Lexicology is the science that focuses on the vocabulary of a particular language. It has its own laws and categories. What does lexicology study? This science deals with various aspects of words, as well as their functions and development.

concept

Lexicology is a science that studies the vocabulary of a language and its features. The subject of this section of linguistics is the following:

• Functions of lexical units.
• The problem of the word as a basic constituent element of the language.
• Types and types of lexical units.
• The structure of the vocabulary of the language.

This is not a complete list of what lexicology studies. This science deals with the replenishment and expansion of the vocabulary, and also considers the connections and contradictions between lexical units.

Object of study

The word and its meaning is the basis for many sciences. Morphology deals with these issues, as well as various areas of word formation. However, if in these sciences words are a means of studying grammatical structures or studying various models for different word-formation options, then what lexicology studies is used directly to learn the specifics of the words themselves. Lexical units are considered not just as a set of letters and sounds, but are an integral system that has its own connections, functions, categories and concepts. This is the object of study of lexicology. She considers not individual words, but the entire vocabulary as something whole and inseparable.

This approach has its own characteristics. This allows us to categorize not only words, but also set phrases that have a certain analytical role.

word problem

The lexicology of the modern Russian language focuses on the object and subject of its study. Since the word is considered as a certain unit that has connections between its form and content, it is considered in three main aspects:

• Structural. The form of the word, its structure and constituent components are studied.
• Semantic. The meaning of lexical units is considered.
• Functional. The role of words in speech and in the general structure of the language is investigated.

If we talk about the first aspect, then lexicology is a science that establishes specific criteria for determining the difference and identity of individual words. To do this, lexical units are compared with phrases, and an analytical structure is developed that allows you to establish the invariants of the word.

As for the semantic aspect, this is a separate science - semasiology. It studies the relationship between a word and a particular object. This is important for lexicology. It studies the word and its meaning, as well as its individual categories and types, which allows us to distinguish such concepts as monosimy (uniqueness) and polysimy (polysemy). Lexicology also deals with the study of the causes that lead to the appearance or loss of a word of its meaning.

The functional aspect considers a lexical unit as an object that is associated with other similar elements and builds a whole language system. Here the role of the interaction of vocabulary and grammar is important, which, on the one hand, support, and on the other hand, limit each other.

The concept of vocabulary

Lexicology considers words as a system that consists of several subsystems. Lexical units form groups that are different in volume, form and content. This is part of what lexicology studies. Vocabulary is studied simultaneously in two aspects: as a group relationship between individual units and their correct arrangement in relation to each other. Thanks to this, vocabulary can be divided into separate categories. For example, homonyms, paronyms, synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, etc.

Additionally, almost any section of linguistics, including Russian or English lexicology, studies more voluminous groupings of words, which are called fields. Usually this is built on the basis of the core of the field, for example, a certain number of keywords, and the boundaries themselves, which are various paradigmatic, semantic, grammatical or other types of relationships with given lexical units.

Sections of lexicology

Like any other science, lexicology has its own system of disciplines that are responsible for certain aspects of its object and subject of study:

• Semasiology. Deals with the meanings of words and phrases.
• Onomasiology. Studying the procedure for naming objects and phenomena.
• Etymology. Explores the origin of words.
• Onomastics. Deals with proper names. This applies to both names of people and geographical names.
• Stylistics. Studying the meaning of words and expressions of a connotative nature.
• Lexicography. Engaged in ways of organizing and compiling dictionaries.
• Phraseology. Explores phraseological units and persistent expressions.

Sections of lexicology have their own categories, as well as the object and subject of study. In addition, some types of this science are distinguished. In particular, we are talking about general, particular, historical, comparative and applied lexicology. The first type is responsible for the general laws of vocabulary, including its structure, stages of development, functions, etc. Private lexicology deals with the study of a specific language. The historical type is responsible for the development of words in connection with the history of the names of objects and phenomena. Comparative lexicology examines words in order to identify kinship between different languages. The latter type is responsible for such processes as the culture of speech, translation features, linguistic pedagogy and lexicography.

Categories of lexical items

The vocabulary of any language is diverse and heterogeneous. Accordingly, there are categories that have their own distinctive features and characteristics. Russian lexicology foresees the following subspecies:

• By scope: commonly used words and lexical units that are used in special situations (science, poetry, vernacular, dialects, etc.).
• By emotional load: neutral and emotionally charged units.
• According to historical development: neologisms and archaisms.
• According to its origin and development: internationalisms, borrowings, etc.
• By functionality - active and passive lexical units, as well as occasionalisms.

Given the constant development of the language, the boundaries between words are fuzzy and they can move from one group to another.

Problems

Like any other science, lexicology deals with certain problems. Modern experts distinguish the following:

• The frequency of words in the text.
• The difference between lexical units in writing and in oral speech.
• The possibilities of words that allow you to create new names for objects and phenomena.
• Changing vocabulary values.

Science also studies word compatibility options at different levels: semantic and lexical.

Ways to replenish vocabulary

Lexicology deals with the study of variants of nominations. This is understood as various ways and methods of expanding the vocabulary. For this, both the internal resources of a particular language and the attraction of lexical units from other languages ​​can be used. There are the following ways to replenish the vocabulary:

• Word formation is the creation of new words.
• Construction of new meanings for already existing words: polysemy, transfer of meanings, etc.
• Formation of persistent phrases.
• Borrowing.

These methods are typical for any language, but in each case they have their own characteristics and distinctive features.

Methods

For its needs, lexicology uses general linguistic research methods. These include:

• Distribution. Responsible for defining the scope of a lexical unit, for the number of values, etc.
• Substitution. He studies the phenomena of synonymy and variation of words.
• component method. Responsible for splitting lexical units into separate components, and also deals with their general structure.
• Transformation. It is used in the process of word formation in order to determine the main component of the word.
• Used to determine the frequency of use of lexical units, as well as to calculate their semantic, paradigmatic and other types of relationships.

The information obtained using these methods is also used in other sciences, including psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, as well as a number of social disciplines.

10. The concept of vocabulary, the word.

Vocabulary is the vocabulary of a language.

LEXICOLOGY is a branch of linguistics that deals with the study of vocabulary.

The WORD is the main structural and semantic unit of the language, which serves to name objects, phenomena, their properties and which has a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features. The characteristic features of the word are integrity, separability and integral reproducibility in speech.

The main ways of replenishing the vocabulary of the Russian language.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is replenished in two main ways:

Words are formed on the basis of word-building material (roots, suffixes and endings),

New words come into the Russian language from other languages ​​due to the political, economic and cultural ties of Russian people with other peoples and countries.

11. LEXICAL MEANING OF A WORD- the correlation of the sound design of a linguistic unit with one or another phenomenon of reality, fixed in the mind of the speaker.

single and multiple words.

Words are single-valued and polysemantic. Single-valued words are words that have only one lexical meaning, regardless of the context in which they are used. There are few such words in Russian, these are

• scientific terms (bandage, gastritis),
• proper names (Petrov Nikolay),
• recently emerged words that are still rarely used (pizzeria, foam rubber),
• words with a narrow-subject meaning (binoculars, can, backpack).

Most words in Russian are polysemantic, i.e. they can have multiple meanings. In each separate context, some one value is updated. A polysemantic word has a basic meaning, and meanings derived from it. The main meaning is always given in the explanatory dictionary in the first place, followed by derivatives.

Many words that are now perceived as polysemantic originally had only one meaning, but since they were often used in speech, they began to have more meanings, apart from the main one. Many words that are unambiguous in modern Russian can become ambiguous over time.

Direct and figurative meaning of the word.

The direct meaning is the meaning of a word that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. This value is stable, although it may change over time. For example, the word "table" in Ancient Russia had the meaning "reigning, capital", and now it has the meaning "piece of furniture".

A figurative meaning is such a meaning of a word that arose as a result of the transfer of a name from one object of reality to another on the basis of some kind of similarity.

For example, the word "sediment" has a direct meaning - "solid particles that are in a liquid and deposited on the bottom or on the walls of a vessel after settling", and a figurative meaning - "a heavy feeling that remains after something."

12. HOMONYMS These are words that are different in meaning, but the same in pronunciation and spelling. For example, a club is a "spherical flying smoky mass" (a club of smoke) and a club is a "cultural and educational institution" (a club of railway workers). The use of homonyms in the text is a special stylistic device.

13. SYNONYMS are words that are close to each other in meaning. Synonyms form a synonymous series, for example, assumption - hypothesis - guess - assumption.

Synonyms may differ slightly in sign or style, sometimes both. Synonyms that have the same meaning are called absolute synonyms. There are few of them in the language, these are either scientific terms (for example, spelling - spelling), or words formed using synonymous morphemes (for example, guard - guard).

Synonyms are used to make speech more diverse and avoid repetition, as well as to give a more accurate description of what is being said.

14. ANTONYMS are words that are opposite in meaning.

Antonyms are words that are relative in meaning; you can not put in an antonymous pair of words that characterize an object or phenomenon from different angles (early - late, fall asleep - wake up, white - black.).

If the word is polysemantic, then each meaning has its own antonym (for example, for the word “old” in the phrase “old man”, the antonym is the word “young”, and in the phrase “old carpet” - “new”).

Like synonyms, antonyms are used to make speech more expressive.

15. Discharges of words by origin.

All words in Russian are divided into:

• primordially Russian, which include Indo-Europeanisms (oak, wolf, mother, son), common Slavic pek-sika (birch, cow, friend), East Slavic vocabulary (boot, dog, village), proper Russian vocabulary (mason, leaflet);
• borrowed words, which include borrowings from Slavic languages ​​(finger, mouth - Old Slavicisms, borscht - Ukrainian borrowing, monogram - Polish borrowing) and non-Slavic languages ​​​​(Scandinavian - anchor, hook, Oleg; Turkic - hut, chest; Latin - audience, administration ; Greek - cherry, lantern, history; German - sandwich, tie; French - battalion, buffet, etc.)

16. Obsolete words and neologisms.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is constantly changing: some words that used to be used very often are now almost inaudible, while others, on the contrary, are used more and more often on the web. Such processes in the language are associated with a change in the life of the society that it serves: with the advent of a new concept, a new word appears; if society no longer refers to a certain concept, then it does not refer to the word that this concept stands for.

Words that are no longer used or are used very rarely are called obsolete (for example, child, right hand, mouth, Red Army soldier, people's commissar.

Neologisms are new words that have not yet become familiar and everyday names. The composition of neologisms is constantly changing, some of them take root in the language, some do not. For example, in the middle of the 20th century the word "satellite" was a neologism.

From a stylistic point of view, all the words of the Russian language are divided into two large groups:

• stylistically neutral or common (can be used in all styles of speech without restriction);
• stylistically colored (they belong to one of the styles of speech: bookish: scientific, official business, journalistic - or colloquial; their use “not in their own style” violates the correctness, purity of speech; one must be extremely careful in their use); for example, the word "hindrance" belongs to the colloquial style, while the word "exorcise" belongs to the book style.

8. In Russian, depending on the nature of the functioning, there are:

Common vocabulary (used without any restrictions),
- vocabulary of a limited scope of use.

17. Vocabulary of a limited scope of use:

• dialectisms are words that belong to a particular dialect. Dialects are Russian folk dialects, which include a significant number of original words that are known only in a certain area. Dialectisms can be

1. lexical (known only in the territory of distribution of this dialect): sash, tsibulya,
2. morphological (characterized by a special inflection): I have,
3. phonetic (characterized by a special pronunciation): [tsai] - tea, [hverma] - farm, etc.

• professionalisms are words that are used in various fields of production, technology, etc. and which have not become common; terms - words that name special concepts of any sphere of production or science; professionalisms and terms are used by people of the same profession, in the same field of science (for example, abscissa (mathematics), affricates (linguistics)),

jargon - these are words that are used by a narrow circle of people united by a common interest, occupation or position in society; for example, they distinguish youth (ancestors - parents), professional (nadomae - shortfall of the landing mark), camp jargon,

argotisms are the same as jargonisms, but they are used as a conventional sign, as an encrypted code, so that people who do not belong to this group cannot understand the meaning of these words; as a rule, this is the speech of socially closed groups, for example, thieves' slang.

Object and subject of lexicology

Units of the lexico-semantic system

Specificity of the lexico-semantic system

Main problems of lexicology

Sections of lexicology

Literature

_______________________________________________

An object and the subject of lexicology

Lexicology(gr. lexis'word', lexikos'vocabulary', logos‘teaching, science’) is a branch of linguistics that studies vocabulary language (vocabulary) in his state of the art and historical development.

Sections of linguistics that study different tiers of the language system actually have two objects:

unit appropriate level, its nature and properties,

unit system, the relationship between these units.

Objects of lexicology- this is

word as a lexical unit (LU),

vocabulary(vocabulary) as a collection of words, organized, structured in a certain way.

The word is an object of different linguistic disciplines. Each of them considers the word from a certain point of view, i.e. with a common object has its own subject:

studied in phonetics sound side the words,

in morphemic - structure the words,

word formation - ways of education words,

in morphology - grammatical forms and grammatical meanings the words,

in syntax - connection methods words and forms of words into phrases and sentences [SRYA, p. 165].

word like grammatical unit is a system of all its forms with their grammatical meanings; word like lexical a unit, or a dictionary unit, is a formally expressed system of all its lexical meanings [Russian Grammar, p. 453].

In lexicology, the word is considered

in the aspect of its subject-conceptual content

and as a unit of the vocabulary of a language.

Word wing , for example, is of interest here

but as title:

the organ of flight in birds, insects, and some mammals;

the carrier plane of an aircraft or other moving apparatus;

rotating blades of a windmill wheel;

tires over the wheel of a carriage, car, etc.;

side extension, outbuilding;

the extreme (right or left) part of the combat formation;

extreme (right or left) grouping of some organization.

b) how unit of the lexical system, which is in a certain relationship with other lexical units, for example, as part of Class names of body parts of a bird along with words tail, beak etc.

opposition grammatical forms of the word(word form) in the same meaning ( wing, wing, wing...) is insignificant for lexicology. This is the subject of grammar.

On the contrary, the study of the similarity and difference between the semantic variants of the same word in the entire system of their forms ( wing, wing, wing...‘organ of flying’; wing, wing, wing...‘carrying plane’, etc.) is one of the most important tasks of lexicology [SRYA, p. 165].

However, when studying a word in lexicology, it is impossible to completely ignore grammar, since vocabulary and grammar are closely related.

Units of the lexico-semantic system

Word a sound or set of sounds that has meaning and employee name objects and phenomena of reality [SRYASH, p. 165].

It is fixed in the definition iconic nature words and his function.

The word, unlike the phoneme, is sign:

It also has a material side. sound or spelling(phonographic shell),

and the perfect side meaning.

Main function the words - nominative(lat. nominatio ‘name, name’). Most words called objects, their attributes, quantity, actions, processes and are full-fledged, independent.

Words name not only specific objects, but also concepts about these objects that arise in the minds of the speakers.

With a word correlateall language units:

phonemes and morphemes form the structure of a word

phrases and suggestions are made up of words.

This gives reason to some scholars to say that the word is central unit of language.

Since the word is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, the term word polysemantic and indefinite: they denote

and words like vocabulary units(linguistic units);

and words like units of speech, text(words in specific meanings and specific grammatical forms).

For example, in a sentence Man is man's friend

three words in specific grammatical forms

and two words as dictionary units: human and friend[Kodukhov, p. 184].

The word is called unambiguous words, and individual meanings ambiguous words.

To designate these different objects in lexicology, more precise terms are used.

The most general term is lexical item(LE)

Lexical unit is a unit of the lexical level of a language that has bilateral character,grammatical arrangement and performing nominative function.

Term lexical item is generic in relation to terms lexeme and lexico-semantic variant:

┌─────────┴─────────┐

lexeme lexico-semantic

lexeme(gr. lé xis ‘word, expression’) is a unit of the lexical level of the language, which is a collection all forms and meanings of one word[≈ LES, p. 257; ERYA, p. 207].

Those. lexeme is bilateral unit 1 :

lexeme= –––––––––––––––––––––––

plan of expression

Term lexeme usually used only in relation to words significant parts of speech.

Lexico-semantic variant(LSV) is one of the lexical meanings of a lexeme, expressed by a phonographic shell.

Otherwise: LSV– a lexeme in one of its meanings. Those. LSV is also bilateral unit. LSV of one lexeme

differ in their lexical meanings (LZ)

and coincide in form (sound and graphic expression).

For example, sleeve –

piece of clothing that covers the arm short sleeves);

offshoot of the main riverbed ( right arm of the Volga);

hose for supplying liquids, bulk or viscous substances, gases ( firehose).

All these values ​​are related semanticderivatives(native speakers are aware of the connection between these meanings), so word identity is not violated.

lexeme is a system of interconnected LSV:

lexeme = LSV 1 + LSV 2 + LSV 3

If the word definitely, it is represented one LSV:

stomp‘noise, sounds from kicks while walking’.

Term "lexical unit" also used in relation to lexeme, and in relation to LSV if there is no need to differentiate them.

LE, lexeme and LSV are language units, because represent set of meanings and forms.

AT speeches these abstract units are implemented in specific units, because selected every time one meaning and one the form:

Dress with shortsleeves .

Concrete implementation lexemes or LSV in speech (text) is called:

lex(a) (the term is not very common),

word form- a word in a certain grammatical form (the term came from grammar),

word usage is a relatively new term.

Specificity of the lexico-semantic system

Lexico-Semantic System (LSS) similar in structure with other systems. Its units, like phonemes and morphemes,

belong to certain classes of units,

opposed,

or, conversely, are neutralized,

interact with each other in context, etc.

However, the lexical system significantly different from phonological, morphological and syntactic systems.

1) The main feature of the vocabulary is connection of a word with objects of extralinguistic reality.

The vocabulary reflects the material and spiritual culture, the social practice of the language community. Therefore, in the development and change of vocabulary extralinguistics play an important role(=extralinguistic; lat. extra ‘above’, ‘outside’) factors. The lexical composition most sensitively reacts to various social, cultural, scientific, political and other changes in the life of society. For example, as a result of close contacts with the Turkic peoples, there are many Turkisms in the Russian language. In the era of Peter the Great, numerous borrowings from European languages ​​appeared in the Russian language. After the October Revolution, many words ceased to be used, but, on the other hand, a large number of new names appeared. A large number of new words appeared in connection with the scientific and technological revolution, perestroika, etc. [Maslov, p. 85].

Close connection with objective reality defines all other features lexical system.

2) The number of LSS elements and the variety of their relationships incomparably more than in systems of other units.

LSS includes a number of lexemes that are difficult to count: for example, the "Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language" in 17 volumes (Big Academic Dictionary - BAS) has 122,000 words. There is evidence that developed languages ​​(such as Russian,English,German) include about 1 million words(if you count the terms, colloquial, slang and dialect words). At the same time, the number phonemes in different languages ​​on average 20–40, morphemes- hundreds (if we are not talking about roots, but in any case there are fewer roots than words), syntactic constructions- dozens.

3) The number of lexical units cannot be determined exactly.

It is difficult to establish the number of words even in the literary language (LA), the composition of which is constantly changing. LA dictionaries do not include dialectal and many slang words, and it is impossible to mechanically sum up the number of words in different dictionaries. In addition, the establishment of the number of lexical units depends on the solution of the series theoretical problems, for example,

4) Most of the words of the language each of the native speakers does not use or uses very rarely(this is a natural consequence of the fact that there is a huge number of units in LSS). In doing so, we use, for example, all phonemes their language (some more often, others less often). Common literary vocabulary PR includes up to 300 thousand words, and ordinary native speaker uses in everyday speech 1.5 – 3 thousand words. Even in the works of the greatest writers, only a very small part of the vocabulary of the language is used. For example, a dictionary A.S.Pushkin includes 21,197 words, and the dictionary V. I. Dalia(1801–1872) – about 200,000 [SRYASH, p. 163; Barlas et al., p. 119–120].

5) Since the LSS reflects the changes taking place in various areas of life, it represents open class:

on the one hand, always appear new words and meanings

on the other hand, they go to the periphery, and then disappear obsolete words or obsolete meanings of words.

Accordingly, LSS changing relatively quickly in comparison with systems of units of other levels, this is the most "mobile" level of the language.

Sustainability and mobility vocabulary elements are characterized by a certain balance providing vocabulary stability.

These specific features of the vocabulary make impossible study of system relations between all elements of the vocabulary[SRYASH, p. 164, 165, 185; SRY, p. 169].

Main problems of lexicology

Any section of linguistics studies its object in synchronous and diachronic aspects and solves the following problems:

definition basic unit the corresponding level of the language system, its differential features; the relationship of this unit with other units of the language;

detection systemic relations between units;

functioning units;

study of historical changes in the system of units and the rules of their functioning.

Accordingly, main problems of lexicology.

Word definition as an independent unit of language.

The study semantic structure words (components of lexical meaning and types of meanings of words, etc.).

Revealing consistency vocabulary (paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations between words):

paradigmatics: polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy, conversion, semantic field, etc.;

syntagmatics: compatibility of lexical units.

Differentiation (stratification) of vocabulary from different points of view:

native and borrowed vocabulary,

active and passive (outdated and new),

national and limited use (terminological, dialectal, slang);

stylistically neutral and stylistically marked (colloquial, bookish).

Functioning vocabulary:

frequency of vocabulary in speech and texts;

contextual shifts in meanings;

speech synonyms, antonyms, etc.

Ways of replenishment vocabulary of the language:

a) use of internal resources:

creating new words

formation of new values,

the formation of stable phrases;

b) an external source - borrowings [LES, p. 260].

Sections lexicology

1. According to the subject of study differ

general and private lexicology,

descriptive (synchronic) and historical lexicology,

comparative Lexicology,

theoretical and applied lexicology.

General lexicology establishes the general laws of the structure, functioning and development of vocabulary: studies those qualities that are inherent in the words and lexical systems of all (many) languages.

Private lexicology explores the vocabulary of one language (two, several languages).

Descriptive (synchronous)lexicology studies the vocabulary of the language at the present stage of development.

Historical lexicology explores the history of words in connection with the history of the objects, concepts, and institutions they designate. Historical lexicology gives

dynamics description vocabulary (or its section) ( diachronic an approach),

or static description slice of the historical state of the language (synchronous approach) [LES, p. 260].

Within historical lexicology stands out etymology(gr. etymologia from etymon'truth' and logos ‘word, teaching’) –

branch of linguistics that studies the origin of words

the origin of the word [LES, p. 596].

Etymology makes clear primary form and meaning of the word, which in the process of the historical development of the language often turn out to be incomprehensible to native speakers [Vendina, p. 113].

Comparative lexicology examines the vocabulary in order to identify

structural and semantic similarities and differences between languages ​​(regardless of their relationship),

general lexicological (more often semantic) regularities.

Applied lexicology opposed to the named theoretical disciplines, because It has practical orientation. It covers 4 areas:

lexicography,

• linguistic pedagogy (teaching a non-native language),

  culture of speech [LES, p. 260].

2. Main aspects learning vocabulary:

sociolinguistic: the properties of the vocabulary of the language are studied, which are due to social factors (for example, borrowing vocabulary is a consequence of trade, military, cultural and other contacts between peoples);

system-semantic: the word is studied from the side of its lexical meaning (LZ); vocabulary is studied from the point of view of systemic relations between its elements, internal patterns that organize this system;

functional;

temporal(synchronous - diachronic).

3. Internal division lexicology - sections of lexicology depending on aspect learning vocabulary.

1) Proper lexicology(= external lexicology) studies lexical units in the aspect of correlation with objects of external reality ( sociolinguistic aspect learning vocabulary).

Within the framework of lexicology proper, one studies

origin lexical units (original and borrowed vocabulary),

them use(active and passive stock),

social differentiation vocabulary (common, dialect, slang vocabulary), etc.

2) Lexical semantics(=internal lexicology; system-semantic aspect learning vocabulary).

Term semantics(gr. sē manticó s ‘denoting’) has the meanings:

a section of linguistics that studies this content [LES, p. 438].

Within the single discipline “semantics”, morphemic semantics, lexical semantics, and syntactic semantics stand out.

Term lexical semantics stands for:

branch of lexicology that studies the meaning of words

signified, the plan of the content of lexical units (synonymous with the term lexicalmeaning).

In the process of verbal communication speaking(writer), encoding the meaning, generates the text, and listening(reader), decodes, perceives the text. In the first case, the question arises: “With what word (or words) can this meaning be expressed?”, And in the second: “What does this word mean?”. Thus, the meanings of lexical units can be explored in two opposite directions:

from signifier to meaning and

from meaning to signifier[SRY, p. 171].

In accordance with this, two sections (aspects) of semantics are distinguished:

semasiology(gr. sē masia ‘meaning, meaning’) is the doctrine of meanings: the meaning is studied in the direction from form to content, and

onomasiology(gr. onoma ‘name’) = nomination theory: the meaning is studied in the direction from content to form.

Semasiology and onomasiology inextricably linked with each other, there is no clear boundary between them. For example, ambiguity studied in semasiological aspect: what meanings this phonographic shell expresses. However, ambiguity arises as a result of the transfer of names (cf .: wing), and the study of nomination methods is onomasiological aspect.

Both aspects of semantics study words

in systemic aspect,

in functional aspect (a new aspect of learning vocabulary).

The opposition between these aspects is based on opposition language - speech 2 .

The functional aspect of the study of lexical units is called pragmatics(gr. pragma genus. P. pragmatos‘deed, action’) (the term began to be actively used in the 60–70s of the 20th century).

AT wide meaning pragmatics– 1) one of the aspects of semiotics; 2) a section of linguistics that studies the functioning of linguistic signs in speech - the relationship between the statement, the speaker and the context (situation) in the aspect of human activity[LES, p. 389; ERYA, p. 360]. Linguistic pragmatics studies language not “in and for itself”, but as a means used by a person to achieve his goals [Maslova, p. 29].

Subject linguistic pragmatics - speech acts. It explores the social and communicative conditions that determine the speech process (who is the speaker; to whom he speaks; what are the relations between these subjects; the goal of the speaker; his emotional state; time and place of speech).

The choice of nomination depends on these external factors:

children say " ancestors» about their parents in the absence of parents;

their two lexical units doctor and doctor only the latter is used in the invocation function;

speakers (writers) choose word mother or mother depending on the attitude and external conditions (for example, filling out a questionnaire).

The area of ​​pragmatics includes the study of indirect meanings expressed by linguistic units. For example, expressions like It's blowing here or I'm cold indirectly mean a request to close the window. Wed:

Polina Andreevna. You were so carried away by the conversation with Irina Nikolaevna... You did not notice the cold. Admit it, you like it...

Doctor Dorn. I am fifty five years old . (Chekhov) [ERYA, p. 361]. Obviously, the doctor's goal in this case is not just to report his age.

As an independent section of lexical semantics, onomastics(gr. onomasticē ‘the art of giving names’) is a branch of lexicology that studies proper names.

Onomastics is divided into subsections in accordance with the categories of objects that have their own names:

anthroponymy, ethnonymy, toponymy, zoonymy, astronomy, etc.

Lexicology closely interacts with phraseology and lexicography.

Phraseology(gr. phraseō s‘expression’) is a branch of linguistics that studies stable word combinations:

slipshod, not salty slurping, where Makar did not graze calves etc.

Phraseology is considered either as branch of lexicology, either as independent discipline.

Lexicography(gr. lexikos ‘relating to a word’, graphō ‘I am writing’) is applied linguistic discipline dealing with theory and the practice of compiling dictionaries, i.e. this is:

the science about compiling dictionaries,

activity on compiling dictionaries [LES, p. 258].

Lexicography develops

general typology of dictionaries,

principles of vocabulary selection,

arrangement of words and dictionary entries: selection and classification of word meanings, its dictionary definitions, types of language illustrations, etc. [Vendina, p. 114].

Literature

Alefirenko N. F. Theory of language. Introductory course. Moscow: Academy, 2004. Lexicology. Basic concepts. pp. 191–196.

Barlas L. G., Infantova G. G., Seifulin M. G., Senina N. A. Russian language. Introduction to the science of language Lexicology. Etymology. Phraseology. Lexicography. M.: Flinta: Nauka, 2003. 2. Lexicology. 2.1. subject of lexicology. The concept of vocabulary. pp. 116–123.

Vendina T. I. Introduction to linguistics. Moscow: Higher school, 2001. Chapter 7. Lexicology. pp. 112–114. The word as a subject of lexicology. pp. 114–118.

Kodukhov V.I. Introduction to linguistics. M.: Enlightenment, 1979 (2nd ed. - 1987) S. 145–155

LES - Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary. Moscow: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1990. Lexicology. pp. 259–261. lexeme. S. 257.

Maslov Yu. S. Introduction to linguistics. M.: Higher. school, 1997 (or other edition). Chapter III. Lexicology. pp. 85–86. The word as a unit of language. pp. 86–90.

Maslova A. Yu. Introduction to pragmalinguistics. M. : Flinta: Nauka, 2007. 147 p.

Reformatsky A. A. Introduction to linguistics. M.: Aspect Press, 1997 (1st ed. - 1967). Chapter II. Lexicology. § 7. The word as a subject of lexicology. pp. 60–74. § 8. Types of words in the language. pp. 74–80. § 25. Lexicography. pp. 151–154.

Russian grammar. T. 1: Phonetics. Phonology. stress. Intonation. Introduction to morphemics. Word formation. Morphology. Moscow: Nauka, 1980.

SRYA - Modern Russian language. / ed. V. A. Beloshapkova. M.: Higher. school, 1989. Lexicology. § 1. Subject and tasks of lexicology. pp. 165–166.

SRYASH - Modern Russian language. Phonetics. Lexicology, Phraseology / ed. P. P. Fur coats. Minsk: Progress, 1998. Lexicology. pp. 162–163. Features of the vocabulary of the language as a subject of study of lexicology. pp. 163–164. The word as a unit of lexicology. pp. 165–166.

Shaikevich A. Ya. Introduction to linguistics. M.: Academy, 2005. § 47. Subject and tasks of lexicology. § 48. Word. pp. 137–138.

ERJ - Russian language. Encyclopedia. M .: Great Russian Encyclopedia - Bustard, 1997. Lexeme. P. 207. Lexicology. pp. 211–213. Lexicography. pp. 209–211. Sememe. S. 451.

1 Less common narrower understanding of the term lexeme - only as plan unitsexpressions, which is a collection of all grammatical forms of a word. In this case, the lexical unit is a unity tokens and semes[ERYA, p. 207]:

sememe= content plan

LU = ––––––––––––––––––––––

lexeme= expression plan

2These two blocks: systemic and functional - stand out in any section of linguistics: phonology: systemic / functional; morphology: systemic / functional; lexicology: system / functional; syntax: system / functional [Lukyanova N. A. Lectures on lexicology].

Term vocabulary(gr. lexikos- verbal, dictionary) serves to designate the vocabulary of the language. This term is also used in narrower meanings: to determine the totality of words used in one or another functional variety of the language ( bookstorevocabulary ), in a separate work ( vocabulary "Words about Igor's Campaign"); you can talk about the vocabulary of the writer ( vocabulary Pushkin) and even one person ( The speaker has a richvocabulary ).

Lexicology(gr. lexis- word + logos- doctrine) is a section of the science of language that studies vocabulary. Lexicology can be descriptive, or synchronous (gr. syn- together + chronos- time), then she explores the vocabulary of the language in its current state, and historical, or diachronic (gr. dia- through + chronos- time), then its subject is the development of the vocabulary of a given language.

The course of the modern Russian language deals with descriptive lexicology. The synchronous study of vocabulary involves the study of it as a system of interrelated and interdependent elements at the present time.

However, the synchronous system of language is not fixed and absolutely stable. There are always elements in it that are fading into the past; there are also just emerging, new ones. The coexistence of such heterogeneous elements in one synchronous section of the language testifies to its constant movement and development. Descriptive lexicology takes into account this dynamic balance of language, which is a unity of stable and moving elements.

The tasks of lexicology include the study of the meanings of words, their stylistic characteristics, the description of the sources of the formation of the lexical system, the analysis of the processes of its renewal and archaization. The object of consideration in this section of the course of the modern Russian language is the word as such. It should be noted that the word is in the field of view of other sections of the course. But word formation, for example, focuses on the laws and types of word formation, morphology is the grammatical doctrine of the word, and only lexicology studies words on their own and in a certain connection with each other.

The lexical system of the Russian language

The vocabulary of the Russian language, like any other, is not a simple set of words, but a system of interrelated and interdependent units of the same level. The study lexical system language reveals an interesting and many-sided picture of the life of words, connected with each other by various relationships and representing the "molecules" of a large, complex whole - the lexical-phraseological system of the native language.

Not a single word in the language exists separately, isolated from its general nominative system. Words are combined into different groups based on certain features. So, certain thematic classes are distinguished, which include, for example, words that name specific everyday objects, and words that correspond to abstract concepts. Among the first, it is easy to single out the names of clothing, furniture, dishes, etc. The basis for such a combination of words into groups is not linguistic characteristics, but the similarity of the concepts they denote.

Other lexical groups are formed on purely linguistic grounds. For example, the linguistic features of words make it possible to group them into parts of speech according to lexico-semantic and grammatical features.

Lexicology establishes a wide variety of relationships within the various lexical groups that make up the nominative system of the language. In the most general terms, the systemic relations in it can be characterized as follows.

In the lexical system of the language, groups of words are distinguished, connected by a common (or opposite) meaning; similar (or opposed) in stylistic properties; united by a common type of word formation; connected by a common origin, features of functioning in speech, belonging to an active or passive vocabulary, etc. Systemic connections also cover entire classes of words that are unified in their categorical essence (expressing, for example, the meaning of objectivity, attribute, action, etc.). Such systemic relations in groups of words united by a common feature are called paradigmatic(gr. paradeigma example, example).

Paradigmatic connections of words underlie the lexical system of any language. As a rule, it is divided into many microsystems. The simplest of them are pairs of words connected by opposite meanings, i.e. antonyms. More complex microsystems are made up of words grouped based on similarity in meaning. They form synonymous series, various thematic groups with a hierarchy of units compared as species and generic. Finally, the largest semantic associations of words merge into extensive lexico-grammatical classes - parts of speech.

Lexico-semantic paradigms in each language are quite stable and are not subject to changes under the influence of the context. However, the semantics of specific words can reflect the features of the context, which also manifests systemic connections in the vocabulary.

One of the manifestations of the systemic relations of words is their ability to connect with each other. Compatibility words is determined by their subject-semantic relationships, grammatical properties, lexical features. For example, the word glass can be used in combination with words ball, glass; possible combinations glass jar (bottle, dishes), even glass saucepan (frying pan)- from fire-resistant glass. But impossible - "glass book", "glass patty" and so on, since the subject-semantic connections of these words exclude mutual compatibility. You can't link words either. glass and run, glass and long away: this is opposed by their grammatical nature (an adjective cannot be combined with a verb, a circumstantial adverb). The lexical feature of the word glass is its ability to develop figurative meanings, which allows you to build phrases hairglass smoke(Es.), glass sight. Words that do not have this ability ( refractory, metal cutting and below), do not allow metaphorical use in speech. The possibilities of their compatibility `already.

Systemic connections, manifested in the patterns of combinations of words with each other, are called syntagmatic(gr. syntagma- something connected). They are revealed when words are combined, i.e. in certain lexical combinations. However, reflecting the connection between the meanings of words, and, consequently, their systemic connections in paradigms, syntagmatic relations are also determined by the lexical system of the language as a whole. The features of the compatibility of individual words largely depend on the context, therefore, syntagmatic connections, to a greater extent than paradigmatic ones, are subject to changes due to the content of speech. Thus, lexical syntagmatics reflects the change in realities (cf., for example, glass pan), expanding our understanding of the world around us ( walk on the moon), figurative energy of language ( glass smoke hair).

The systemic connections of words, the interaction of different meanings of one word and its relationship with other words are very diverse, which indicates the great expressive power of vocabulary. At the same time, we must not forget that the lexical system is an integral part of a larger language system in which certain relationships have developed between the semantic structure of the word and its formal grammatical features, phonetic features, and also the dependence of the meaning of the word on paralinguistic(gr. para- about, near + linguistic, linguistic) and extralinguistic(lat. extra- over-, out- + linguistic) factors: facial expressions, gestures, intonation, functioning conditions, time of fixation in the language, etc.

The general language system and the lexical system, as its integral part, are identified and learned in speech practice, which, in turn, has an impact on changes in the language, contributing to its development and enrichment. The study of systemic relationships in vocabulary is a necessary condition for the scientific description of the vocabulary of the Russian language. The solution of theoretical problems gets a direct exit into practice both in the compilation of various dictionaries, and in the development of literary and linguistic norms of word usage, and in the analysis of methods for the individual author's use of the expressive possibilities of a word in artistic speech.

Word in the lexical system

All words of the Russian language are included in its lexical system, and there are no words that would be outside it, perceived separately, in isolation. This obliges us to study words only in their systemic connections, as nominative units, one way or another related to each other, close or identical in some respects, but in some ways opposite, dissimilar. The characterization of a word can be more or less complete only if its various systemic connections are established with other words that are included with it in certain lexico-semantic groups.

Take, for example, the adjective red. Its main meaning in modern Russian is "having the color of one of the primary colors of the spectrum that comes before orange", "the color of blood". In this meaning red synonymous with words like scarlet, crimson, crimson, red; it has no antonym. In MAC 1, the second meaning of this word is also given: red(only in full form) - "extreme left by political convictions": [Vlasich] liberal and counted in the countyred , but it also turns out to be boring for him(Ch.). In this case, the word is included in the synonymic series: red - left, radical; has antonyms: right, conservative. The third meaning arose relatively recently: "referring to revolutionary activity", "associated with the Soviet system": Shortly before this, the Whites were driven out of Krasnovodskred parts(Paust.). The synonymic relations of words also change: red - revolutionary, Bolshevik, and antonyms: white - white guard - counter-revolutionary.

The fourth meaning of the word (like all subsequent ones) is given with a stylistic mark: outdated poetic - "good, beautiful, beautiful": Notred hut corners, andred pies. It is in this sense that this word appears in combination the Red Square(the name of the square was given in the 16th century.) The fifth meaning - folk poetic: "clear, bright, light" - is preserved in combinations red sun, spring-red: Oh, summerred ! I would love you if it were not for the heat, yes dust, yes mosquitoes, yes flies(P.). Both the fourth and fifth meanings in the dictionary are interpreted with the help of synonyms; you can also name antonyms for them 1) ugly, plain, unsightly; 2) pale, colorless, dull.

The sixth meaning appears only in the full form of the adjective and is given with the obsolete mark - "ceremonial, honorary" - red porch. In our time, it has become significantly archaic and therefore is not perceived surrounded by synonyms and antonyms, but retains its meaning only in stable combinations. red corner- "the corner in the hut where the icons hang." So the semantics of the word (gr. sema- sign) determines its place in the lexical system of the language.

One and the same word, characterized by different features, can be assigned to several structural-semantic categories. So, red is on a par with the words naming colors ( yellow, blue, green), and belongs to the category of qualitative adjectives. The proximity of meanings allows us to build the following word-building series: red, red, reddish, redness, blush; paint, paint, beautiful, decorate, beauty. Relationships of words of this kind are called derivational(lat. derivatio- withdrawal, withdrawal). Derivational relations connect single-root words, as well as those that have a common historical root. These words also reflect the associative convergence of words.

The original Russian nature of the word red combines it with other non-borrowed words (as opposed to foreign words in origin). The ability to use in any style of speech gives reason to attribute the word red in its main meaning to interstyle neutral vocabulary, while in the last three meanings (see above) this word belongs to certain stylistic groups of vocabulary: obsolete, poetic, folk poetic and archaic.

There are many stable phrases of a terminological nature in which this word becomes special: red line,red tie.

The combination of words can be based on denotative connections (lat. denotare- designate), since all words denote a particular concept. Concepts, objects (or denotations) themselves suggest their grouping. In this case, the basis for the allocation of lexical groups are non-linguistic characteristics; words are distinguished denoting, for example, colors, taste sensations ( sour, bitter, salty, sweet), sound intensity ( loud, quiet, muffled, shrill) etc.

Another basis for identifying systemic relationships of words is their connotative meanings (lat. cum/con- together + notare- mark), i.e. those additional values ​​that reflect the assessment of the relevant concepts - positive or negative. On this basis, you can combine, for example, the words solemn, high ( sing, imperishable, stain, sacred), lowered, playful ( faithful, goof off, uncover), affectionate, diminutive ( sweetheart, sweetie, baby), etc. Such a division is based on linguistic and stylistic features.

According to the sphere of use, words are divided into groups that reflect their distribution in a limited area and consolidation in a particular dialect, professional use by representatives of a certain type of activity, etc. Significant layers of vocabulary are opposed by its active or passive role in the language: some words in our time is almost never used (they are forgotten or insufficiently mastered), others are constantly used in speech; compare: mouth, cheeks, persi, forehead - lips, cheeks, chest, forehead.

Thus, the study of the lexical system of a language reveals the multidimensional and diverse life of words. Their systemic connections imprinted the history of the language and the people themselves. The development and interaction of the meanings of a word and its relationship with other words deserve the most serious study. It can be carried out in several directions.

1. Within a single word - analysis of its meaning (or meanings), identification of new shades of meanings, their development (up to a complete break and the formation of new words).

2. Within the vocabulary - the combination of words into groups based on common and opposite features, a description of different types of semantic relationships (synonyms, antonyms, etc.).

3. Within the general language system - the study of the dependence of the semantic structure of a word on grammatical features, phonetic changes, linguistic and non-linguistic factors.

The term "lexicology" is composed of two Greek elements: lexis (lexis) and logos (logos). Both of them meant "word" in ancient Greek. Thus, lexicology is a word about a word, or a science about words. The vocabulary of a language is a collection of all words and their equivalent phrases (phraseological units).

Sections of lexicology

1. Onomasiology - studies the vocabulary of the language, its nominative means, types of vocabulary units of the language, methods of nomination.

2. Semasiology - studies the meaning of vocabulary units of a language, types of lexical meanings, semantic structure of a lexeme.

3. Phraseology - studies phraseological units.

4. Onomastics - the science of proper names. Here we can distinguish the largest subsections: anthroponymy, which studies proper names, and toponymy, which studies geographical objects.

5. Etymology - studies the origin of individual words.

6. Lexicography - deals with the compilation and study of dictionaries.

7. The word is at the center of the study of lexicology.

lexeme

Having become acquainted with the types of words presented in the language, one can introduce another concept presented in lexicology, namely, the concept of a lexical word, or lexeme. A lexeme is a significant word that points to objects and denotes concepts about them. A lexeme is able to act as a member of a sentence and form sentences, it can be simple (lexeme - a word) and compound (lexeme - a compound name, for example: railway, rest house) In this understanding, service words and word forms are not included in the concept of "lexeme".

How do the terms lexeme and word relate?

In some cases, they denote the same fact of language. So a person is both a word and a lexeme; in, would. From are words, but not lexemes. In the sentence "Man is friend to man" there are three words, but two lexemes. Therefore, the term lexeme diverges from the term word. The latter names both the function word and the form of the word. Word forms that differ only in grammatical meaning are not considered separate lexemes (kot - kota - kotu - kotom). They form a paradigm, that is, a system of word forms of one lexeme.

The lexical meaning of a word is the content of the word, reflecting in the mind and fixing in it the idea of ​​an object, a property of a process, a phenomenon, and so on. This is the correlation established by our thinking between the sound complex and the object or phenomenon of reality, which is indicated by this complex of sounds.

The carrier of lexical meaning is the basis of the word. The meaning of the word reflects the general and at the same time essential features of the subject, learned as a result of people's social practice. Lexical meanings can be specific and abstract, general (common) and singular (own).

Word problems in language

Shcherba wrote in one of his last articles: "Really, what is a word? I think that it will be different in different languages. It follows from this that the concept of a word does not exist at all."

Smirnitsky, who in his article "On the Question of the Word", writes that "the word acts not only as the basic unit of the vocabulary, but also as the central nodal unit of the language in general" illuminates this issue differently. When presenting the material on words, we will adhere to this point of view.

The Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary (M., 1990) gives the following definition of the concept of a word:

The word is the main structural and semantic unit of the language, which serves to name objects and their properties, phenomena, relations of reality, which has a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features specific to a given language.

The most important features of the word

The word, like any other unit of language, according to Smirnitsky, has two important features:

1) It has not only an external (sound) side, but also an externally expressed meaning (semantic or emotional content).

Considering the question of the two-sidedness of a word, one should dwell on the very nature of this connection between the sound of a word and its meaning.

The connection between the sound and meaning of a word is, in principle, conditional, arbitrary, or unmotivated. So, for example, there is no inherently binding connection between the meaning of table and the sound of Tisch. As you know, different sound complexes are associated with the meaning of table in different languages: in English. table, in Russian. Table, in it. Tisch. The principle of convention applies to simple, indecomposable units; completely, actually to morphemes.

As for more complex formations, in addition to the principle of convention (since simple units are included in complex formations), the principle of motivation comes first. The concept of motivation is related to the term "internal form of the word", which is understood as the motivation of the lexical meaning of the word by its word-formation with the semantic structure. The internal form of the word reveals some sign of the object on the basis of which the name originated. So, for example, the redstart bird once struck a person with its unusually bright, as if burning, tail. This sign that struck a person was the basis for the name of this bird. Of course, the sign that underlies the name is not always so bright and spectacular. It is usually much calmer: a candlestick is what is under the candle, and a thimble is what is put on the finger - a finger, a snowdrop, a flower that appears in the spring, when there is still snow on the fields.

2) The word appears not as a work created in the process of speech, but as something that already exists and is only reproduced in speech.

By the way, morphemes also satisfy the above requirements, and therefore can be considered units of the language with good reason. It should also be noted that proverbs, sayings, aphorisms and, in general, various sayings, reproduced again and again as whole units, also act, according to Smirnitsky, as units of the language, since they already exist in the language and are only reproduced in speech. But then the sentence is not, according to Smirnitsky, a unit of language.

It is necessary to dwell on the issue of the separability of a word in the flow of speech. In certain cases, certain phonetic moments serve to highlight a word, to distinguish it from neighboring words. So, for example, the absence of stress on a full-valued unit that has a substantive meaning in Germanic languages ​​is usually an indicator that we are dealing with only a part of the word, for example. English Railway, blackboard, German. Eisenbahn, Schwarzbrot, where the absence of stress on -way, -board, -bahn, -brot shows that these units in these cases do not represent separate words, but are only components of words. Such phonetic moments, capable of expressing the difference between a word and a part of a word, should be considered only as some additional, auxiliary means of highlighting a word. Why? The fact is that with such a selection, the word is considered as if it were only a sound segment. Meanwhile, the word, as a unit of language, is a formation that has both a sound side and a semantic side. The main signs of separability, completeness of the word should be sought based on the understanding of the word as the main unit of the vocabulary of the language and, at the same time, such a unit that is able to change grammatically and grammatically combine into sentences, into a coherent meaningful speech with other units of the same order.

The changeability of a word presupposes a certain form of its formation: since the same word changes, insofar as it stands out something basic, actually dictionary, lexical, which remains the same with various changes in the word, and, on the other hand, something additional, variable, belonging together with that, not to a given specific word, but to a known class or category of words, abstracted from specific words - grammatical, associated with the use of a word in various works of speech. Thus, the basic, lexical meaning of the word turns out to be supplemented, complicated by those or other grammatical meanings that are materially expressed in external, sound differences between individual varieties - grammatical forms of the word: this gives the word a certain formality.

Words turn out to be grammatically, both morphologically and syntactically designed, in a certain way adapted to their joint functioning in coherent meaningful speech. This formalization of the word gives it a certain completeness, which makes it quite easy to distinguish it from speech.

The internal integrity of the word (whole-formation) of the word is revealed in comparison with the structure of the phrase. Unlike words as whole-formed formations, phrases can be defined as separate-formed formations. This can be illustrated by the following examples. If we compare the language formation das Schwarzbrot and the language formation das schwarze Brot, which includes the same root elements as the first formation, then it is easy to see that they, denoting the same object of objective reality and not significantly differing in their meaning, are fundamentally different. in their relation to the grammatical structure, in their form. This difference lies in the fact that in the first language formation - the word - both components are formed once, while in the second language formation - the phrase - there is an independent grammatical design for each component. In other words, the formation Schwarzbrot is integrally formed, and the formation das schwarze Brot is separately formed.

The wholeness of the word in itself expresses a certain semantic integrity: it emphasizes that a given object or phenomenon is thought of as something one, a special whole, even if the complexity of its structure is noted or its individual features are distinguished. Thus, when we say das Schwarzbrot, we focus on the object denoted by this word, although we mean its individual aspects: a) bread, a food product, and b) the quality of this product in terms of color. On the contrary, if we say das schwarze Brot, separate aspects of the designated phenomenon come to the fore, and already through the perception of certain aspects of this object or phenomenon, the object itself or the phenomenon as a whole is realized.

Semantic structure of the word- the semantic structure of the main unit of vocabulary (see Word). S. s. With. manifests itself in its polysemy (see) as the ability to name (designate) various objects (phenomena, properties, qualities, relationships, actions and states) with the help of internally related meanings. The semantic structure of an unambiguous word is reduced to its seme composition (see Seme) .

The simplest unit (element) of the semantic structure of a polysemantic word is its lexico-semantic variant (LSV), that is, with a lexical meaning (see), associated with other lexical meanings by certain relationships, the main of which are hierarchical: expression of subordination of dependent lexical meaning from the south to the main. In S. with. With. lexico-semantic variants are connected with each other due to the common internal form (see Internal form of the word), their mutual motivation, derivation from each other.

Therefore, in dictionaries, each preceding LSV determines the interpretation of the subsequent one, for example. circle ^ "a part of the pchoskosgn, bounded by a circle, as well as the circle itself" ~ ^- circle ± "an object in the shape of a circle" (saving. rubber circle), [circle-) "a closed area, within the outlined boundaries, a cut and a difference occur something" (circle of responsibilities, interests, issues)], [circle "a group of people united by common interests, took off" (circle of acquaintances, friends; in their own circle)], [circle $ "a social set of people primarily engaged in intellectual, creative work "(general circles of the public, literary, journalistic circles; about diplomatic circles: in the circle of scientists, specialists)], etc. Here, the hierarchically main LSV is a circle, in the content of which the internal form is most manifested; with this LSV, all other LSVs of the word circle are metaphorically (according to the similarity of form). At<ггом представление о круге присутствует в толковании значений всех ЛСВ слова и внутренне связывает их в единое целое. Основанием для выделения главного и частных значений (или иначе: главного и частных ЛСВ) служит различный характер взаимодействия слова в таких значениях с контекстом, т. е. фрагментом текста, необходимым и достаточным для определения того или иного значения слова. Главное значение в наименьшей степени обусловлено контекстом. Слово в главном (первом в словарях) значении является семантически наиболее простым по своему содержанию (ср. вода\ "прозрачная бесцветная жидкость") и обладает в силу этого самой широкой н свободной сочетаемостью с другими лексическими единицами. Все прочие значения слова (его ЛСВ) выступают как частные. В частных значениях по сравнению с главным слово в значительно большей степени обусловлено контекстом, присоединяет к себе его элементы и является в силу этого семантически более сложным (напр., вода2 "минеральный, газированный, фруктовый напиток", т. е. вода+содержащая минеральные соли; насыщенная газом; приготовленная из фруктов), при атом характеризуется ограниченной, избирательной сочетаемостью: минеральная, сельтерская, газированная, фруктовая вода.

The main meaning is called the primary semantic function of the word, particular meanings - its secondary semantic functions.

Along with the usual dictionary meanings (main, private) in S. s. With. the general meaning is singled out as its invariant (from Latin invarians - unchanging), opposed to variant meanings: this is the coinciding part of the content of all meanings (LSV) of the word, something constant, unchanging in them. It stands out like a common factor in algebra: ab + ac + ad = = a(b + c + d), is an extremely generalized and semantically simple content and is a linguistic abstraction useful for the semantic analysis of language units. The ratio of the meanings of a word to its general meaning [i.e. i.e. to the general content of all its variants] makes it possible to establish their semantic hierarchy according to the degree of proximity to it: the central, dominant meanings turn out to be semantically the simplest, the peripheral ones are more complex and therefore further separated from the general (invariant) meaning of the word than the first ones. In S. with. With. certain values ​​(LSV) can die off. For example, the meaning of "beautiful" in the common Slavic adjective red (cf. Red Square) was historically the original, the main one in the word formed from the same stem as the word beauty. In the meaning of color, the word red began to be used later, in the era of the separate existence of the East Slavs. languages. This value became the main thing in S. with. s, leading to its partial restructuring. However, S. s. With. is constantly enriched with new meanings, since the word is a unit of an “open” lexical system, for example. meanings "a person who swims in open water in winter" in the word walrus (cf. section of walruses), "successful attacking player in football, hockey" in the word scorer (cf. top scorer of the season), etc.

All words are divided into word-building motivated (derivatives) and unmotivated (non-derivatives).). Word-building motivated are such words, the meaning and sound of which are determined in the modern language by other words of the same root (motivating, or producing). Motivated words are perceived as formed from motivating words: table - table ‘small table’, white - turn white ‘become white, whiter’. The meaning and sound of derivational unmotivated words (table, white) are not determined in the modern language by other words with the same root; they are not recognized as being formed from other words.

A motivated word is associated with another single-root word or with several single-root words by relations of word-formation motivation. Motivation is such a relationship between two words with the same root, in which the meaning of one of them is either determined through the meaning of the other (house - house 'little house', strength - strongman 'man of great physical strength'), or identical to the meaning of the other in all its components, except for the grammatical meaning of a part of speech (walking - walking, daring - daring, bold - boldly), or completely identical to the meaning of another with a difference in the stylistic coloring of these words (knee - open knee).

Words with the same root, devoid of the named properties (house and house), are not in a relationship of motivation with each other.

One of the two words with the same root, connected by relations of word-formation motivation, is motivating, and the other is motivated. The motivation of a word is determined by four rules that apply in the following cases:

The compared single-root words have different lexical meanings, and in their stems, in addition to the root, a different number of sound segments is singled out (the stem of one of them may be equal to the root). In this case, a word is motivated, the stem of which is longer by some sound segment, which is recognized as a word-forming affixal morph (see § 16): forest - forest-ok, stand - stand.

The compared single-root words have different lexical meanings, and the same number of sound segments is singled out in their stems. In this case, the motivated word is semantically more complex, the meaning of which is determined through another word compared with it: chemistry - chemist 'specialist in chemistry', artist - artist 'woman artist'.

The meanings of the compared single-root words are identical in all their components, except for the grammatical meaning of the part of speech. In this case: a) in the pairs “verb - noun denoting the same action” (draw - drawing, go out - exit, creak - creak) and “adjective - noun denoting the same sign” (bold - courage, graceful - grace , blue - blue), regardless of the length of the stems of the compared words, the noun is motivated; b) in the pair "adjective - adverb" a word is motivated, the stem of which is longer by some segment - a word-forming affixal morph (see paragraph 1): cf. today - today-sh-th and dare-th - dare-o, where -o is part of the stem (suffix).

Note. An exception to the rule formulated in paragraph 3a is: 1) pairs of words consisting of a noun that does not have a suffix with the meaning of action, and a verb with the suffix -nicha-, -stova-, or -ova-/-irova-/- izirova-/-izova-: in such pairs, the verb is motivated, because in the modern language, with the help of these suffixes, verbs are easily formed from nouns with the meaning of action, and nouns with the meaning of action are not formed from such verbs without the help of a suffix: focus - conjurer, blasphemy - blaspheme, salute - salute, repair - repair, terror - terrorize; 2) pairs consisting of a noun on -stv (o) and an adjective, in which after -stv- follows a suffix: courage - courageous, ignorance - ignorant.

One of the words in the relationship of motivation is stylistically neutral, and the other has some stylistic coloring. In this case, regardless of the length of the stems of the compared words, the stylistically colored word is motivated: ship - shipbuilder (colloquial), individual - individual (colloquial).

A motivated word differs from a motivating word by certain derivational means. As word-building means for motivation, affixal morphs (most often) act, as well as cutting off part of the stem, a fixed order of components and a single stress on one of the components in additions and unions (for more details, see § 31).

Similar information.