Catherine's cultural reforms 2 table. Brief description of the reform of Catherine II

REFORMS OF CATHERINE II. THE RISE OF PAUL I

Provincial reform of 1775 Measures were taken to strengthen the nobility in the center and locally. For the first time, a document appeared in Russian legislation that determined the activities of local government bodies and the court. This system of local bodies lasted until the Great Reform of the 60s of the 19th century. The administrative division of the country introduced by Catherine II was preserved until 1917.

On November 7, 1775, the "Institution for the administration of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire" was adopted. The country was divided into provinces, in each of which 300-400 thousand male souls were supposed to live. By the end of Catherine's reign in Russia, there were 50 provinces. The governors were at the head of the provinces, reporting directly to the empress, and their power was significantly expanded. The capitals and several other provinces were subordinate to governors-general.

Under the governor, a provincial government was created, the provincial prosecutor was subordinate to him. Finance in the province was handled by the Treasury, headed by the vice-governor. The provincial land surveyor was engaged in land management. Schools, hospitals, almshouses were in charge of the Order of public charity (to look after - to look after, patronize, take care of). For the first time, state institutions with social functions were created.

The provinces were divided into counties with 20-30 thousand male souls in each. Since the cities - the centers of counties - were clearly not enough, Catherine II renamed many large rural settlements into cities, making them administrative centers. The main authority of the county was the Nizhny Zemstvo Court, headed by a police captain, elected by the local nobility. A county treasurer and a county surveyor were appointed to the counties, following the model of the provinces.

Bodies of power and administration of provinces, counties and cities in the second half. 18th century

Using the theory of separation of powers, and improving the management system, Catherine II separated the judiciary from the executive. All estates, except for the serfs (for them, the landowner was the owner and judge), had to take part in local government. Each estate received its own court. The landowner was judged by the Upper Zemstvo Court in the provinces and the district court in the counties. State peasants were judged by the Upper massacre in the province and the Lower massacre in the district, the townspeople - by the city magistrate in the district and the provincial magistrate in the province. All of these courts were elected, with the exception of the lower courts, which were appointed by the governor. The Senate became the highest judicial body in the country, and in the provinces - the chambers of the criminal and civil courts, whose members were appointed by the state. New for Russia was the Constituent Court, designed to stop strife and reconcile those who quarrel. He was unassailable. The separation of powers was not complete, since the governor could interfere in the affairs of the court.

The city was singled out as a separate administrative unit. It was headed by the mayor, endowed with all rights and powers. Strict police control was introduced in the cities. The city was divided into parts (districts), which were under the supervision of a private bailiff, and the parts, in turn, were divided into quarters, which were controlled by a quarterly warden.

After the provincial reform, all collegiums ceased to function, with the exception of the Foreign Collegium, the Military Collegium and the Admiralty Collegium. The functions of the collegiums were transferred to the provincial bodies. In 1775, the Zaporozhian Sich was liquidated, and most of the Cossacks were resettled in the Kuban.

The existing system of administration of the country's territory in the new conditions solved the problem of strengthening the power of the nobility in the field, its goal was to prevent new popular uprisings. The fear of the rebels was so great that Catherine II ordered the Yaik River to be renamed the Urals, and the Yaik Cossacks - the Urals. More than doubled the number of local officials.

Letters granted to the nobility and cities. April 21, 1785, on the birthday of Catherine II, at the same time, letters of commendation were issued to the nobility and cities. It is known that Catherine II also prepared a draft letter of grant to the state (state) peasants, but it was not published due to fears of noble discontent.

By issuing two charters, Catherine II regulated the legislation on the rights and obligations of the estates. In accordance with the "Diploma on the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble Russian nobility," it was exempted from compulsory service, personal taxes, and corporal punishment. The estates were declared the full property of the landowners, who, in addition, had the right to start their own factories and plants. The nobles could only sue their peers and without a noble court could not be deprived of noble honor, life and estate. The nobility of the province and district constituted, respectively, the provincial and district corporations of the nobility and elected their leaders, as well as officials of local government. Provincial and district noble assemblies had the right to make representations to the government about their needs. The charter granted to the nobility consolidated and legally formalized the power of the nobility in Russia. The ruling class was given the name "noble".

"The letter of rights and benefits to the cities of the Russian Empire" determined the rights and obligations of the urban population, the system of governance in cities. All townspeople were recorded in the City philistine book and made up the "city society". It was declared that "philistines or real city dwellers are those who have a house or other structure, or a place, or land in that city."

The urban population was divided into six categories. The first of these included the nobles and clergy who lived in the city; the second included merchants, divided into three guilds; in the third - guild artisans; the fourth category consisted of foreigners permanently living in the city; the fifth - eminent citizens, who included persons with higher education and capitalists. The sixth - the townspeople, who lived by crafts or work. Residents of the city every three years elected a self-government body - the General City Duma, the mayor and judges. The General City Duma elected an executive body - a six-member Duma, which included one representative from each category of the urban population. The city duma decided matters on improvement, public education, compliance with trade rules, etc. only with the knowledge of the mayor, appointed by the government.

The letter of grant placed all six categories of the urban population under the control of the state. The real power in the city was in the hands of the mayor, the council of the deanery and the governor.

A.N. Radishchev. The Peasant War, the ideas of Russian and French enlighteners, the Great French Revolution and the War of Independence in North America (1775-1783), which led to the formation of the United States, the emergence of Russian anti-serfdom thought in the person of N.I. Novikov, leading deputies of the Legislative Commission influenced the formation of the views of Alexander Nikolayevich Radishchev (1749-1802). In "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow", in the ode "Liberty", in "A Conversation that there is a son of the Fatherland" A.N. Radishchev called for the "complete abolition of slavery" and the transfer of land to the peasants. He believed that "autocracy is the most repugnant state of human nature," and insisted on its revolutionary overthrow. A real patriot, a true son of the Fatherland A.N. Radishchev called the one who fights for the interests of the people, "for freedom - a priceless gift, the source of all great deeds." For the first time in Russia, a call was made for the revolutionary overthrow of the autocracy and serfdom.

“A rebel is worse than Pugachev,” Ekaterina P. assessed the first Russian revolutionary. On her orders, the circulation of the book Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow was confiscated, and its author was arrested and sentenced to death, replaced by a ten-year imprisonment in the Ilim prison in Siberia.

The reign of Paul I(1796-1801) some historians call "unenlightened absolutism", others - "military-police dictatorship", others - consider Paul "Russian Hamlet", the fourth - "romantic emperor". However, even those historians who find positive traits in Paul's reign admit that he equated autocracy with personal despotism.

Paul I came to the throne after the death of his mother at the age of 42. Catherine II, having given her son Gatchina near St. Petersburg, removed him from the court. In Gatchina, Pavel introduced strict rules based on iron discipline and asceticism, opposing them to the luxury and wealth of the St. Petersburg court. Having become emperor, he tried to strengthen the regime by strengthening discipline and power in order to exclude all manifestations of liberalism and freethinking in Russia. Characteristic features of Paul were harshness, imbalance and irascibility. He believed that everything in the country should be subordinated to the orders established by the tsar, put diligence and accuracy in the first place, did not tolerate objections, sometimes reaching tyranny.

In 1797, Paul issued the "Institution on the Imperial Family", which canceled Peter's decree on succession to the throne. From now on, the throne was supposed to pass strictly along the male line from father to son, and in the absence of sons to the eldest of the brothers. For the maintenance of the imperial house, an department of "appanages" was formed, which managed the lands that belonged to the imperial family and the peasants who lived on them. The order of service of the nobles was tightened, the effect of the Charter to the nobility was limited. Prussian orders were planted in the army.

In 1797, the Manifesto on the three-day corvee was published. He forbade landlords to use peasants for field work on Sundays, recommending (but not obliging) to limit corvée to three days a week.

Paul I took the Order of Malta under his protection, and when Napoleon captured Malta in 1798, he declared war on France in alliance with England and Austria. When England occupied Malta, having won it from the French, a break in relations with England and an alliance with France followed. By agreement with Napoleon, Paul sent 40 regiments of Don Cossacks to conquer India in order to annoy the British (the regiments were withdrawn after his death).

Paul's further stay in power was fraught with a loss of political stability for the country. The foreign policy of the emperor did not meet the interests of Russia either. On March 12, 1801, with the participation of the heir to the throne, the future Emperor Alexander I, the last palace coup in the history of Russia was carried out. Paul I was killed in the Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg.

FOREIGN POLICY OF RUSSIA IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 18TH CENTURY.

Tasks of foreign policy. The most important task of foreign policy facing Russia in the second half of the 18th century was the struggle for access to the southern seas - the Black and Azov. From the third quarter of the XVIII century. in the foreign policy of Russia, a significant place was occupied by the issue of liberation from foreign domination of the lands of Ukraine and Belarus and the unification of all the Eastern Slavs in one state. The Great French Revolution, which began in 1789, largely determined the direction of the foreign policy actions of the Russian autocracy at the end of the 18th century, including the struggle against revolutionary France. On the southeastern borders of Russia, the situation was relatively stable.

Russian-Turkish war 1768-1774 The Russian government was prompted to take active steps in the south by the interests of the country's security, and the needs of the nobility, who sought to obtain the richest southern lands, and the developing industry and trade, which dictated the need for access to the Black Sea coast.

Turkey, instigated by France and England, in the autumn of 1768 declared war on Russia. Military operations began in 1769 and were conducted on the territory of Moldavia and Wallachia, as well as on the Azov coast, where, after the capture of Azov and Taganrog, Russia began building a fleet. In 1770, the Russian army under the command of the talented commander P.A. Rumyantseva won brilliant victories at the Larga and Cahul rivers (tributaries of the Prut River) and went to the Danube. In the same year, the Russian fleet under the command of A.G. Orlov and admirals G.A. Sviridov and I.S. Greiga, having left St. Petersburg, entered the Mediterranean Sea through Gibraltar and completely destroyed the Turkish squadron in the Chesme Bay off the coast of Asia Minor. The Turkish fleet was blocked in the Black Sea.

In 1771, Russian troops under the command of Prince V.M. Dolgorukov captured the Crimea, which meant the end of the war. However, Turkey, relying on the support of France and Austria and using the internal difficulties of Russia, where the Peasant War was going on, disrupted the negotiations. Then in 1774 the Russian army crossed the Danube. Troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov defeated the army of the Grand Vizier near the village of Kozludzha, opening the main forces led by P.A. Rumyantsev way to Istanbul. Turkey was forced to ask for peace.

It was concluded in the Bulgarian village of Kyuchuk-Kainardzhi in 1774. Under the terms of the Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhi peace, Russia received access to the Black Sea, the Black Sea steppes - Novorossia, the right to have its own fleet on the Black Sea and the right to pass through the Bosporus and Dardanelles. Azov and Kerch, as well as Kuban and Kabarda passed to Russia. The Crimean Khanate became independent from Turkey. Turkey paid an indemnity of 4 million rubles. The Russian government also won the right to act as a defender of the legitimate rights of the Christian peoples of the Ottoman Empire.

As a result of the successful end of the Russian-Turkish war, the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula launched a national liberation struggle against the Turkish yoke. The autonomy of Moldavia and Wallachia, accepted by Russia under its protection, was restored. The development of Novorossia (southern Ukraine) began. The cities of Bkaterinoslav (1776, now Dnepropetrovsk), Kherson (1778) arose there.

For brilliant victories in the Russian-Turkish war, Catherine II generously awarded her commanders with orders and nominal weapons. In addition, A.G. Orlov became known as Chesmensky, V.M. Dolgorukov - Krymsky, P.A. Rumyantsev - Zadunaisky. A.V. Suvorov received a golden sword with diamonds.

Russian-Turkish war 1787-1791 Turkey did not want to come to terms with the assertion of Russia in the Black Sea. In response to Turkey's attempt to return Crimea under its rule, Russian troops occupied the Crimean peninsula, which became part of Russia. Sevastopol was founded as a support base for the fleet (1783). G.A. Potemkin for success in annexing the Crimea (the old name of Taurida) received a prefix to his title "prince of Tauride."

In 1783, in the city of Georgievsk (Northern Caucasus), an agreement was concluded between the Georgian king Erekle II and Russia on a protectorate. The Treaty of Georgievsky was signed, according to which Russia took Eastern Georgia under its protection.

In the spring of 1787, Catherine II, accompanied by the court, the Polish king and European ambassadors, made a trip to Novorossia and the Crimea. In Kherson they were joined by the Austrian Emperor Joseph II. The trip was aimed at getting acquainted with the wealth of Novorossia and the successes of G.A. Potemkin, who headed the department of the south of Russia, for its development. In addition, the guests had to make sure that Russia had a firm foot on the Black Sea. These results were achieved, although the expression "Potemkin villages", meaning excessive show-off, came into use after Catherine's trip.

In the summer of 1787, Turkey demanded the return of the Crimea and opened hostilities. A.V. Suvorov defeated the enemy in the battle of Knieburn (near Ochakov, 1787), Fokshany and on the Rymnik River (1789). For this victory, Suvorov received the title of count and the prefix to it - "Rymnik". In December 1788, after a long siege, G.A. Potemkin stormed the "key to the Black Sea" - Ochakovo, a Turkish fortress on the Dnieper estuary.

Of particular importance was the capture of Ishmael (1790) - the citadel of Turkish rule on the Danube. After careful preparation, A.V. Suvorov appointed the time of the assault. Wanting to avoid bloodshed, he sent a letter to the commandant of the fortress demanding surrender: "24 hours - freedom, the first shot - already captivity, assault - death." The Turkish pasha refused: "The Danube will soon stop in its course, the sky will fall to the ground, than Ishmael will surrender." After a 10-hour assault, Ishmael was taken. In the battle for Ishmael, the student of A.V. Suvorov - the future commander M.I. Kutuzov.

Along with the ground forces, the fleet, commanded by Admiral F.F. Ushakov. After a series of brilliant victories in the Kerch Strait and at the Gadzhibey fort, the Black Sea became free for the Russian fleet. In the battle at Cape Kaliakria (near the Bulgarian city of Varna) in 1791, the Turkish fleet was destroyed. Turkey turned to Russia with a proposal to make peace.

In 1791 peace was signed in the city of Iasi. According to the Yassy peace treaty, Turkey recognized Crimea as a possession of Russia. The Dniester River became the border between the two countries. The territory between the rivers Bug and Dniester became part of Russia. Turkey recognized the Russian patronage of Georgia, established by the Treaty of St. George in 1783.

As a result of the Russian-Turkish wars, the economic development of the steppe south of Russia accelerated. Russia's ties with the countries of the Mediterranean were expanding. The Crimean Khanate, a constant hotbed of aggression against Ukrainian and Russian lands, was liquidated. Nikolaev (1789), Odessa (1795), Ekaterinodar (1793, now Krasnodar) and others were founded in the south of Russia.

Russo-Swedish War 1788-1790 At the end of the 80s of the eighteenth century. Russia had to simultaneously conduct military operations on two fronts. In 1788, Sweden decided to return the lands lost in the Great Northern War. Military operations took place near St. Petersburg, when the main armies fought in the south against Turkey. The offensive on land did not produce results, and soon the Swedish king and his troops left Russia. Moreover, Russian troops occupied a significant part of Swedish Finland. Battles at sea went on with varying success. In 1790, the Treaty of Verel was signed in a Finnish village on the Kymmene River, which retained the former borders.

Education USA and Russia. One of the significant international events of the third quarter of the eighteenth century. there was a struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England - a bourgeois revolution that led to the creation of the United States of America.

Disagreements between England and Russia had a favorable effect on the course of the American Revolution. In 1780, the Russian government adopted a "Declaration of Armed Neutrality", supported by most European countries. The ships of neutral countries had the right of armed protection if they were attacked by the belligerent fleet. This led to the abandonment of England's attempts to organize a naval blockade of the American coast and objectively contributed to the victory of the American Revolution.

Partitions of Poland. In the last third of the XVIII century. The Polish question has become one of the central issues in the field of international relations in Europe. The Commonwealth was going through a severe crisis, the cause of which lay in the self-serving, anti-national policy of the Polish magnates, who brought the country to collapse. The cruel feudal oppression and the policy of national oppression of the peoples that were part of the Commonwealth became a brake on the further development of the country. Peasant farms were brought to ruin.

The central government in Poland was weak. The Polish king was elected at the Sejm, where separate groups of nobility were at enmity with each other. Often, these groups, regardless of national tasks, sought help abroad. The principle of "liberum veto" (the right of free prohibition) was in effect, according to which all decisions of the Sejm had to be taken unanimously (even one vote "against" frustrated the adoption of the law).

The plight of Poland was taken advantage of by its neighbors: the monarchs of Prussia, Austria and Russia. Russia acted under the pretext of liberating the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands, which experienced the most cruel oppression from the Polish feudal lords.

The reason for intervention in the affairs of Poland, where the dominant religion was Catholicism, was the question of the situation of non-Catholic Christians. The Russian government agreed with the Polish king on the equalization of the rights of the Catholic and Orthodox population. The most reactionary part of the Polish gentry, instigated by the Vatican, opposed this decision. The government of Catherine II sent troops to Poland to suppress the uprising of the gentry group. At the same time, Prussia and Austria occupied part of the Polish lands. The Prussian King Frederick II initiated the partition of Poland. Catherine II, unlike him, considered it expedient to preserve a united Poland, but under Russian influence.

In 1772, the first partition of Poland took place. Austria sent its troops to Western Ukraine (Galicia), Prussia - to Pomorye. Russia received the eastern part of Belarus up to Minsk and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia. The progressive part of the Polish nobility and the emerging bourgeoisie made an attempt to save the Polish state. In accordance with the constitution of 1791, the election of the king and the right of "liberum veto" were abolished. The army was strengthened, the third estate was admitted to the Sejm, freedom of religion was introduced.

The new Polish constitution was adopted when France was in the flames of revolution. Fearing the spread of the "revolutionary contagion", and also feeling the decline of their influence in the country, the Polish magnates turned to Catherine II for help. Russian troops, followed by the Prussians, entered Poland. The old order has been restored.

In 1793, the second partition of Poland took place. Central Belarus with Minsk, Right-Bank Ukraine went to Russia. Prussia received Gdansk, part of the land along the rivers Varga and Vistula.

In 1794, Polish patriots led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko, striving to preserve the sovereignty of Poland, raised an uprising. Catherine II suppressed it by sending troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov. This predetermined the third partition of Poland. In 1795, Prussia received Central Poland with Warsaw, Austria received Southern Poland with Lublin and Krakow. Lithuania, Courland, Volyn and Western Belarus went to Russia.

Factors leading to the formation of nation-states. Features of the formation of the Russian state.

Reign of Ivan III and Vasily III. Accession to Moscow of Nizhny Novgorod, Yaroslavl, Rostov, Novgorod the Great, Vyatka land. The overthrow of the Horde yoke. Joining the unified state of Tver, Pskov, Smolensk, Ryazan.

Political system. Strengthening the power of the Moscow Grand Dukes. Sudebnik 1497. Changes in the structure of feudal land ownership. Boyar, church and local land tenure.

The beginning of the formation of central and local authorities. Reducing the number of allotments. Boyar Duma. Localism. Church and royal power. The growth of the international prestige of the Russian state.

Economic recovery and the rise of Russian culture after the Kulikovo victory. Moscow is the center of the emerging culture of the Great Russian people. Reflection in the literature of political trends. Chronicle. "The Legend of the Princes of Vladimir". Historical stories. "Zadonshchina". "The Tale of Mamaev's Massacre". Life Literature. "Walking" Afanasy Nikitin. Construction of the Moscow Kremlin. Theophanes the Greek. Andrei Rublev.

Reforms of Catherine II (briefly)

Brief description of Catherine's reform II

like most of the monarchs of Russia, Catherine II also sought to introduce her innovative reforms. Moreover, the time of her reign fell on a difficult time period for the whole country. The collapse of the judicial system, corruption, a huge external debt, as well as a weakened fleet and army - that's what the Empress found when she ascended the throne.

Provincial reform

According to this reform, adopted on November 7, 1775, instead of the former division into provinces, counties and provinces, the lands began to be divided into counties and provinces. At the same time, the total number of provinces was more than doubled (from twenty to fifty). All of them were divided into a dozen counties, and the viceroy, who was the governor-general, acted as the head of two or three provinces.

Judicial reform

From now on, each estate had its own court. So, among the peasants, these were reprisals, among the townspeople - magistrates, and the nobles were judged by the so-called Zemstvo court. In addition, conscientious courts were formed to reconcile various estates, which included representatives of the three estates. The Senate acted as the highest judicial body.

Secularization reform

According to this reform, which was carried out in 1764 by all the monastic lands, the Board of Economy was engaged. At the same time, the government took upon itself the maintenance of monasticism and the determination of the number of monks, as well as monasteries.

Senate reform

According to the manifesto of Catherine II of December 15, 1763, the role of the Senate was significantly narrowed down. However, the powers of the Prosecutor General (his head) were, on the contrary, expanded. At the same time, the Senate becomes the pinnacle of the judiciary.

urban reform

The reform of Russian cities was regulated by a charter issued by Catherine in 1785. It introduced elective new institutions, increasing the number of voters themselves. Urban residents were divided into groups according to various criteria (from class to property). Each category had its own privileges, duties and rights.

Police reform

Catherine the Second also introduced the so-called "Police Charter", according to which the deanery council becomes a body of the police department. It consisted of townspeople, the chief of police, the mayor and bailiffs.

educational reform

The formation of public schools in the settlements was the beginning of the emergence of a system of general education Russian schools in the country. Schools were divided into two types: small and main schools.

Monetary reform

Under Catherine the Second, a court cash desk and the State Bank were created. In addition, the first paper money is introduced.

Catherine 2, like most monarchs who ruled for at least some considerable time, sought to carry out reforms. Moreover, she got Russia in a difficult situation: the army and navy were weakened, a large external debt, corruption, the collapse of the judicial system, etc., etc. Next, we will briefly describe the essence of the transformations carried out during the reign of Empress Catherine 2.

Provincial reform:

"Institution for the administration of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire" was adopted on November 7, 1775. Instead of the former administrative division into provinces, provinces and counties, territories began to be divided into provinces and counties. The number of provinces increased from twenty-three to fifty. They, in turn, were divided into 10-12 counties. The troops of two or three provinces were commanded by the governor-general, otherwise called the governor. At the head of each province was a governor appointed by the Senate and reporting directly to the empress. The vice-governor was in charge of finances, the Treasury Chamber was subordinate to him. The chief officer of the county was the police captain. The centers of counties were cities, but since there were not enough of them, 216 large rural settlements received the status of a city.

Judicial reform:

Each class had its own court. The nobles were judged by the zemstvo court, the townspeople - by magistrates, and the peasants - by reprisals. Conscientious courts were also established from representatives of all three estates, which performed the function of a conciliatory instance. All these courts were elected. The higher courts were the judicial chambers, whose members were appointed. And the highest judicial body of the Russian Empire was the Senate.

Secularization reform:

It was held in 1764. All monastic lands, as well as the peasants who lived on them, were transferred to the jurisdiction of a specially established College of Economy. The state took over the maintenance of monasticism, but from that moment on it received the right to determine the number of monasteries and monks necessary for the empire.

Senate Reform:

On December 15, 1763, Catherine II issued a manifesto “On the Establishment of Departments in the Senate, Justice, Votchinnaya and Revision Collegiums, and on Separation According to These Cases.” The role of the Senate was narrowed, and the powers of its head, the Prosecutor General, on the contrary, were expanded. The Senate became the highest court. It was divided into six departments: the first (headed by the Prosecutor General himself) was in charge of state and political affairs in St. Petersburg, the second - judicial in St. Petersburg, the third - transport, medicine, science, education, art, the fourth - military land and naval affairs, the fifth - state and political in Moscow and the sixth - the Moscow Judicial Department. The heads of all departments, except for the first, were chief prosecutors subordinate to the prosecutor general.

City Reform:

The reform of Russian cities was regulated by the "Charter on the Rights and Benefits of the Cities of the Russian Empire", which was issued by Catherine II in 1785. New elective institutions were introduced. At the same time, the number of voters increased. Residents of cities were divided into six categories according to various property, class characteristics, as well as merit to society and the state, namely: real city dwellers - those who owned real estate within the city; merchants of three guilds; guild artisans; foreign and out-of-town guests; eminent citizens - architects, painters, composers, scientists, as well as wealthy merchants and bankers; townspeople - those who were engaged in needlework and handicrafts in the city. Each category had its own rights, duties and privileges.

Police reform:

In 1782, Empress Catherine II introduced the "Charter of the Deanery or Policeman". According to it, the deanery council became the body of the city police department. It consisted of bailiffs, a mayor and a police chief, as well as townspeople determined through elections. The court for public violations: drunkenness, insults, gambling, etc., as well as for unauthorized building and bribes, was carried out by the police authorities themselves, and in other cases a preliminary investigation was carried out, after which the case was transferred to court. The punishments applied by the police were arrest, censure, imprisonment in a workhouse, a fine, and in addition - the prohibition of certain activities.

Education reform

The creation of public schools in the cities laid the foundation for the state system of general education schools in Russia. They were of two types: the main schools in the provincial towns and small ones in the county ones. These educational institutions were maintained at the expense of the treasury, and people of all classes could study in them. The school reform was carried out in 1782, and earlier in 1764 a school was opened at the Academy of Arts, as well as the Society of Two Hundred Noble Maidens, then (in 1772) a commercial school.

Monetary reform

In the reign of Catherine II, the State Bank and the Loan Office were formed. And also, for the first time in Russia, paper money (banknotes) was put into circulation.

Provincial reform:

Judicial reform:

Each class had its own court. The nobility was judged by the Zemstvo court, the townspeople– magistrates, peasants– reprisals. The higher courts were the courts, whose members were appointed. Supreme FateThe Senate was the main body of the Russian Empire.

Secularization reform:

Senate Reform:

City Reform:

Police reform:

Education reform

The creation of public schools in the cities laid the foundation for the state system of general education schools in Russia. They were of two types: the main schools in the provincial towns and small ones in the county ones. The school reform was carried out in 1782, and earlier in 1764 a school was opened at the Academy of Arts, as well as the Society of Two Hundred Noble Maidens, then (in 1772)– commercial school.

Monetary reform

In the reign of Catherine II, the State Bank and the Loan Office were formed. And also, for the first time in Russia, paper money (banknotes) was put into circulation. 27. Russia and Europe in the XVIII century. Changes in the international position of the country.

In the 1820s, England remained one of the most implacable opponents of Russia in Europe. The British authorities feared the growth of the political and naval power of Russia and“ Russian threat” Hannover– hereditary possession of the English king. Besides, London was afraid of losing its intermediary role in externalth trade of Russia and become dependent on the export of Russian shipbuilding materials. The absence of normal diplomatic relations, interrupted in 1720, and the reduction in trade turnover caused damage to both parties and their economic interests.

After the death of Catherine I, a new foreign policy of Russia was proclaimed, which corresponded to the interests of the country. According to Vice-Chancellor A.I. Osterman, in the difficult international situation of that time, Russia sought“ run away” from everything, what could be worse“ inwhat space to enter” (avoid any military clashes. She didn't want war now just for herself, but also between European countries. From here and the turn of the policy towards England.

During the 20s of the XVIII century. the question of restoring diplomatic relations between Russia and England was raised repeatedly. As early as 1727, Russia's policy clearly outlined a line towards a gradual rapprochement with England while maintaining and further strengthening the Russo-Austrian alliance.

Relations between Russia and Spain in the first half of the 18th century. took shape in difficult conditions of confrontation between the Vienna (Austria and Spain) and Hanoverian (England, France and Prussia) blocs.

Spanish diplomacy made every effort to attract Russia to the Vienna Union.

This was facilitated by the anti-Russian orientation of the Hanoverian League, as well as the common interests of Russia and Austria in Turkey, Poland and Sweden. In the rescript to the Russian representative in Madrid of the College of Commerce, Advisor I.A. Shcherbatov, it was prescribed

December 13, 1726 maintain close ties“ Caesar's minister, maybe we're all roman- by the royal majesty in close friendship we acquire. In July 1726 G. Russia joinedAustro- Spanish coalition, thereby supporting the balance of power in Europe. However, she rejected the offer of Spainand join the fight against the Hanoverian League. With the accession of Russia to the Vienna Union, the Spaniards expected to act more vigorously against their opponents and, above all, France.

At the beginning of 1725, the cabinet of Catherine I declared loyalty to the foreign policy course determined by Peter I. While carefully observing the diplomatic struggle between various blocs, St. Petersburg did not immediately decide on the choice of allies. France was of the greatest interest among the leading European countries, with the help of which Russia hoped to strengthen its positions in Poland, Sweden and Turkey, where France's influence was especially great. In March 1725 it was decided to ally with France.

Anna Ioannovna, the niece of Peter I, Duchess of Courland, who ascended the Russian throne in 1730 after the death of Peter II, supported the idea of a Russian-French rapprochement. In 1732, the empress agreed to start negotiations with Magnan on the conclusion of a union treaty between the two countries. However, very soon these negotiations reached an impasse due to too large differences in foreign policy guidelines.

(1762 - 1796)
Agriculture. Under Catherine, legislative acts were adopted, making it possible to say that serfdom had reached its peak. The decree of 1765 allowed the landowners to exile their peasants without trial or investigation to Siberia for hard labor. By decree of 1763, the peasants themselves had to pay the costs associated with the suppression of their speeches. In 1767, a decree was issued forbidding peasants to file complaints against their landlords to the empress.
Industry. In 1785, a special “Craft regulation” was issued, according to which at least 5 artisans of a certain specialty were to make up a workshop that elected its foreman.
Finance. Under Catherine, for the first time in 1769, paper money appeared. Also, for the first time under Catherine, Russia turned to foreign loans. The first of them was made in 1769 in Holland, the second - the following year in Italy.
The first years of the reign. One of the first reforms of Catherine II was the division of the Senate into 6 departments with certain powers and competences. The Senate reform improved the government of the country from the center, but the Senate lost its legislative function, which increasingly passed to the empress. In 1764, the hetmanate in Ukraine was abolished. The autonomy of Ukraine was abolished.
Provincial reform 1775 Measures were taken to strengthen the nobility in the center and locally. The administrative division of the country introduced by Catherine II was preserved until 1917. On November 7, 1775, the “Institution for the Administration of the Provinces of the All-Russian Empire” was adopted. The country was divided into provinces headed by governors. The capitals and several other provinces were subordinate to governors-general. A provincial government was created under the province, and the provincial prosecutor was subordinated to it. Finance was handled by the Treasury, headed by the vice-governor. The provincial land surveyor was engaged in land management, schools, hospitals, almshouses was in charge of the Order of Public Charity. The provinces were divided into counties. In them, following the model of the provinces, a county treasurer and a county surveyor were appointed. The city was singled out as a separate administrative unit. At its head was the mayor. Strict police control was introduced in the cities. After the provincial reform, all boards ceased to function, except for Foreign, Military and Admiralty. The functions of the collegiums were transferred to the provincial bodies.
Letters granted to the nobility and cities. On April 21, 1785, letters of commendation to the nobility and cities were issued. By issuing these charters, Catherine regulated the legislation on the rights and obligations of the estates. In accordance with the "Diploma on the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble Russian nobility", it was exempted from compulsory service, personal taxes, and corporal punishment. "The letter of rights and benefits to the cities of the Russian Empire" defined the rights and obligations of the urban population, the system of governance in cities. Also, now the townspeople were divided into 6 categories: nobles and clergy, merchants, guild artisans, foreigners, eminent townspeople, townspeople. Residents of the city every 3 years elected a self-government body - the General City Duma, the city head and judges. The general city duma elected an executive body, the six-member duma.
Education reform. Catherine attached great importance to education in the life of the country. Institutes, cadet corps and educational homes are established by the cares of the empress. But her main merit in this area can be considered the first experience in creating a system of general primary education in Russia, not limited by class barriers (with the exception of serfs).
Significance of reforms. Serfdom reached its greatness, colossal legislative and administrative work was carried out, which turned Russia into a Europeanized power.

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