguistic community that formed during the formation of the Roman Empire, as well as similar trends in the political and economic development after its fall and subsequent colonization by its Romanized descendants of the New World. Despite significant internal heterogeneity, the Romanesque peoples are still clearly opposed to the Germanic or Slavic. In the modern world, up to 1 billion people can be attributed to the Romanesque cultural and linguistic community, including about 2/3 of them (about 600 million) to the Latin American subgroup - that is, Spanish-speaking and Portuguese-speaking peoples.
Origin and ethnogenesis
The ethnogenetic core of modern Romance peoples was the small Italian tribes of the Latins of Indo-European origin, who settled in the lower reaches of the river. Tiber by the 10th c. BC e., apparently, having migrated there from more northern regions of Europe. In the course of the formation of statehood and conflicts with related (Sabines, Oscans) and unrelated tribes (Etruscans), the Latins secured the territory on which their main cultural center, the city of Rome, arose. With the expansion of the territory of the Latins, who later adopted the name of the Romans, an assimilar approach to the conduct of land colonization prevailed. In particular, after the military seizure of the territory, its indigenous population, as a rule, was not physically destroyed (as, for example, during German colonization), but was subjected to assimilation. Thus, the conquered male population, as a rule, was expelled from the borders of Roman possessions or sold into slavery in cities (where it was again Romanized), and women and children became the property of Roman wars. Racial and cultural differences were not taken into account, and sometimes, on the contrary, they were desirable because of the exoticism associated with them, unusualness, and therefore the Roman population first acquired a multi-ethnic, and then multi-racial character.

Metisation (interracial mixing from Latin "mixtitius" - mixed) of the Romans with Afroasiatic elements reached its peak during the heyday of the empire. Many founders of modern racism put forward reasonable assumptions that it was the uncontrolled racial mingling of the Romans with African and Asian peoples that led to the degradation of the system of European values ​​in the empire. So stability, order, law-abidingness, accuracy, the desire for research activities were replaced by idleness, debauchery, dominance of cliques, uncleanliness, gluttony, idolization of carnal pleasures - such typical vices in the later stages of the existence of the empire. A much more obvious product of mixing is a significant change in the anthropological appearance of the late Romanesque population in comparison with the Latins themselves: by the beginning of our era, previously uncharacteristic short stature, dark (almost blue-black) hair, brown eyes, swarthy skin tones became typical.

Intensive miscegenation was stopped for some time by the invasions of the Germanic tribes, traditionally zealous fans of racial purity, who stopped the influx of people from Africa and Asia on the one hand, and on the other, introduced strict racial orders in the captured Romanesque territories. So, in Spain, the Visigoths introduced a ban on mixed marriages with the Ibero-Roman population, in Gaul the conquered Gallo-Roman population experienced obvious discrimination in legal terms (the life of even a simple German was twice as expensive as that of a Gallo-Roman). At the same time, other differences between the groups became apparent. Ultimately, Germanic influences determined the “prestige” of one or another Romanesque ethnic group: the most “Germanized” French took the most privileged positions in the Romanesque mentality, followed by Italians, Catalans, then already “unattractive” and “more African” Spaniards, and finally, very "unprestigious" Portuguese, Romanians and Sicilians. Subconscious racial hierarchies that existed at the everyday level even in the days of the late empire were firmly rooted inside each Romanesque ethnos: fair-haired, blue-eyed and fair-skinned, tall (to defeat the Germans) individuals enjoyed greater support and occupied higher life positions in the Romanesque community. In the era of the late empire, there was a fashion for the purchase of blond wigs from Germanic women in order to disguise their Africanizing appearance.
Climate
Of course, the southern Mediterranean climate, typical of Latium (modern Lazio), with its hot, sunny weather, which influenced the shift of the Romans' way of life towards the night time, also played a fundamental role in the development of everyday Romanesque culture. It is no coincidence that siesta, night festivities, and now typical of the Mediterranean, taverns, fiestas and other attributes of the social structure of the Romans, such as bullfighting, have become so popular.
linguistic community
In the course of the mixing of the assimilation of the peoples that became part of the Roman Empire, the Latin language played a unifying role in this process, to some extent assimilated by the inhabitants of many historical regions of the empire. And although the linguistic differences between them were already significant in ancient times, and then only aggravated by the German, and for the Balkan-Roman group by the Slavic, Hungarian and Turkic invasions. However, the unification and standardization of the norms of literary Romance speech and writing under the influence of book Latin vocabulary, and to a lesser extent of grammatical turns, again brought them closer to each other starting from the 15th century (for Romanian from the 19th), after the discrepancies that accumulated in the 5th-15th centuries, and for Romanian in the 3rd-19th centuries.
Romance peoples of ancient Romania
Ancient Romania - the territory of Europe, where Romance speech has been preserved since the time of the Roman Empire. In the era of the early Middle Ages, as a result of the Germanic dismemberments and the preceding Romanization of the autochthonous population, the following Romanesque subethnoi were formed. The Gallo-Romans, from which later the modern French and the Walloons close to them, the French-Provencals, the French-Swiss, and later the French-Canadians, the French-Acadians, the French-Creole groups of the New World, Africa and Oceania, were formed.
The Ibero-Romance population, including the Castilians and Mozarabs, from which the Spaniards, Portuguese, Galicians, Catalans, Aragonese, Mirandans, and then the Latin American and Creolized groups of Africa, Asia and Oceania were formed.
The Balkan-Roman population, including the nomadic Vlachs who gave rise to modern Romanians and Moldavians.
The Italo-Roman population and the groups of Italians, Sicilians, Retromans, Provencals, Sanmarines, Dalmatians and others descended from it.

The boundaries between them were indistinct, except that the more "prestigious" Germanized peoples absorbed the southerners in the course of the redrawing of medieval borders. For example, the French almost completely assimilated the Provencals and Franco-Provencals, Gascons and Walloons (who retained their identity but not their dialect). The Spaniards and Catalans swallowed up the Mozarabs, and the Italians the Sicilians.
Modern Romance communities
Andorans
Aragonese
Aromanians practically disappeared due to Albanianization, Hellenization or Slavicization.
Vaticans
Catalans
Corsicans
Dalmatians became Slavic by the end of the 16th century.
French people
French-Swiss
Galicians
Franco-Provencals were gallized
Istro-Romanians became Slavicized
Italians
Italo-Swiss
The Megleno-Romanians were Turkified
Monegasque
The Provençals were gallized
Portuguese
Romanians
Retromans
Sanmarinians
Sardinians
Sephardic Jews
Sicilians are Italianized
Spaniards
Walloons

Exoethnonyms and endoethnonyms
Endoethnonymically, only a small number of Romance peoples have retained their original self-name, since 212 (according to the edict of the emperor Caracalla Caracalla, adopted in the empire - "Romanus". Surprisingly, these are Romanians - (the historical self-name "Romanians"), as well as more small groups of Romans (Retromans), residents of the Ialian cities of Rome and the province of Emilia-Romagna.< лат. Хиспаниа <финик. “Гишпано” – что значит кролик), существовавшими ещё до образований империи, латинскими образованиями (итальянцы < Италиа <Виталиа <Витулус “телёнок” или иноязычными “Португал < лат. “портус” и греч. “калос” - хороший), или же аппроприировали навания других (неродственных народов) (германские франки >Romance-speaking French or exoethnonyms (the Germanic exoethnonym of the Celts "Welsh" began to use the Walloons as a self-name.
Peoples of New Romania
In the course of the colonization launched by the Romanesque powers in the Middle Ages, already outside the historical Old Romania, new Romanesque peoples were formed in various regions of the world. As in the course of Roman colonization, the occupied lands were not settled by families from the metropolis, but were distributed to young soldiers who married women of Indian, African and Asian origin. The Levantines are the descendants of the Western Romanesque population (mainly of Italian-French-Roman origin, who settled in the Eastern Mediterranean and the northern Black Sea region in the 11th-13th centuries as a result of the Crusades or the Venetian-Genoese colonization of the Aegean Islands, Crimea, etc.
The Moldavians are the descendants of the semi-nomadic Wallachian population, who occupied the former Slavic lands of the Tivertese in the 14th century, devastated by the Turkic nomads in the 11th-13th centuries.

The following Romanesque groups formed in the New World:

With a formative Spanish nationality: Argentines
Bolivians
Creoles of Belize
Venezuelans
Guatemalans
Hondurans
Dominicans
Colombians
Costa Ricans
Cubans
US Hispanics - Tejano, Louisiana Creoles
Mexicans
Nicaraguans
Panamanians
Paraguayans
Peruvians
Puerto Ricans
Salvadorans
Ecuadorians
Chileans
Uruguayans

With a trio of French nationality: French Canadians including:
Franco-Ontars
French-Quebecs
French-Acadians
Franco-Alberts
Franco-Manitobes
Franco-Yukon
Franco-Colombians
Franco-Saskatchewans
Franco-Northern
Franco-Inuit
Franco-Eduardians
Franco-Newfoundlanders

see also
Latin
Romance languages
Roman culture
Latin union

A nation (from Lat. natio - tribe, people) is understood as a historical community of people that develops in the process of forming a commonality of their territory, economic ties, language, some features of culture and character. Such a social community does not always correspond to a racial or biological community: nations are largely composed of various anthropological elements. The definition of these elements is the most important task, since the general physical and mental warehouse, health, strength of the nation, its main qualities depend on them.

About 70 peoples live in Europe, for which this region is the main habitat. Central, Western and Northern Europe is inhabited by the peoples of the Germanic group, which is divided into two subgroups - Western and Northern. The first group includes Germans, Austrians, Luxembourgers, Alsatians, Dutch, Flemings, Frisians, English, Scots, Ulsters (Anglo and Scotch-Irish). To the northern, or Scandinavian, subgroup - the Swedes, Danes, Norwegians, Icelanders and Faroese.

The peoples of the Romance group live in the southwest and partly in the southeast of Europe. These include Italians, Sardinians, Corsicans, French, Walloons, Spaniards, Catalans, Galicians and Portuguese. The Eastern Romance peoples, in particular the Romanians, are geographically isolated from them.

The eastern and southeastern parts of Europe are inhabited by Slavic peoples: Poles, Lusatians, Czechs and Slovaks, belonging to the western subgroup; Bulgarians, Macedonians, Serbs, Montenegrins, Croats, Muslims, Slovenes, who make up the southern subgroup; Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians belonging to the eastern subgroup.

Separate languages ​​of the Indo-European family are spoken by the Greeks and Albanians living on the Balkan Peninsula. Finns, Saami and Hungarians live in the northeast and east of Europe, belonging to the Finno-Ugric group of the Uralic language family. In the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula, in Spain and partly in France, the Basques live - the oldest population of Europe, speaking an isolated language. The peoples of the Celtic group living in the British Isles and northwestern France mostly switched to English (Irish, Welsh, Gaelic) or French (Breton).

Romance peoples

Italians. The most ancient basis of the Italian ethnos was the Italic tribes (Italics)2, which constituted the majority of the population of the Apennine Peninsula in the 1st millennium BC. e. (one of them is the Latins who founded Rome and conquered the rest of the Italic tribes, as well as the tribes of the Etruscans3, Ligurians, Celts, Greeks, Carthaginians, etc.). From the first centuries of our era, the Romanized population of Italy was constantly mixed with slaves of various origins, and starting from the 5th century. - with the Germans and other conquerors (Byzantines, Franks, Arabs, Normans).

Spaniards. The oldest basis of the Spanish ethnos was the Iberian tribes1, partially mixed with the Celts who invaded the Iberian Peninsula in the 1st millennium BC. e. Roman domination (II century BC - V century AD) led to the Romanization of the inhabitants of Spain. The Germanic tribes that conquered the country in the 5th century were gradually assimilated. A certain role in the ethnic development of the local population was played by Muslim Moors (Arabs and Berbers), who subjugated a significant part of Spain in the 8th century, and Jews. The Spaniards participated in the formation of the Hispanic peoples.

Portuguese. The basis of the Portuguese ethnos, like the Spanish, was the ancient Iberian tribes. In I millennium BC. e. Celts began to move to the territory of Portugal, which had an ethnic influence on the Portuguese. The entry of the territory of Portugal into the Roman Empire (II-G centuries BC - V century AD) led to the cultural and linguistic Romanization of the population. As in Spain, the Germanic tribes who conquered in the 5th century. Portugal, were gradually assimilated. The Arab-Berber domination of the 8th-13th centuries significantly influenced the Portuguese language and culture).

French people. The main ethnic component in the formation of the French were the Celtic tribes (the Romans called them Gauls), who settled in the 1st millennium BC. e. almost the entire territory of modern France (Gaul). The conquest of Gaul by the Romans (by the middle of the 1st century BC) led to the Romanization of its population, as a result of which a Gallo-Roman ethnic community arose. An important milestone in the ethnic history of the French was the invasion of Gaul by the Germanic tribes of the Visigoths, Burgundians and Franks. At the beginning of the VI century. Franks ousted the Visigoths from Gaul, conquered the kingdom of the Burgundians. By the middle of the VI century. the entire territory of modern France was part of the Frankish state, which marked the beginning of the merger of the Franks with the Gallo-Roman population.

INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE FAMILY

ROMAN GROUP

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R O M A N S K I E LANGUAGES

This is a group of languages ​​​​of the Indo-European family, united by a common origin: they all formed on the basis of the Latin language in its colloquial form, which was part of the Italic group of now dead languages. Romance languages ​​demonstrate a rare case of the formation of a language group, firstly, in a certain, historically observable period of time, and secondly, on the basis of a well-known and very well represented source language in the written monuments.

The immediate source of the Romance languages ​​is folk (vulgar) Latin, the oral speech of the Romanized population in the territories that were part of the Roman Empire. Already in the classical period (I century BC), colloquial live speech was opposed to the literary Latin language. Roman authors also noted that Latin is territorially differentiated, i.e. outside the Apennine peninsula, live speech has local characteristics.

The term "Romance languages" goes back to the Latin adjectives romanus and romanicus, formed from the word Roma - Rome. The meaning of the word has changed over time. At first it had an ethnic and political meaning: civisromanus – ‘Roman citizen’. The phrase lingvaRomana (‘language of Rome’) denoted Latin. After the extension of the right of Roman citizenship to the entire population of the Roman Empire (212), the word romanus lost its political meaning and became the common name for the Romanized population in all territories that had ever been part of the Roman Empire. To designate these territories, the concept of “romania” appears in the works of Roman historians of the late period. Structural divergences between classical Latin and folk dialects increase over time. The latter are beginning to be recognized as languages ​​other than Latin and are collectively called romanalingva. At the same time, the speakers of the Romance languages ​​are opposed to the Germanic peoples, and later to the Arabs, Slavs, etc.

For the first time the term romanalingva is used not as a synonym for lingua Latina in the acts of the Council of Tours in 813.

In the Middle Ages, the adverb romanice ‘in Romanesque’, in combination with the verbs of speech and writing, began to mean ‘Romance’; essay in Romance. Similar designations existed in all Romance languages, except for Italian, because. in it, the corresponding adjective was associated with Rome (Roma). The Italian language was called volgare ‘Volgare’ from volgo ‘people, mob’, contrasting it with the bookish, learned language (Latin).

Later, “Romania” in the scientific literature began to be called the countries of Romance speech in their totality. From the moment the Romans captured the first territories beyond Latium, a process begins that is commonly called Romanization - the spread of the Latin language, Roman customs and Roman culture to the territories occupied by Rome. The adjective latinus ‘Latin’ originally denoted the inhabitants of Latium, then, with the collapse of the Roman Empire, began to denote those who continued to live according to Roman law, in contrast to the conquering Germans, who lived according to barbarian customs. In the Middle Ages, this name was associated with the Roman Catholic Church.

Romanization, starting from the Apennine peninsula of Italy, covered most of the areas conquered by the Romans. Romanization of various parts of the Roman Empire was not the same in depth and strength. The conquest of Britain by the Romans, for example, if accompanied by the Romanization of the population, then to a very small extent. The Romanesque element was not preserved in such provinces as Noricum, Pannonia, Illyricum, Thrace, and partly Moesia due to the insufficient depth of Romanization and their settlement by huge masses of peoples of other ethnic groups.

Romanization proved to be strong and led to the formation of Romance languages ​​in Italy itself, on the Iberian Peninsula, in Gaul, in Dacia and partly in Rezia. The process of Romanization, which lasted over five hundred years in total, took place in each region in its own way. In Italy, the factors that determined the peculiarities of Romanization were, in particular, the ethnic community of the population (and, as a result, the creation of a common Italian colloquial koine) and the federal nature of the unification of cities (their known autonomy).

On the Iberian Peninsula, this is primarily the uneven pace of Romanization in different areas. The formation of the Romance languages ​​of the Iberian Peninsula in 711 was interrupted by the Arab conquest. Free from the Arab invasion were Galicia, part of Asturias, Aragon, Catalonia and Old Castile. During the Reconquista, the Romance speech of these Iberian regions spread to the south, where Mozarabic dialects functioned during the period of Arab domination. Therefore, from a genetic point of view, Galician can be considered the source of the Portuguese language.

In the process of historical development, the original genetic commonality of the Corsican and Sardinian languages ​​was violated, because Tuscanization of the language occurred early in Corsica.

The main part of Transalpine Gaul was conquered relatively quickly, the Gallic society at the time of its conquest reached a certain level of development, the Roman state itself experienced a period of its highest prosperity. Romanization here was more uniform. And, nevertheless, as is known, two Romance languages ​​were formed on the territory of Transalpine Gaul - Provençal and French. This, apparently, can be explained as follows: the Mediterranean coast and the rest of the territory were conquered at different times (the province of Narbonne Gaul was created in 120 BC, Lugdun Gaul, Belgica and Aquitania - in 52 BC). e.); Latin was influenced by various local languages ​​(Ligunian in the south, Celtic in the north), and the subsequent history of each region developed differently.

Romanization of Dacia took place at an unusually fast pace, which was associated with the settlement on its territory in a relatively short period of time by a significant number of native speakers of the Latin language. But in 270 - 275 years. under the onslaught of the Visigoths, the Roman legions were withdrawn from the territory of Dacia to the south, beyond the Danube, which significantly reduced the proportion of the Romanized population in this area and affected the fate of the Balkan-Romance languages. You should also pay attention to the influence of the Slavic superstratum, Greek, Hungarian, Turkic adstratum in these territories.

Crossing with the languages ​​​​of the Roman provinces (Iberian in Spain, Celtic - in Gaul, northern Italy, Portugal, Dacian in Romania) was not classical, but folk (vulgar) Latin - the common Latin language.

Taking into account such specifics of formation, a genetic classification of the Romance languages ​​is also constructed. Unlike other major language families, the Romance languages ​​are relatively recent. Therefore, the traditional principle of isolating a common language, which is singled out at the earliest level, and then the gradual isolation of territories and the formation of dialects on them (the construction of the so-called “family tree”) is hardly acceptable for them. Most researchers do not single out the general Romansh period, because the differentiation of folk Latin actually begins from the moment of the Romanization of the corresponding territory. In most cases, Romance languages ​​and dialects are a continuation of the type of vernacular Latin that was formed in a given area, so they say, for example, about "Aquitanian Latin" (southwestern France) as the predecessor of Gascon, "Narbonne Latin" (southern France), which gave the beginning of Occitan, etc.

The following factors influenced the development of individual Romance languages:

the time of the conquest of this area by Rome (early, later);

the time of isolation of this area from Central Italy during the collapse of the Roman Empire;

the degree of intensity of political, economic, cultural contacts of this area with Central Italy and neighboring Romanesque areas;

a way of romanizing this area (“urban”: school, administration, introducing the local nobility to Roman culture; “rural”: colonies of Latin and Italic settlers, mostly former soldiers);

the nature of the substrate and the degree of its impact;

character of the superstratum (Germanic, not Germanic).

According to various estimates, about 700 million people (or more than one tenth of the world's population) speak Romance languages. This number is determined rather arbitrarily, because it includes both speakers for whom Romance languages ​​are native, and those who use Romance languages ​​as literary and written languages ​​in a situation of official or interethnic communication.

The modern term "Romania" denotes the area of ​​distribution of the Romance languages. There are 3 zones of distribution of Romance languages:

1) "Old Romania": the territory of Europe, which was part of the Roman Empire and preserved the Romance language. This is the core of the formation of Romance languages ​​- Italy, Portugal, almost all of Spain and France, south. Belgium, app. and south. Switzerland, Romania and Moldova.

2) "New Romania" - these are groups of the Romance-speaking population outside Europe, formed in the 16th-18th centuries. in connection with colonization: part of the North. America (Quebec in Canada, Mexico), almost all of Central America, South America, most of Antilles.

3) Countries in which, as a result of expansion, Romance languages ​​became official languages, but did not displace local languages: a significant part of Africa (French, Spanish, Portuguese), small areas in South Asia and Oceania.

In total, Romance languages ​​are spoken by residents of more than 60 countries.

The question of the number of Romance languages ​​is one of the controversial ones, since the concepts of “language” and “dialect” are not sufficiently distinguished. The following Romance languages ​​are commonly distinguished.

State, national, polyfunctional languages ​​that have a literary norm and structural independence:

Spanish,

Portuguese,

French,

Italian,

Romanian.

French, Spanish, Portuguese in addition to Europe, they are common in the countries of the New World, where they act as national variants, the norm of which differs from the norm of the Old World.

The remaining languages ​​are considered minor or minority languages, their speakers are mostly bilingual, they are ethnic and linguistic minorities in their countries of residence, and the languages ​​functionally coexist with one or more dominant languages:

Catalan,

Galician - do not have the status of a nationwide, but are official in the autonomous regions of Spain, so they have a fairly wide scope of operation;

Provencal (Occitan) - a language spoken in the south of France, currently exists as a group of dialects, in the Middle Ages it had a rich cultural and literary historical tradition;

Romansh, common in Switzerland, has an official

status, despite the limited number of speakers, continues to exist in the form of 5 main dialects, each of which has its own literary tradition; recently a general rule has been developed for them;

the Friulian language in Northern Italy does not have the status of a state language, but a literary koine has developed for it, there is literature, in addition, the Friulians have a pronounced ethnic identity;

the Ladin language is also common in northern Italy, it is a group of dialects that a number of researchers attribute to the northern dialects of Italy and do not single out as an independent language;

12. Sardinian (Sardian) is the common name for significantly differentiated dialects of the island of Sardinia, for which there is no single norm;

13. Megleno-Romanian, Aromanian, Istro-Romanian are considered as intermediate between language and dialect; exist mainly in oral form, have bright typological features, which gives reason to single them out as separate languages;

14. Gascon, belonging to the Occitan dialects, has specific typological characteristics;

15. Corsican, Aragonese, Asturian also claim the status of a language; norms have been developed for them, which are being actively implemented today;

16. Jewish-Romance dialects are traditionally distinguished as ethno-confessional; their carriers were distinguished by their religious affiliation (Judaism); most of these dialects (Jewish-French, Jewish-Portuguese, Jewish-Occitan) have already disappeared, today only Jewish-Italian stands out (a small number of its speakers live in Rome and Leghorn). Researchers note that it is rather not about languages, but about a set of features characteristic of the language of monuments written in Hebrew script; discrepancies relate primarily to the lexical composition, which is quite understandable by the development of the language in a different confessional, cultural, literary tradition;

17. Jewish-Spanish (Sephardic, Ladino, Spagnol, Spanish Jewish) has, unlike the previous group, an original structure; from the end of the fifteenth century (after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492) developed outside the influence of the base language (Spanish); speaks this language part of the Jews living in North Africa, Asia Minor, on the Balkan Peninsula;

18. Creole languages ​​were formed on the basis of Spanish, Portuguese and French.

19. The group of Romance languages ​​also includes extinct at the end of the 19th century. Dalmatian language.

There are 5 subgroups of Romance languages: Gallo-Roman(French, Provencal languages); Italo-Romance(Italian, Sardinian); Ibero-Romance(Spanish, Catalan, Portuguese, Galician); Balkan-Romance(Romanian, Moldovan languages, as well as Aromunian, Megleno-Romanian, Istro-Romanian dialects (languages), Romansh.

The similarity and difference in the features mentioned above allow scientists to distinguish two areas opposed to each other: Eastern Romanesque (Balkan-Romanesque) and Western Romanesque. The development of the Balkan-Romance languages ​​was greatly influenced by the Slavic, Greek, Hungarian languages, and the Turkic neighboring languages. In addition, the Romanization of Dacia was mainly rural in nature: the Latin brought by the Roman legionaries contained new features of the vernacular that did not have time to spread to the previously Romanized territories, where Latin education was firmly rooted.

In the Western Romance region, the development of languages ​​was primarily influenced by the substrate basis: the Celtic substrate in France and Northern Italy, Italian in Southern Italy, Ibero-Basque and Celtic in Spain. In some areas, the influence of a deep substrate of a non-Indo-European nature is possible: Ligurian in northwestern Italy and the southern coast of France, Etruscan in Tuscany, "Mediterranean" substrate in Corsica and Sardinia. Information about substratum languages ​​is very limited, so it is difficult to establish specific facts of substratum influence on Romance languages. Nevertheless, at the present time, the border that opposes the northern dialects of Italy to the central ones runs where the border between the ethnic territories of the Celtic tribes and the Etruscans passed.

The Western Romance languages ​​were also greatly influenced by the superstratum, which in most of the Romance territory was the languages ​​of the conquering Germans. For French, these are the languages ​​of the Frankish tribes, for Italian, the language of the Ostrogoths and Lombards, for the languages ​​of the Iberian Peninsula, the languages ​​of the Visigoths and other Germanic tribes. The influence of the Germanic superstratum on the French language is most noticeable.

The Western Romanesque area developed within the framework of the Latin cultural tradition. Latin has served as the written language for most languages. For the Balkan-Romance languages, this role was played by Greek and Church Slavonic. The influence of the Greek language was also significant in southern Italy.

The Italian-Romance area is linguistically heterogeneous and reveals similar features with both the Western Romance and Eastern Romance languages. The classification of Romance languages ​​on the basis of structural features is ambiguous, since languages ​​opposed by one feature are united by others. Considering the conditionality of such a division, as well as the fact that Sardinia and Corsica do not fit completely into either one or the other area and stand out as a separate, archaic zone of Romagna, a tradition arose to oppose not Western and Eastern Romagna, but continuous, or central, Romagna isolated, or peripheral, marginal. Proponents of this approach note that the division into Western and Eastern Romania is based on diachronic features and does not take into account the current state of the Romance languages. However, this point of view is also not unconditionally recognized. The most common and acceptable classification combines typological features with the criteria of geographical and cultural proximity of areas.

The Ibero-Romance subgroup includes Spanish, Portuguese, Galician, Judeo-Spanish, Aragonese, Asturian. Catalan, also related to Ibero-Romance, is close to Gallo-Romance, especially to Occitan.

The Gallo-Romance subgroup includes French, Occitan, Franco-Provençal. Gascon, sometimes considered a dialect of Occitan, shares many similarities with the Ibero-Romance languages, especially with Aragonese and Catalan, and in some ways with Spanish. Some novelists distinguish the Iberian subgroup of languages, which includes Occitan, Gascon, Catalan, and Aragonese.

The Italo-Romance subgroup includes quite a variety of languages: literary Italian, northern, central and southern dialects of Italy, Sardinian, Corsican, Friulian, Ladin and Istro-Romance. Many dialects of northern Italy share features with the languages ​​of the Gallo-Romance subgroup. Sardinian is similar in a number of ways to the Ibero-Romance languages. Friulian and Ladin for a long time classified as a Romansh language.

The selection of the Romansh subgroup seems to be the most problematic. In the works of the nineteenth and first half of the twentieth century. Romansh included not only the Romansh language of Switzerland, but also the Friulian and Ladin languages. The Romansh subgroup was seen as transitional between Gallo-Romance and Italo-Romance and, more broadly, including Dalmatian and Istro-Romance, as transitional between the eastern and western languages ​​of Romania. At present, such a view is recognized as obsolete and only the dialects of Rumansh Switzerland are classified as Romansh proper.

The Balkan-Romance subgroup includes the Romanian language and the small Balkan languages, sometimes called the South Danubian: Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian, Istro-Romanian.

The extinct Dalmatian language belongs to the Italo-Romance or Balkan-Romance subgroup. It is sometimes seen as a "bridge language" between these two subgroups. A suggestion has been made to combine Dalmatian with Istro-Romance and designate this subgroup as Illyro-Romance.

The degree of structural closeness of languages ​​has changed throughout their history. Old Catalan and Old Occitan were much closer to each other than modern Catalan and Occitan. Old French was closer in many ways to other Western Romance languages ​​than modern French.

The Romance languages ​​use the Latin alphabet. In the Balkan-Romance languages ​​(Romanian, Moldavian) from the 16th to the beginning. nineteenth century Cyrillic-based writing was used, because the language of religion and culture was Church Slavonic. After 1860, the Romanian language switched to the Latin alphabet, the Moldavian language retained its former script, in 1989 a decision was made to switch to the Latin alphabet.

Texts in small Balkan languages ​​were written in Greek script. Aromanian, which has the most enduring written tradition, still predominantly uses the Greek alphabet.

Separate lines in the medieval Arabic-language lyrics of the Iberian Peninsula record Romance words in Arabic script.

Written monuments of the Jewish diaspora in all Romance countries were recorded before the beginning. nineteenth century the Hebrew alphabet.

Romance languages ​​are classified as inflectional-analytical. The development of the Romance languages ​​followed the line of strengthening analytical features, especially in the name system. Most analytical features in the oral form of the French language. In the Balkan-Romance languages, the role of inflections is more significant than in other Romance languages.