) are the reforms carried out in the 60-70s. 19th century and affecting almost all aspects of the life of the Russian Empire.

Background and reasons for reforms

Russia remained a feudal country longer than any other developed countries, in addition, serfdom greatly slowed down the country's economy and by the beginning of the 19th century. has already completely outlived its usefulness, as it brought only losses to the country. Ever since the 18th century. a conflict between the peasants and the authorities was brewing in the country, and by the middle of the 19th century. it had reached its peak and threatened to turn into a revolution. In order to avoid this, it was necessary to urgently change the state system.

With the development of technology, the need for manual labor disappeared, households brought less and less profit, but there were not enough hands in the factories that began to be actively built due to industrialization. Peasants could become these hands, but they did not have the right to leave the landlords, which caused a wave of riots. The landlords were also unhappy, as the serf economy was losing its economic attractiveness. The state every year received less and less money, and the economy slipped into a crisis.

In 1859-1861. peasant revolts arose already throughout the country and reached their peak. The lost one, which showed the complete failure of the military and economic systems, aggravated the situation - the people's trust in the emperor and the government fell sharply. It was in this situation that talk began about the need to urgently reform the country.

In 1855, Emperor Alexander 2nd ascended the throne, who, in one of his open speeches to the nobility, stated that it was urgent to abolish serfdom by decree from above, until the peasants from below did it through a revolution.

The "Great Reforms" have begun.

The main reforms of Alexander 2nd

• peasant reform. The abolition of serfdom (1861).
• Financial reforms (since 1863).
• Education Reform (1863).
• Public Administration Reform (1870).

The essence of the reforms of Alexander the 2nd was the restructuring of the state to a new type, which could more effectively lead the economy along the path of industrialization and capitalism.

The main reform of this period can be called the peasant reform, which proclaimed the abolition of serfdom in 1861. The reform was being prepared for several years, and although the ruling classes did not want freedom for the peasants, the emperor understood that it was impossible to move on with serfdom, therefore, all changes have been implemented. As a result of the reform, serfdom was abolished, the peasants gained independence and could redeem themselves from their landowner, while receiving an allotment for housekeeping. To make a ransom, a peasant could take a loan from a bank for 49 years. The redeemed peasants were freed from administrative and legal dependence on the landlords. In addition, free peasants received a number of civil rights, they could trade and carry out real estate transactions.

Another important reform is the reform of the judicial system. The court ceased to focus on the class principle, and all citizens of the country now had equal rights before the law. A jury trial also appeared, and the judicial system was completely separated from the administrative system and formed into an independent institution.

Zemstvo reform and urban reform were designed to simplify the administration of the state and make it more efficient. According to the new laws, villages and cities could now form their own self-government bodies and deal with economic issues without waiting for an order from above. This made it possible to develop the economy of the regions, as the management began to focus on the real situation in a particular province.

The military reform was supposed to make the army more efficient so that the situation with the Crimean War would not be repeated. General conscription was introduced, the army received new weapons, the principle of educating soldiers was changed. Many educational institutions for the military have opened.

Along with military schools, new ordinary schools and universities began to open. University rectors received more rights and were able to make their own decisions, which helped the country to make a leap in public education.

The reform of the press was also important. The principle of publicity was proclaimed, the press was given the right to discuss and even criticize government decisions.

The results and consequences of the "great reforms" of Alexander the 2nd

The political and financial reforms of Alexander the 2nd are called great due to the fact that in a relatively short time they were able to completely rebuild the state system in a new way. The crisis in the economy was overcome, the state received a new army that could resist the invaders, and the number of educated citizens increased. In general, the reforms helped the country embark on the path of capitalization and industrialization, and also proclaimed the beginnings of democracy.

No less brilliant man, but much more liberal. Good quality education. Zhukovsky is one of the educators. He sought to limit the time allotted for military affairs so that Alexander II would not repeat the behavior of Nicholas I. He loved life in all its manifestations. Reasonable. He came to power not at the best time (defeat in the Crimean War.) After the defeat in the Crimean War came the realization of the need for liberal reforms, the continuation of further Europeanization of the country. (The war showed the economic backwardness of Russia.) The peasant reform (the abolition of serfdom) took the first place in terms of time and significance. “It is necessary to cancel from above until it itself begins to cancel itself from below,” says Alexander II, in order to start reforming faster. Preparations for this reform proceeded in an atmosphere of openness, that is, the availability of information to society about the activities of state institutions, public organizations and officials at all levels.

1856 - Alexander II for the first time officially announced the need for the OKP before representatives of the Moscow nobility. He also really wanted the request for a solution to the peasant issue to come from the landowners.

The manifesto announcing the abolition of serfdom was issued on February 19, 1861 (voluntary donation of the nobility).

The peasants received: personal freedom for free (but without land); full legal capacity; ownership of all your property.

Cons of the peasant reform:

1) The lack of rights of the peasants as an estate remained (they could be flogged; they paid poll taxes, recruitment duty);

2) Prior to the conclusion of the redemption transaction, the peasants became temporarily liable;

3) The peasants had to pay the state annual redemption payments (for 49 years) - they were in double dependence - before the landowners and before the state;

4) The peasants lost "segments" (the landlords could cut off up to 1/3 of the peasant land for themselves);

5) Only about 20% of the peasants bought the land.

Outcomes: Feudal forms of land ownership have been preserved: peasant-communal; landowners. Peasants-owners have a community. Peasants remained users, but did not become owners.

Conclusions:

1) the main significance of the OKP is the beginning of the free development of capitalism in Russia, specialization in industry.

2) The abolition of serfdom meant the renewal of feudalism, but not its liquidation. 3) The abolition of serfdom was such a profound event that other reforms could not help but follow, the purpose of which was to adapt the autocratic system to the needs of the country's capitalist development.

Local government reform.

Stage 1 - 1864 Zemstvo reform - zemstvos appeared - elected all-estate bodies of local self-government, were separated from politics - they were engaged in economic and cultural activities within the province or county; enjoyed prestige among the people. One of the reasons for the Zemstvo reform was the desire to compensate for the nobles - at least partial - the loss of their former power.

Stage 2 - 1870 urban reform- City Dumas of a new type appeared (the functions are the same as Zemstvos, but on a city scale). The condition for participation in the elections is the possession of property. The emergence of a single urban estate that owns property - the bourgeoisie. A prerequisite for the formation of civil society and the rule of law.

Judicial reform (1864). Innovation in judiciary:

1) the independence of the court from the administration has been declared; preliminary investigation - the investigators did not obey the police;

2) the vowel of the proceedings (any person could be present at the trial.) This innovation had an educational value. => decrease in crime + objectivity increases, corruption decreases, law-abiding citizens are brought up;

3) the adversarial nature of the parties is introduced (prosecutor - lawyer);

4) criminal cases are considered with the participation of jurors, who were selected from all classes, except for employees.

5) Cancellation of estate courts = equality of all estates, but the court for spiritual and military affairs (closed) has been preserved. For persons from 1-4 ranks, the crime was judged by the Supreme Court (also closed).

For judges - property qualification.

Reform of education and printing (1863 - 1864). the new liberal charter of the university (1863), which restored the autonomy of the universities; the development of women's higher education and secondary medical education for women was started; secondary education was unified - gymnasiums - children from all classes were accepted; girls' gymnasiums appeared; the network of primary education has grown. Until the end of 19 the number of all educational institutions increased 10 times, the number of literate people amounted to 22.3%. Censorship was relaxed.

military reform. Military settlements and corporal punishment were eliminated, food was improved. The main events of the military reform of 1874 were the abolition of conscription, and the introduction of universal (all-class) military service. Changing the principle of manning the armed forces. The ground forces served 6 years, the fleet - 7 years. Reduction of the army in peacetime. => Less money spent on maintenance in peacetime. They used to serve 25 years => many old ones are ballast. The combat effectiveness did not fall, because there was a reserve. For persons who received an education, the term of service was reduced from 4 years (for those who graduated from elementary schools) to 6 months (for those who had higher education).

Preparation of the first draft of the Constitution:

ü Provided for the rights and freedoms of citizens;

ü Strengthened the imperial power;

ü Assumed the presence of a bicameral parliament - the State Duma and the State Council.

Conclusions on the reforms: The reforms laid the foundation for the development of capitalism in Russia. The implementation of the reforms was very difficult. In practice, reforms were developed by liberals and implemented by old conservative officials. The reforms were bourgeois and liberal, but contradictory and incomplete. During the reforms, there was a decrease in the standard of living of the population, especially peasants (restructuring of farms, new orders). => The society perceived the reforms ambiguously.

=> Populism arose in Russia - this is an ideological and political movement of the raznochintsy intelligentsia (people from the people - petty-bourgeois estates, civil servants, clergy); it is a kind of utopian socialism. Main ideas: Capitalism in Russia is imposed by the state, has no support from below. => It can be eliminated with the help of a peasant revolution and a just society can be created. The populists wanted to preserve the commune in order to build a socialist society on its basis. In the 70s. the movement “Walking to the People” arose (it ended unsuccessfully, the peasants did not understand what the populists were talking about; they handed them over to the police). Most of the populists became disillusioned with the methods of propaganda and went over to underground terrorist organizations.

1877–1878 - Russian-Turkish war. Russian victory. The growth of Russia's prestige. Russia finally entrenched itself in the Black Sea.

1879 - "Narodnaya Volya" was created - an underground terrorist organization. The goal is to kill Alexander II. The regicide was not the beginning of a peasant uprising. Moreover, the people felt sorry for Alexander. Populism has reached an impasse. The assassination of Alexander II had a powerful direct impact on the policy of the next tsar - Alexander III.

Liberal reforms of Alexander II (60-70s of the XIX century): causes, historical significance

Alexander Nikolaevich, the eldest son of Emperor Nicholas I and his wife Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, ascended the throne on February 18, 1855. Alexander II was crowned on August 26, 1856 in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.

In historical science, traditionally 50-60s. 19th century consider a revolutionary situation, which is understood as a set of features independent of the will of individual groups, classes or parties, making a social revolution quite possible. Russian revolutionary situation in the 50-60s. 19th century had its own characteristics:

) the crisis of the feudal-serf system - the stage of the decomposition of feudalism, when feudal production relations entered a dead end and became fetters in the development of capitalism;

) the extraordinary acuteness of the agrarian (peasant) issue - the issue of relations over land ownership and the socio-political struggle associated with this (according to statistics, by the middle of the 19th century in Russia there were 22 million serfs per 110 thousand landowners);

) the most severe national catastrophe - the defeat in the Crimean War (1853 - 1855): according to the Treaty of Paris (1856), Russia lost South Bessarabia and the mouth of the Danube; she was forbidden not only to have a fleet, fortresses and arsenals on the Black Sea (the so-called principle of neutralizing the sea), but also to participate in the struggle of the Slavic peoples of the Balkans against Turkish rule. In addition, the war revealed the technical and military backwardness of Russia from the advanced European countries - England and France.

Thus, reforms were a vital necessity, otherwise the revolutionary situation threatened to develop into a revolution, the result of which, given the peculiarities and specifics of Russia, was impossible to predict. Failures in the Crimean War caused a wave of public discontent. The social movement noticeably intensified after the death of Nicholas I in February 1855. As always, in Russia special hopes were placed on the new emperor. The so-called. "glasnost era". The actions of the government were accelerated by the socio-political movement for the abolition of serfdom that developed after the war, since this problem was of paramount importance. In 1855 - 1857. writers, publicists, scientists, government officials submitted 63 notes to the emperor with options for resolving this issue. The approach to the problem and the program of practical actions were different, but everyone was united by the understanding of the need for fundamental changes. Three main directions clearly stood out in the social movement.

The radical left trend was grouped around the Sovremennik magazine and A.I. Herzen's foreign publications. Supporters of this movement criticized the entire socio-political system of Russia. At the very extreme flank were N.G. Chernyshevsky and N.A. Dobrolyubov, who rejected all sorts of compromises and projects for the liberation of the peasants from above, by the actions of the government. They considered the most desirable mass movement of peasants and the abolition of serfdom from below, since they were adherents of socialist ideas and dreamed of a new social structure of society based on equality, justice and universal inspired labor.

The moderate-liberal trend was the most influential and included the color of the then Russian intelligentsia. In terms of composition, it was heterogeneous and included Slavophiles (Yu.F. Samarin, A.I. Koshelev), Westerners (B.N. Chicherin, K.D. Kavelin, A.M. Unkovsky), as well as many major officials of various ministries and departments of the tsarist government. The program of the liberal camp was outlined by KD Kavelin in the "Note on the Liberation of the Peasants in Russia", intended for the tsar, but widely publicized. The document sharply criticized feudal relations, which were a "time bomb", which in a few decades "will blow up the entire state". Therefore, the government needs to abolish serfdom in a short time, allocate land to the peasants by voluntary agreement with the landowners and for ransom, and provide financial support to the peasants. The liberal program, after some hesitation, became the basis of government policy on the peasant question.

The conservative direction was supported by the majority of the nobility. Realizing the need for change, it believed that this should be done gradually, without breaking the foundations of landownership. The conservative program received a concrete embodiment in the notes of 1855-1856. Alexander II, compiled by the Poltava landowner M.P. Posen: peasants receive personal freedom for ransom; redemption of land is carried out only with the consent of the landowner; the government must provide loans to the peasants for this.

Thus, followers of all social currents converged on the need for change. The fear of an explosion of peasant discontent, a "new Pugachevism," united liberals and conservatives. The differences were in the depth, ways and pace of the inevitable reforms. The liquidation of the serf system has historically matured not only in the course of the objective development of the country, but also in the minds of people. With the political system that existed in Russia, reforms could be carried out at the will of the emperor. The opinion prevailing in the historical literature about the possibility of liberating the peasants "from below", by way of a general revolt, is unrealistic and would only lead to chaos and destruction. And there were no prerequisites for a general peasant uprising at that time.

Reforms of the 60s - 70s. 19th century associated with the name of Emperor Alexander II (1855 - 1881). In the conditions of the Russian autocratic system, the sovereign played a decisive role. There are different opinions about the character and personal qualities of Alexander II. He was not an outstanding personality like Peter I. A pupil of the famous poet V.A. Zhukovsky, the tsar did not have a broad outlook and was not a convinced reformer, but he really perceived the ongoing events and had building. The heir to the Russian throne, brought up in the spirit of European humanism in the first half of the 19th century, knew how to select talented assistants who could put his ideas into practice, as well as listen to public opinion and change their positions if necessary.

The abolition of serfdom radically changed the structure of social relations. The changed system required the adoption of new laws, the introduction of new management institutions. This task was fulfilled to a certain extent by the reforms of the 1960s and 1970s. 19th century

Judicial Reform (1864). The reform was prepared by professional lawyers - N.A. Budkovsky, S.I. Zarudny, K.P. Pobedonostsev, D.A. Rovinsky, N.I. Stoyanovskiy.

The preparation of the reform began in 1861. According to the new Judicial Statutes (November 20, 1864), the trial was organized as a competition between a lawyer (the defense side) and a prosecutor (the prosecution side). The meetings were public. When considering criminal cases, there were jurors (12 people) representing the society (they were elected from local residents of all classes). The regular lists included men aged 25-70, Russians owning property of at least 200 rubles, peasants with experience in local self-government. Judges were appointed for life and therefore were independent of the administration.

The principle of classlessness of the court was introduced (its decisions did not depend on the class of the accused). The main courts were the magistrate's court (decided on petty criminal and civil cases): magistrates were elected by all estates at county meetings for a period of three years and approved by the government), as well as the crown court: district judges, judicial chambers, the ruling Senate as the supreme court of cassation .

Zemstvo reform (1864). The reform of local self-government was developed by a commission under the Ministry of Internal Affairs from 1859 under the chairmanship of N.A. Milyutin and from 1861 - by P.A. Valuev. The administrative bodies of the zemstvos were county and provincial assemblies, whose members were called vowels. Executive zemstvo bodies were elected from the vowel assembly - councils consisting of a chairman and several members), as well as commissions for developing local economy issues: collecting state taxes and taxes, caring for health care and public education, etc.

Zemstvo elections were held once every three years. Voters were divided into three curia (electoral assemblies): landowning, urban and peasant. To participate in the elections for the first two curiae, one had to have a certain property qualification (from 500 rubles and more). Small proprietors who did not have full qualifications could participate in the elections through representatives whom they elected at their congresses.

The number of representatives was equal to the number of full qualifications, which gave the addition of the value of the property of small owners. Elections in the peasant curia were multistage: first, candidates were elected, who then chose the required number of vowels from their midst.

Vowels of the provincial zemstvo assembly were elected by the district assemblies from among their members. It was impossible to implement all the tasks assigned to the zemstvos by the forces of the vowels alone, therefore the zemstvos received the right to invite specialists in certain sectors of the economy - doctors, teachers, agronomists, etc. - who were called zemstvo employees. Contrary to the expectations of the government, the zemstvos did not focus on solving local economic affairs, but were actively involved in the political struggle, becoming the basis of the liberal movement in Russia.

Urban reform (1870). Its preparation was carried out simultaneously with the Zemstvo reform. N.A. Milyutin, Yu.F. Samarin and other well-known Russian reformers stood at its origins. The basis of city government was the "Letter of Letters to Cities" of 1785. The new "City Regulation" was adopted in 1870. Self-government of cities was built on the same principles as the zemstvo.

The representative bodies of city self-government were city dumas, elected for four years from among city owners - payers of city taxes. Voters were listed in order of decreasing amount of tax they pay. Then the list was divided into three equal parts, from each of which a third of the deputies (vowels) were elected to the city duma. Persons who did not own property and did not pay city taxes did not participate in the elections. The city duma elected members of the city council and the mayor (executive bodies of city self-government).

Military reforms (1862 - 1874). They were held under the leadership of D.A. Milyutin, F.A. Geiden, N.A. Isakov, N.N. Obruchev, E.I. Gotleben participated in the development of military reform projects. After the defeat in the Crimean War and the signing of the shameful Peace of Paris, the government was forced to take a number of measures to improve the army and increase its combat effectiveness:

) change in the system of leadership of the armed forces (1862 - 1864 - the formation of military districts and increased centralization in the management of the ground forces; 1865 - the creation of the General Staff as the central link in the management of the army; 1868 - the reorganization of the military ministry);

) rearmament of the army;

) replenishment of the officer corps with qualified personnel (expansion of the network of military educational institutions, creation of cadet schools in 1863 - 1866);

) change in tactics (adoption of new military regulations);

) the abolition of the recruiting system of manning the army (1874) and the introduction of universal military service;

) reduction in service life (service in the ground forces and the navy consisted of active (up to 6 - 7 years) and in reserve (3 - 9 years). Family status (only son) and public (clergymen, scientists), as well as education gave benefits for exemption from military service or reduction of its term);

) reorganization of the army (1871) with the allocation of field (active) and local (auxiliary, reserve) troops.

Reforms in the field of public education (1863 - 1864). During the reign of Alexander II, the number of educational institutions increased significantly, incl. for children from low-income, usually peasant, families. In post-reform Russia, women's education was widely developed. Women's gymnasiums were opened, under which pedagogical courses were created. Diocesan schools were created for the daughters of clergy, preparing teachers for elementary schools. In 1878, social activists led by professor of St. Petersburg University K.N. The same courses were opened in Moscow under the guidance of Professor V.I. Guerrier. The beginning of women's medical education was laid. The reform in the educational sphere gave rise to a new type of Russian intellectual: a well-educated, critical thinker, striving for active social and practical activity.

Censorship Reform (1865). The first draft law on censorship was worked out by a commission chaired by Prince. YES. Obolensky at the Ministry of Public Education (A.V. Golovnina), and the second draft was drawn up by a new commission of D.A. Obolensky at the Ministry of Internal Affairs (P.A. Valuev). The law was put into effect on September 1, 1865. In two cities of the empire - St. Petersburg and Moscow - the procedure and conditions for the publication of books and the press were partially changed. Serious scientific books and expensive periodicals could be printed without prior censorship with the permission of the Minister of the Interior. If a "harmful" direction was found in them, the perpetrators (author, publisher, translator or editor) were prosecuted by the court. A system of administrative penalties was introduced - warnings from the Minister of Internal Affairs with the right to suspend a periodical for up to 6 months or its final prohibition by the highest decision.

The 60s and 70s of the 19th century were a time of fundamental transformations in Russia, which affected almost all the most important aspects of life, both society and the state.

The reason for the transformation was the lost Crimean War. The defeat of Russia in the war showed the complete failure of the political and economic system of Russia. The abolition of serfdom (peasant reform) occupies a central place in the transformations of Alexander II.

Reasons for the abolition of serfdom:

1. Serfdom was immoral and condemned by all sections of Russian society.
2. The preservation of serfdom made it impossible to modernize the country and overcome technical and economic backwardness.
3. The labor of the serfs was unproductive and therefore unprofitable.
4. Since dependent peasants were deprived of the opportunity to fully participate in market relations, serfdom caused the narrowness of the internal market and hindered the development of capitalism.
5. The continuation of the serf policy created the threat of a repetition of Pugachevism.
6. The presence of serfdom, very similar to slavery, undermined the international authority of Russia.

In January 1857, Alexander II established Secret Committee on Peasant Affairs. At the end of 1857, a decree was issued “On the organization and improvement of the life of landowner peasants” (“ Rescript to Nazimov”), according to which in each province, from among the local landowners, provincial editorial commissions were formed to develop a project for the abolition of serfdom. In February 1858, the Secret Committee was reorganized into the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs.

In 1859, the drafts drawn up in the provincial committees were submitted for generalization to the editorial commissions formed under the Main Committee.

A significant role in the commissions was played by liberal-minded figures - Ya.I. Rostovtsev (chairman of the commission) and, who replaced him in this post, N.A. Milyutin.

February 19, 1861 Mr. Alexander II signed " Regulations on peasants who emerged from serfdom" and " Manifesto about the liberation of the peasants.

The main provisions of the peasant reform:

1. Peasants received personal freedom (without redemption).
2. The peasants received the land allotment for ransom. About 20% of the ransom amount the peasant had to pay the landowner at a time. The remaining amount received a loan from the state for 49 years.
3. Before the redemption of the land, the peasant was considered " temporarily liable» in relation to the landowner, i.e. continued to bear feudal duties: he paid dues (“ share-cropping"") and worked out the corvee (" working off»).
4. The redeemed land became the property of the peasant community. The right of private ownership of land was the privilege of only noble landowners.
5. The “Regulations” determined the minimum amount of land that the landowners should keep. In the chernozem zone, it was 2/3 of the earth, in the non-chernozem - 1/2, in the steppe - 1/3.
6. If the pre-reform peasant land plot exceeded the post-reform one, then the surplus went to the landowner (the so-called " segments»).
7. Relationships between peasants and landowners were regulated by Statutory letters". They determined the size of allotments and duties. The landowner signed the charter not with each individual peasant, but with the community.
8. The peasants received the right to engage in entrepreneurship, to enter into any legal relations, to move to other classes.

In 1863, under the same conditions, the specific (royal) peasants were released.

In 1866 the state peasants received their freedom. They did not have to redeem their land, but were heavily taxed.

The peasant reform was the result of a compromise between the interests of the landlords, peasants and the government. Moreover, the interests of the landowners were taken into account as much as possible.

One of the consequences of the reform was the massive ruin of the landed estates. The nobles simply could not properly manage the redemption payments and rebuild their production in a capitalist way.

The burden of the peasants with various payments and duties, the peasant lack of land, agrarian overpopulation caused by the preservation of the community, and the presence of large landownership became sources of constant conflicts between peasants and landowners (the so-called. agrarian question).

The reform prevented mass protests by peasants, although local ones did take place. The most significant of them date back to 1861 - peasant uprisings in the village of Bezdna, Kazan province and Kandeevka, Penza province.

Zemstvo reform of 1864

The main reasons for the zemstvo reform was the need to create an effective system of local self-government and the improvement of the Russian village. Local government bodies were created in the provinces and districts - provincial and district Zemsky assemblies. Zemstvo councilors (deputies) were elected by curiae. Most of the deputies were representatives of the landowning curia, i.e. The zemstvo reform increased the political influence of the landlords (this was one of the goals of the reform), however, the zemstvo bodies were considered all-estate.

The zemstvos were in charge of local economy, trade, industry, health care, public education, the organization of charitable institutions, etc. Zemstvos were deprived of any political functions. Inter-provincial associations of zemstvos were forbidden.

Zemstvo reform is an attempt to create a new system of local self-government based on all-estate representation. Subsequently, zemstvo institutions became centers of liberal opposition to the government.

AT 1870 City reform was carried out, in accordance with which city Dumas were created - an analogue of Zemsky assemblies in the city.

Judicial reform of 1864

It was based on the following principles: classlessness of the court, equality of all subjects before the law, independence of the court from the administration, creation of a court jurors and the institute of sworn attorneys (lawyers).

During the reform process, Justices of the Peace for peasants, established in the counties. They tried minor criminal offenses and civil cases. Justices of the peace were elected by the county zemstvo assemblies.

Decisions in criminal cases in the district courts were made by jurors who delivered a verdict to the accused. They were elected according to special lists from persons of different classes.

The functions of the supreme court were received by the Senate.

The trial became open and competitive. This meant that the prosecutor (state prosecutor) was opposed by a lawyer independent of the administration.

In accordance with the judicial reform, the institution of notaries was created.

The judicial reform was the most democratic, radical and consistent among the reforms of the 1960s and 1970s.

Military transformations of the 60s - 70s.

The need for military reform was determined by the general military-technical backwardness of the Russian army, which posed a threat to Russia's security and undermined its international prestige. In addition, the army, based on recruitment, did not correspond to the new social structure of Russian society. The initiator and leader of the reform was Minister of War D.A. Milyutin.

In the course of the reform, military settlements were abolished, military districts were created (headed by commanders in chief), the military ministry and the main headquarters were reorganized, and cadet and military schools were established. The military industry began to develop rapidly.

The central element of the military reform was the introduction of 1874 d. universal military service, which applied to the entire male population who had reached the age of 20. The service life was 6 years in the ground forces and 7 years in the navy. For those who had an education, and depending on its level, the service life was reduced from 4 years to 6 months.

Transformations in the army became an important factor in the democratization of society, the modernization of the army, and contributed to an increase in its combat effectiveness - all this was fully manifested in the war with Turkey in 1877-1878.

Significant changes were made to the education system. The university charter of 1863 expanded the autonomy of the universities. In accordance with the Charter of the secondary school (1864), gymnasiums were divided into classical and real ones. The first prepared mainly for admission to the university, the second - to higher technical educational institutions.

In 1865, a censorship reform was carried out. Preliminary censorship was abolished for most books and literary magazines.

Reforms of the 1860s and 70s significantly advanced Russia along the path of economic and political modernization. However, the political reorganization of the country was not completed. Russia still remained an autocratic monarchy. There were no mechanisms for the influence of society on government policy.

Socio-economic development of post-reform Russia

Reforms of the 60s - 70s. created favorable conditions for the development of the country's economy and the formation of capitalist relations.

Railway construction was the most important direction of the economic development of post-reform Russia, because. this new type of transport made it possible to significantly facilitate the export of grain and strengthen the country's defense capability. AT 1851 The railway from St. Petersburg to Moscow was opened.

In the 60s. began "railway fever" - a real boom in railway construction. Private capital, including foreign capital, was widely attracted to this industry. Moscow became the center of the railway network. In 1869, a road was put into operation, connecting Moscow with the southern grain-growing provinces of southern Russia.

A new stage of reinforced railway construction began in the 90s. Finance Minister S.Yu. Witte (the author of the monetary reform (introduction of the gold equivalent of the ruble), later Chairman of the Government) attached particular importance to it. Now it was carried out mainly at public expense. In 1891, the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway began. In 1896, the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER), the eastern branch of the Trans-Siberian Railway, began in Manchuria.

The abolition of serfdom caused a short hitch in the industrial development of the country, because. Possession peasants left the manufactory. Soon, however, industrial development revived. The most significant successes were observed in textile production, which at that time was the leading branch of Russian industry. Significant growth was observed in the food industry, especially in the sugar industry.

It was very difficult for the metallurgical industry to adapt to the new conditions, where it was necessary not only to switch to civilian labor, but also to carry out technical re-equipment. Many Ural factories are falling into decay. However, at the same time (since the mid-70s) a new center of industrial production began to form in the Donets Basin.

The Russian economy gradually entered the world economy and began to experience cyclical fluctuations in its development. AT 1873 Russia was first affected by the global industrial crisis.

In the first post-reform 20th anniversary, the main industrial regions of Russia were finally formed - Moscow, St. Petersburg, Ural and Yuzhny (Donbass). The textile industry dominated in the Moscow region. Petersburg - metalworking and mechanical engineering. The Ural and Southern regions were the base of the metallurgical industry.

Back to top 1890 -s. in Russia ends, which began in 1830-40 years, industrial revolution, i.e. the transition from manufactory to factory, from manual labor to machine. It had an industrial revolution and social consequences - there was a transition from the class structure of society to the class one. The main classes of society were the proletariat and the bourgeoisie.

The agricultural development of Russia in the post-reform period was not so successful. It was especially difficult in the black earth regions, where the peasants had difficulty switching to new ways of farming.

The main supplier of export grain remained the landowners' farms. This indicates that the development of agriculture in Russia proceeded mainly along Prussian way.

Signs of the Prussian path of development of capitalism in agriculture:

• Large sizes of allotments - latifundia.
• The owners of the latifundia are the privileged latifundist landowners.
• The plots are cultivated by numerous low-paid hired workers (farm laborers) or slaves (as in the USA or in pre-reform Russia).

Only in the steppe Trans-Volga region and in the North Caucasus, where landownership was weak or non-existent, did agriculture develop according to American(farm) way. These areas became the breadbasket of Russia and the main supplier of bread for export.

Signs of the American way of development of capitalism in agriculture:

• Put on small sizes.
• The allotment belongs to the farmer. In Russia they are called fists.
• The farmer himself and a few laborers handle the allotment.

After the reform of 1861 in the Russian countryside, the social differentiation- the process of separation from the total mass of the peasantry of the rural bourgeoisie ( fists), owners of strong peasant farms serving their own needs ( middle peasants) and the rural poor ( laborers).

The development of capitalism in the countryside was hampered by the preservation of the community ("rural society"). The community acted as the owner of the land. She was engaged in the distribution of land allotments (in order to equalize the chances of a good harvest, the peasants received land in strips, that is, in different parts of the communal lands). The main organs of community administration were the village assembly and the village headman elected by him. One of the fundamental principles for the community was the principle of mutual responsibility.

Social movement of the second half of the 50-60s of the XIX century.

The reforms of Alexander II provoked opposition from the conservatives. The brightest representative of this trend was M.N. Katkov is the editor of Moskovskie Vedomosti, who left after the Polish uprising of 1863-1864. liberal camp. He believed that the reforms led to the separation of the intelligentsia from the people and violated the previously existing unity of the people with the king.

In the second half of the XIX century. in Russia, the ideas of liberalism are being further developed, which are approved in a number of zemstvos. Liberal zemstvo leaders put forward the slogan of "positive work in the field", and attempts were also made to create an all-Russian zemstvo center. The Russian liberals saw the main goal in the establishment of constitutional government. The most famous figures of the liberal Zemstvo movement were I.I. Petrunkevich, D.N. Shipov, B.N. Chicherin, K.D. Kavelin.

At the same time, a significant part of the educated society was captured by revolutionary sentiments. This direction of the social movement quickly lost its noble character. The children of peasants, philistines, the clergy, the impoverished nobility quickly turned into intellectuals - raznochintsev standing outside the estates. Parting with their past, they quickly ceased to respect the foundations, traditions ( nihilism). The mood of general pessimism and hatred of the state was intensified by the introduction in 1861 of high tuition fees at universities. It was the raznochintsy intelligentsia that became the main base of the revolutionary movement in post-reform Russia.

The reform of 1861 in no way satisfied the radical public. Chernyshevsky becomes her idol and inspiration. Obviously, he was the main organizer of the "proclamation campaign" of 1861. The proclamations circulating in Moscow and St. Petersburg contained demands for more decisive and consistent reforms, reinforced by the threat of a popular uprising. In response, the authorities in 1861-1862. made a number of arrests, Chernyshevsky was sentenced to hard labor. Throughout the 1860s. the radical intelligentsia tried several times to create a strong organization. However, neither the "Land and Freedom" group (1861-1863, Chernyshevsky's organization), nor the circle of N.A. could become such. Ishytin (whose member D.V. Karakozov shot at Alexander II in 1866), nor “National Reprisal” (1869) under the leadership of S.T. Nechaev (members of the organization killed student Ivanov on suspicion of betrayal). S.T. Nechaev is the author of the book " Revolutionary catechism».

Revolutionary Populism

At the turn of the 1860-1870s. the formation of the ideology of revolutionary populism. It found its final expression in the works of M.A. Bakunin, P.L. Lavrova, P.N. Tkachev. Firmly convinced that mankind in its development must inevitably come to socialism, these ideologists placed special hopes on the peasant community in Russia, considering it as the germ of socialism (the theory of “communal socialism” by A.I. Herzen). The populists were characterized by a negative attitude towards capitalism, which could destroy the peasant community. Converging on the basic theoretical principles, the leading ideologues of populism proposed various means for their implementation.

M.A. Bakunin ( 6untarian direction of populism) saw such a means in an immediate peasant revolt, to which the peasants should be inspired by their example by the revolutionary intelligentsia. At the same time, Bakunin and his supporters denied the need for a state, relying on the self-government of communities. M.A. Bakunin and his colleague P. Kropotkin became the founders of Russian anarchism.

P.L. Lavrov ( propaganda direction) supported the idea of ​​a peasant revolution and considered revolutionary intellectuals as a force capable of inspiring the masses to participate in it through prolonged propaganda.

P.N. Tkachev ( conspiratorial direction) proceeded from the fact that the gap between the people and the intelligentsia is too significant and, in essence, insurmountable. It is impossible to raise the peasants to a conscious revolutionary movement. The intelligentsia must liberate the community by seizing power by means of an armed coup and carrying out the necessary transformations from above.

In the late 1860s - early 1870s. in Russia, a number of populist circles arose among the students. AT 1874 d. their members start mass going to the people for the purpose of conducting revolutionary propaganda. However, it was not possible to raise the peasants to the revolution - all their calls were met with distrust and hostility among the peasantry. The reason for this lay in the belief in the "good king" that persisted among the peasantry.

After unsuccessfully going to the people, the populists decide to change their tactics and move on to " settled» (constant, systematic) propaganda. AT 1876 g. arises " Earth and Will"(second) - an organization that played the role of a coordinating center for populist propaganda. Its unsuccessful activities lead the populists to the idea of ​​the need to abandon propaganda methods of struggle. AT 1879 Zemlya i Volya is split into Black Repartition and Narodnaya Volya.

« Black redistribution”, whose leaders were G.V. Plekhanov, P.B. Axelrod and V.I. Zasulich, remained on the positions of propaganda. Soon its members left Russia and in 1883 created the first Russian Marxist organization in Geneva. Emancipation of labor».

« People's Will” united the populists - supporters of the tactics of individual terror. This method of struggle also existed earlier as a disorganizing method of work for Land and Freedom. The most famous terrorist of that time was V. Zasulich (later a member of the Black Redistribution), who in 1878 made an attempt on the life of the St. Petersburg mayor D.F. Trepov. Later, the jury acquitted Zasulich, thereby justifying political terror in general. Zasulich herself later retired from terror.

The leaders of the "Narodnaya Volya" were A.I. Zhelyabov, A.D. Mikhailov, S.L. Perovskaya and V.N. Figner.

The activities of the "Narodnaya Volya" led to retaliatory measures from the government. Not wanting to completely curtail the reformist policy, Alexander II begins to pursue a kind of policy (“ Dictatorship of the Heart"). On February 12, 1880, the Supreme Administrative Commission was formed. M. T. Loris-Melikov was put at its head, who, on the one hand, continued the merciless struggle against the revolutionary underground; on the other hand, he carried out a number of measures that softened the censorship and arbitrariness of the local administration. In addition, Loris-Melikov presented to the tsar a draft of democratic reforms, providing, in particular, for the convening of a central all-Russian zemstvo body (“ Constitution of Loris-Melikov"). He was enthusiastically received by the liberals and approved by Alexander II.

March 1, 1881 Mr. Alexander II was killed by Narodnaya Volya. His son Alexander III came to power. Loris-Melikov's project was rejected. Reaction reigned in the country, and the populist organizations were crushed. People's Volunteers Perovskaya, Mikhailov, Kibalchich, Zhelyabov and Rysakov were hanged.

In the post-reform period, under conditions of intensive development of industry, the labor movement becomes a noticeable phenomenon in social life. In 1875, the “South Russian Union of Workers” was founded in Odessa (headed by E.O. Zaslavsky), in 1878 in St. Petersburg, the “Northern Union of Russian Workers” (V.P. Obnorsky, S.N. Khalturin). Their participants advocated the overthrow of the autocracy, political freedom, social reorganization. The workers' organizations, being essentially Marxist, were strongly influenced by the Narodniks during this period.

In the 80s. the labor movement becomes more organized, mass strikes begin. The most significant of these took place in 1885 city ​​at Morozov's textile factory in Ivanovo-Voznesensk ("Morozov strike"). In the 90s. there is a new upsurge in the strike movement. The protests of the workers prompted the government to adopt a number of laws.

The internal policy of the autocracy at the end of the XIX century.

The reign of Alexander III (1881 - 1894) went down in history as the time of "counter-reforms". The ideologists of the new political course were Chief Prosecutor of the Synod K.P. Pobedonostsev (educator of the new emperor), Minister of the Interior D.A. Tolstoy, well-known publicist and public figure M.N. Katkov, who considered any borrowing from the West harmful and insisted on correcting the reforms already carried out.

The practical implementation of the new course was reduced to the following:

1. The introduction of the institute of Zemsky chiefs ( 1889 ). They were appointed by the Minister of the Interior from among the local noble landowners and exercised administrative and police control and judicial functions over the peasants. The power of the zemstvo chiefs strengthened the positions of the landlords and the government.
2. Zemstvo counter-reform ( 1890 ). During the elections to the zemstvos, the number of vowels from the landowners increased due to the reduction of the property qualification. For urban residents, the qualification, on the contrary, increased. All these measures were designed to strengthen the position of the nobility in local governments.
3. The property and educational qualifications for jurors increased, which increased the representation of the nobility (1887).
4. University Charter 1884 effectively abolished the autonomy of universities. Representatives of the "lower classes" found it difficult to get an education. " Cook's Children Circular» ( 1887 ) recommended closing the doors of the gymnasium to children not from noble families.
5. In accordance with " Regulations on Measures for the Protection of State Security and Public Peace» ( 1881 ) in any part of the empire could be declared a state of emergency. Local authorities received the right to arrest "suspicious persons", exile them without trial for up to 5 years in any locality and bring them to a military court, close educational institutions and press organs, and suspend the activities of zemstvos.
6. The attitude towards religious dissent was toughened, the rights of persons of non-Orthodox faith, especially Jews, were limited. The government pursued a policy of forcible Russification of the national outskirts.

Considering the domestic policy of Alexander III, it is important to emphasize that the government carried out a number of measures aimed at improving the situation of peasants and workers.

AT 1881 d. all former landlord peasants were transferred to compulsory redemption, i.e. temporary relationships were cancelled. The Peasants' Bank was created (1882), which was supposed to assist peasants and peasant societies in the purchase of privately owned lands. In 1883 - 1885. the poll tax from the peasants was reduced and then abolished.

In the 1980s, the first attempts were made to regulate relations between workers and industrialists, to develop the foundations of labor legislation: the labor of minors was prohibited, fines were reduced, and a factory inspectorate was established to monitor compliance with working conditions.

Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the XIX century.

After the end of the Crimean War, the main task of Russian foreign policy was the revision of the terms of the Paris Peace Treaty (1856). Taking advantage of the contradictions between European states (primarily Prussia and France), Russian diplomacy, headed by A.M. Gorchakov was able to successfully solve this problem by declaring in 1870 of the refusal to comply with the terms of the Paris Treaty. Already in the early 1870s. Russia creates a navy on the Black Sea, restores destroyed fortresses and proceeds to resolve the Eastern Question.

1877-1878 gg. - the last Russian-Turkish war.

Reasons for the war:

1. Russia's desire to solve the Eastern question.
2. The need to assist the fraternal Balkan peoples in their liberation struggle against the Ottoman yoke.
3. Russia is faced with the task of returning South Bessarabia, lost as a result of the Crimean War.
4. Russia is striving to regain the international prestige it lost after the defeat in the Crimean War.

April 12, 1877 d. Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire. The fighting went on simultaneously in the Balkans (under the leadership of I.V. Gurko and M.D. Skobelev) and in the Transcaucasus (M.T. Loris-Melikov). The main events of the war were the defense of the Shipka Pass and the siege of the Turkish fortress of Plevna (it was only possible to take it in November 1877, E.I. Totleben participated in the siege). In Transcaucasia, the fortresses of Batum and Erzurum were taken. AT February 1878 in the town San Stefano an agreement was signed near Constantinople, according to which Serbia, Montenegro and Romania received complete independence. Bulgaria became an autonomous principality. Russia returned South Bessarabia.

However, the strengthening of Russia in the Balkans and in the Middle East region frightened the Western European powers and, above all, Germany. They protested against the terms of the San Stefano Treaty. Summer 1878 A congress was held in Berlin, at which Russia found itself in complete isolation. As a result, the Treaty of San Stefano was revised. Serbia, Montenegro and Romania retained their independence, but Bulgaria was divided into two parts: the North received full autonomy, and the South remained a Turkish province. Turkey's colonies were divided among European states.

At the end of the nineteenth century. The German Empire is growing stronger and is beginning to be perceived by the Russian government as the most dangerous enemy. Also in 1873 d. Russia agrees to the creation of " Union of the Three Emperors"with the participation of Austria-Hungary and Germany, hoping in this way to prevent an aggravation of relations with them. However, the disagreements between its members turned out to be too great and in 1878 the "Union" broke up.

In 1882, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy concluded the so-called. Triple Alliance, directed against France, but also threatening Russia.

The Russian government was forced to start looking for an ally, now for a joint struggle against the Triple Alliance. In 1891-92. a Franco-Russian alliance is created. That's how it started Entente(from French - consent), opposing the Triple Alliance.

An important task facing the Russian Foreign Ministry was the demarcation (clear definition) of the border with China. AT 1858 The Aigun Treaty was signed, according to which the border was drawn along the Amur River. The Ussuri taiga and the mouth of the Amur remained in the joint possession of both states. AT 1860 d. - Beijing Treaty. Taking advantage of China's weakness, Russia annexes the Ussuri taiga and the mouth of the Amur.

Another direction of foreign policy was the accession of Central Asia.

In 1864, the Emirate of Bukhara and the Khanate of Khiva, having suffered a series of military defeats, recognized their vassal dependence on Russia. The Kokand Khanate, which declared a gazavat to Russia, was destroyed as a state: in 1876 its lands were included in the Turkestan region. The fight against the Turkmen tribes ended only in 1881, when M.D. Skobelev took Ashgabat and Geok-Tepe.

Accession to Russia was a boon for the local population: feudal civil strife ceased; blood feud began to fade into the past; slavery was abolished. The local population retained their language, religion, culture, and national customs.

AT 1867 Alaska was sold to the US for $7.2 million.

Culture of the second half of the XIX century.

The basis of secondary education was still made up of gymnasiums, real and commercial schools. However, the right to enter the university was given only to gymnasiums. In 1878, the Higher Women's (Bestuzhev) Courses were opened, which laid the foundation for higher education for women.

Russian science and technology in the post-reform period was represented by a galaxy of outstanding scientists. In the field of mathematics, P.L. Chebyshev, A.M. Lyapunov, S.V. Kovalevskaya (the world's first female professor of mathematics). In chemical science A.M. Butlerov proposed the theory of the chemical structure of substances, D.I. Mendeleev discovered the periodic law of chemical elements.

Major scientific discoveries have been made in physics. A.G. Stoletov investigated and described photoelectric phenomena. P.N. Yablochkov created an arc lamp and for the first time carried out the transformation of alternating current. A.N. Lodygin designed an incandescent lamp. The main direction of scientific activity of A.S. Popov was the study of electromagnetic phenomena, its result was the invention of radio. The works of N.I. Zhukovsky, the founder of modern hydro- and aeromechanics. The first experiments on the design of aircraft (aircraft) were made by A.F. Mozhaisky.

Biological sciences during this period developed under the influence of evolutionary doctrine. Works by I.I. Mechnikov in evolutionary embryology, pathology and immunology were recognized by scientists around the world. At the origins of the national physiological school was I.M. Sechenov. One of the directions of his scientific activity was the study of the human psyche. I.P. Pavlov carried out extensive experimental research in the field of higher nervous activity and formulated the main provisions of the theory of conditioned reflexes. The development of agronomic science is associated with the names of V.V. Dokuchaev (the founder of modern soil science) and K.A. Timiryazev (researcher of plant physiology).

New generalizing works on Russian history appear: the 29-volume " History of Russia since ancient times" CM. Solovyov and " Russian history course» his student V.O. Klyuchevsky. Such prominent representatives of Russian historical science as S.F. begin their scientific, pedagogical and social activities. Platonov and M.N. Pokrovsky. A notable event in scientific life was the work of M.M. Kovalevsky on world history.

Russian geographers and travelers continue to explore the little-studied territories of our planet. Admiral F.P. Litke carried out a survey of Kamchatka, Chukotka and some islands in the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. N.M. Przhevalsky, P.K. Kozlov, P.P. Semenov-Tienshansky during his travels studied the regions of Central and Central Asia. N.N. Miklukho-Maclay - the coast of New Guinea and the Pacific Islands.

The main process taking place in Russian literature and art of this period was democratization. Artistic culture acquires a simpler, generally accessible character.

Second half of the 19th century - the most important stage in the development of domestic literature. Creativity L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov, I.S. Turgenev, E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A.A. Fet and many others had a huge impact on Russian and world literature.

In painting, as well as in literature, the realistic direction becomes dominant. AT 1870 g. arises " Association of Traveling Exhibitions”, which united the majority of realist artists - I.N. Kramskoy (portrait of L.N. Tolstoy), A.K. Savrasov (" The Rooks Have Arrived”), I.E. Repin ( "Barge Haulers on the Volga", "They Didn't Wait", "The Cossacks Write a Letter to the Turkish Sultan"), IN AND. Surikov ( "Boyar Morozova", "Morning of the Streltsy Execution", "Conquest of Siberia by Yermak"), who opposed "academism" in the visual arts.

In terms of his aesthetic views, the outstanding Russian sculptor M.M. Antokolsky. He is the author of sculptural portraits "Ermak", "Nestor the Chronicler", "Ivan the Terrible".

According to the project of M.O. Mikeshin in Novgorod erected a monument " Millennium of Russia". Mikeshin was also the author of monuments to Catherine II in St. Petersburg and Bogdan Khmelnitsky in Kyiv. Monuments erected according to the designs of A.M. Opekushin (Pushkin - in Moscow and Lermontov - in Pyatigorsk).

The use of folk motifs was distinguished in these years by the musical art. The motifs of folk music were most vividly presented in the operas of A.S. Dargomyzhsky (" Mermaid”), M.P. Mussorgsky (" Boris Godunov"), ON THE. Rimsky-Korsakov royal bride”), A.P. Borodin (" Prince Igor”), who made up a circle of musicians known as“ mighty bunch". The most popular in these years was the work of P.I. Tchaikovsky, who created outstanding opera ( "Eugene Onegin", "The Queen of Spades"), ballet ( "Swan Lake", "The Nutcracker") and symphonic (1st Piano Concerto) works.

In a number of architectural styles, eclecticism dominated (a combination of features of different styles in one work). A variety of eclecticism was the pseudo-Russian style.

Buildings in Moscow became examples of this style. Historical Museum(architects A.A. Semenov and V.O. Sherwood), City Duma(architect D.N. Chichagov), the current Gumma(architect A.N. Pomerantsev).

For the widest strata of Russian society, one of the most accessible forms of art was theater. The basis of the repertoire of both metropolitan and provincial theaters were plays by A.N. Ostrovsky, A.P. Chekhov, N.V. Gogol. Realistic traditions in acting, established by M.S. Shchepkin, successfully continued and developed by outstanding Russian actors M.P. and O.O. Sadovskie, G.N. Fedotova, M.N. Ermolova, P.A. Strepetova. The Maly Theater in Moscow was rightfully considered the center of the theatrical life in Russia.

Ministry of the Russian Federation

Civil Defense, Emergencies and Disaster Relief

Academy of State Fire Service

Russian Emergency Situations Ministry

abstract

Department:"Domestic History and Economic Theory".

Discipline: Russian history.

on the topic:"Great reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century".

Completed:

1B course student

Speciality:"Technospheric security" Checked: _______________________________

Moscow 2014

Introduction…………………………………………………………………….……3

1. Prerequisites for the liberal reforms of Alexander II……………………..5

2. The need for reform…………………………………………...…………8

2.1. Abolition of serfdom………………………………………………… 10

2.2. Peasant reforms …...………………………………………………... 13

2.3. Zemstvo reform ……………………………………………………………… 15

2.4. City Reform…………………………………………………………… 16

2.5. Judicial Reform……………………………………………………………. 17

2.6. Military reform……………………………………………………………... 18

2.7. Financial Reform………………………………………………………. 20

2.8. Reform in the field of public education and press…………………... 21

2.9. Higher state institutions…………………………………... 24

3. Socio-political consequences of the reforms and their assessment in the historical literature………………………………………………..…… 25

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………..29

Bibliography……………………………………………………...…….30

Introduction

Dividing Russian history of the 19th century into its first and second halves, 1861, the year of the peasant reform, is often chosen as a milestone. In this regard, one can also speak of pre-reform and post-reform Russia.

Carrying out large-scale reforms, comparable in their significance to the reforms of Peter the Great, fell to the lot of Emperor Alexander II (1855-1881). He was not known as a man of liberal convictions. Being the heir to the throne and acting in the public arena in the shadow of his father Nicholas I, he never expressed any ideas that ran counter to the protective policy. But at the same time, Alexander was a pragmatist - a man who, above his convictions, set the solution to the most pressing problems in accordance with the spirit of the times.

The emperor understood the need to abandon the feudal economy, to carry out the modernization of the country, the inevitability of which became obvious after Russia's humiliating defeat in the Crimean War. The crisis was exacerbated by the breakdown of the financial system.

Alexander II and his entourage received a lot of reports about the growth of popular discontent, they felt a democratic upsurge in an “enlightened society”. The country was on the verge of a revolutionary explosion. In an effort to prevent it, the emperor at the beginning of his reign told the representatives of the nobility about his unwillingness to "give freedom to the peasants", but was forced to recognize the need to start preparing for their release in view of the danger of further preservation of serfdom.

Thus, the government, seeking to resolve the most acute social contradictions, did not take the path of tightening the regime, but chose the tactics of "preemptive reform." With the help of reforms, Alexander II also sought to solve foreign policy tasks - to restore the international prestige of the Russian Empire, to create a combat-ready army of a new model.

In a constant struggle with the conservatives, the emperor managed to rely on liberal-minded representatives of the state bureaucracy, who contributed to the implementation of the course of reforms. Among them, the tsar's brother, Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich, one of the leaders of the Main Committee on the Peasant Question, Ya.

Prerequisites for the liberal reforms of Alexander II

At the beginning of the 19th century, Russia remained the only European power that retained a feudal-serf economy and an absolute monarchy. The efficiency of the Russian economy was an order of magnitude lower than in developed European countries. By the middle of the XIX century. Russia's lagging behind the Western countries, which have made a huge leap in their development, has not decreased, but increased. By this time, there were practically no joint-stock companies and banks in Russia, without which a large capitalist economy could not develop. But serfdom continued to be the main brake on the path of bourgeois development. This was fully demonstrated by the Crimean War (1853-1856), which ended in the defeat of tsarism.

The defeat in the Crimean War revealed many internal shortcomings of the Russian state. A direct consequence of the economic and military autocratic-serf policy was the decline in the living standards of the people, stagnation in the economy. The discontent of the people grew, it became obvious that it was impossible to live like this any longer. Social conflicts intensified. The peasantry more and more actively rose to fight for their liberation. It fought for the complete abolition of serfdom, for freedom and land. Thousands of peasants rushed south, to the Crimea, “for freedom,” as a rumor spread that there they were handing out land to those who wished and freed them from serfdom.

Most of the landlords were against the liberation of the peasants, as this meant the end of the unconditional rule of the noble class. But the most far-sighted representatives of this class understood the need for reform. The advanced part of them, the so-called liberals, began to openly criticize the backwardness of Russia, the dominance and abuses of officials. They were especially afraid of the threat of revolution. In order to prevent it, to preserve the dominant position of the landowners in the country, they proposed some transformations. They advocated the abolition of serfdom from above. The liberation of the peasants, according to their plan, should take place in such a way that the landowners suffered the least, and the peasants had to pay a large ransom for their personal liberation. After such a "liberation" the peasants would remain in complete economic dependence on the landowner.

Under these conditions, the tsarist government was forced to begin preparations for the abolition of serfdom, the most important reform of that time.

In the historical literature, there are two opinions about the reasons for the abolition of serfdom. According to the first of them, by the middle of the 19th century, the serf economy was still far from having exhausted its possibilities and the actions against the government were very weak. Neither economic nor social catastrophe threatened Russia, but by retaining serfdom, it could drop out of the ranks of the great powers. According to the second, the labor productivity of the serfs began to decline, as the landowners wanted to produce more products and thereby undermined the strength of the peasant economy. Many landlords tried to introduce new farming systems, apply the latest technology, purchase improved varieties, thoroughbred cattle. Such measures led them to ruin, and, accordingly, to increased exploitation of the peasants.

After the death of Nicholas I, his eldest son Alexander II (1855 - 1881), who was well prepared for state activity, ascended the royal throne. For several years he participated in the work of the Peasant Committee and, being a realist, he was fully aware of the need for change.

Alexander II, who was inclined towards the abolition of serfdom with the provision of a certain economic independence to the peasants, i.e. land, went to an extraordinary measure. Instead of the previously practiced departmental committees engaged in upholding local interests, a non-departmental body was created - the Editorial Commissions, directly subordinate to the tsar. They included radical officials, as well as independent experts from the landlords.

The commissions took into account the opinion of the provincial committees. An innovation was publicity in the work of the commissions: the results of their work were regularly inquired about by the highest officials of the state and leaders of the nobility. In addition, in their work, the commissions relied on scientifically substantiated economic calculations. The results of the work of the commissions were reflected in the Tsar's Manifesto of February 19, 1861, which announced the abolition of serfdom in Russia. The reform was a compromise that took into account the interests of the peasants, various groups of landowners and the authorities.

Under the new law, the serfdom of the landlords over the peasants was abolished forever, and the peasants were recognized as free without any redemption in favor of the landowners. At the same time, the land on which the peasants lived and worked was recognized as the property of the landowners. The peasants were freed with the fact that the landlords would provide them with their estate settlement and a certain amount of field land and other lands (field allotment) for use. But the peasants for the estate and field plots had to serve in favor of the landlords duties in money or work. Therefore, until the conclusion of redemption transactions, the peasants were considered "temporarily liable" and had to serve, as before, corvée or pay dues. The final stage in the liberation of peasants from serfdom was the redemption of land. Up to 80% of the ransom amount was paid to the landowners by the state. The loan was issued to the landowner in profitable interest-bearing papers and was credited to the peasants as government debt. The peasants became debtors of the state, repaying for 49 years with a payment of 6% the amount of the ransom. Thus, during this time, the peasant had to pay up to 300% of the "loan" granted to him.

The centralized redemption of peasant allotments by the state solved a number of important economic and social problems. Government credit provided the landowners with a guaranteed payment of the ransom and saved them from direct confrontation with the peasants. The ransom turned out to be, in addition, an operation that was also beneficial to the state. The landowners managed to carry out land management in such a way that the peasants were cut off part of the land that they cultivated for themselves before the reform. All this laid the foundation for the impoverishment and landlessness of the peasantry. Thus the great deed of the abolition of serfdom was accomplished.

The liberation of the peasants significantly changed all the foundations of Russian state and social life. It created a new populous social class in the central and southern regions of Russia. And the government was supposed to manage it. The peasant reform entailed the transformation of all aspects of state and public life. A number of measures were envisaged to restructure local government, the judiciary, education and, later, the army.