Society at the stage of decomposition of primitive communal relations. The formation of unions is a stage on the way to the formation of statehood. They were complex structures that had a territorial and political character. Let's take a look at how the merger happened. Eastern Slavs in antiquity. Names of tribal unions and their brief description will also be presented in the article.
Association principles
The formation of tribal unions of the Eastern Slavs began in the 6th century. The unification took place through the consolidation of several small tribes, one of which became dominant. Its name became the name of the tribal union.
East Slavs united by tribal and territorial-political principle. Each formation had its own geographical area, its name, customs and traditions. In some tribal unions Eastern Slavs approved certain internal laws, rules for conducting ceremonies. Everyone had one language, but each union had its own dialects.
Political system
Tribal unions of the Eastern Slavs were well organised.
Each territory had its own cities. One of them was a kind of capital. Religious events and tribal meetings were held here. It is important to note that in each tribal union of the Eastern Slavs there was a princely government. It was passed down from father to son.
In addition to the prince, management and control were in the hands of the veche. In each tribe that was part of the union, there was an elder.
Distinctive features
Of particular interest is the features of the development of territories tribal unions of the Eastern Slavs and their resettlement by area. As archaeological finds show, people occupied territories close to water bodies.
Who were the neighbors of the tribal unions of the Eastern Slavs? South and western Slavs lived next to them. In the VI-VIII centuries. in these tribes, the process of formation of statehood also took place.
If you look at map of tribal unions of the Eastern Slavs, you can see that they occupied quite vast territories.
It is worth saying that the goal of all East Slavic tribal unions was to protect against external enemies. A separate tribe was unable to resist the attackers. To increase the effectiveness of protection, the prince formed a squad.
Tribal unions of the Eastern Slavs: table
Tribal formations are described by Nestor in his Tale. In total, the author talks about 15 tribal unions of the Eastern Slavs. For convenience, the names of the main ones and a brief description are given in the table.
An association of tribes that occupied the territory in the upper reaches of the West. Bug. At the end of the 10th century, they became part of the Old Russian state |
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Volynians | One of the associations that appeared on the territory of the dulebs. Volhynia created about 70 cities. Volyn was the center |
Tribes settled along the upper and middle reaches of the Oka. From the middle of the 10th century, the Vyatichi became part of Kievan Rus. Since the XII century, their territory belonged to the Chernigov, Rostov-Suzdal and Ryazan principalities. |
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Drevlyans | In the VI-X centuries. these tribes occupied the territory of the right-bank Ukraine, Polissya. Their neighbors were Dregovichi, Buzhans, Volhynians. The capital was the city of Iskorosten. In 883, Oleg imposed tribute on them |
Dregovichi | These tribes occupied the northern regions of the Dnieper right bank. In ancient times, the main city was Turov. Since the 10th century, they have been part of Kievan Rus |
This tribal association occupied the territory of the West. Volyn. In the 7th century, they were devastated by the Avars. In 907, the duleb squad took part in the campaign against Tsargrad |
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Ilmen Slovenes | This association is considered one of the most numerous. The neighbors of the Slovenians were Chud and Merya. At the beginning of the 19th century, together with the Chud and the Krivichi, they formed Slavia, which became the center of the Novgorod land. |
They occupied the territory on the watershed Zap. Dvina, Volga and Dnieper. The main cities were: Smolensk, Izborsk, Polotsk |
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They settled on Wed. the course of the Dnieper. It is believed that they formed the center of the Old Russian state |
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Radimichi | This association occupied the eastern part of the upper Dnieper region. From the middle of the 9th century they were subjected to tribute by the Khazars. In 885 Oleg annexed them to the state. Radimichi finally lost their independence in 984, when their squad was defeated by the voivode Prince. Vladimir |
northerners | This tribal association occupied territories along the Desna, Sula, Seim. They also paid tribute to the Khazars. They were part of Russia from about 865. |
These tribes settled along the Dniester and the mouth of the Danube. In 907 and 944 they participated in campaigns against Tsargrad. From the middle of the 10th century they were included in the composition of Russia, in the 12th century. under the onslaught of the Polovtsians and Pechenegs, they retreated to the northern territories, where they mixed with other tribes |
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They lived in the Lower Dnieper, along the Black Sea coast, in the Bug region. The streets were fighting with Kyiv, defending their independence. Under the onslaught of the nomads, they retreated to the northern territories. In the middle of the X century. became part of Russia |
Hierarchy
A characteristic feature of the tribal structure of society in the period of "military democracy" is the desire of one association to rise above the other.
In the legends, the Volhynians, Zaryans, Polans called themselves true Slavs. Other tribes were given various offensive names. For example, the Tivertsy were called interpreters, the inhabitants of Novgorod - carpenters, the Radimichi - pishchantsy, etc.
The place in the hierarchy was indicated with the help of associations with shoes. For example, the ruling tribe - "in boots", tributaries - "bast shoes". When the city was subjugated to the conqueror, the elder went out barefoot. To designate a place in the tribal hierarchy, indications of occupation, color, material and size of clothes, tents, etc. were used.
Confederates
According to historians, the East Slavic tribes consisted of several tribal groups, the name of which Nestor did not know. The number of cities is correlated with the number of communities (100-150 people each) or groups that united around the city.
Most likely, there were indeed several groups in the Krivichi tribe. Nestor's chronicle speaks of the Smolensk Krivichi and the Krivichi-Polochans. They conducted independent foreign policy activities. Also, on the basis of the finds, archaeologists distinguish Pskov Krivichi and Smolensk-Polotsk.
The Krivichi are considered to be a unified grouping formed during the interaction of Slavic settlers and the Baltic-speaking local population.
Historians believe that the northerners united three tribal groups. Ulichi and Tivertsy acted as part of one union. Vyatichi and Radimichi, presumably, were originally one tribe, and subsequently separated. This is evidenced by the legend of the brothers Vyatko and Radim.
Ilmen Slovenes
They were also in confederate relations with their neighbors. It is believed that on the site of Novgorod there used to be settlements of different tribes. They surrounded the empty space, which acted as the venue for the allied veche.
From such settlements, the "ends" of the city were formed - districts with self-government.
By the middle of the 9th century, a confederation of tribes settled over a vast territory was formed. It included Slovenia, Chud, all, Krivichi, Muroma, Merya.
Formation of statehood
At present, there is no single approach to the question of the formation of the Old Russian state.
In the XI-XVI centuries. dynastic and theological concepts dominated. The latter proceeded from the Cyril and Methodius tradition. According to her, the state was formed in the process of confrontation between the old (paganism) and the new (Christianity) faith.
Christians were opposed to tribes that did not know God's laws. Vladimir was recognized as the founder of the state. At the same time, all previous historical events were considered a "shadow" of baptism.
According to the dynastic concept, the foundation of the state is connected with the emergence of the Rurik dynasty. In 862, Rurik became the head of the East Slavic tribes. In this concept, special importance is attached to the origin of the first princes and their dynastic ties.
Social contract theory
In accordance with it, the state was formed as a result of the calling of the Varangians to reign, the establishment of contractual relations between the tribes.
Corresponding agreements took place not only in Novgorod, but also in Kyiv, as well as in Smolensk, in the Seversk territories, in the Caucasus.
Patriarchal concept
According to it, the state was formed as a result of the union of tribes into unions, and unions - into "super unions". At the same time, the hierarchy of power became more complex. Before the emergence of Russia in the Eastern European territories, there were three parts of the Rus: Kuyavia (center - Kyiv), Artania (located east of the Slovenian regions), Slavia (the land of the Slovenians). In 882, Oleg united them, a state arose.
Theory of conquest
She connects the formation of the state with the subordination of the Slavs to the Scandinavians. At the same time, the process of state formation dragged on for a long time, until by the middle of the 10th century. a unified entity headed by Prince Igor was not created.
Socio-economic concept
It prevailed among Soviet scientists. Researchers paid attention to the presence of social prerequisites for the formation of the state. Among them: the improvement of tools, the emergence of inequality, classes, private property.
The role of each tribe was determined depending on its development, readiness to join the state. The center of occurrence of predisposing factors is called the Middle Dnieper. Glades, dews, northerners lived here. Within the framework of the theory, the identity of the Rus and Polyan tribes is affirmed.
Influence of the foreign policy factor
Some researchers consider it decisive in the process of state formation. The tribes that settled in the Middle Dnieper united in an alliance for a joint fight against the Khazars. So in 830-840. an independent state was created. Power in it was in the hands of the kagan. At the same time, a squad was formed. It consisted mainly of hired Varangians, who were excellent warriors.
The sociological approach used to the problem of the emergence of the state is based on the recognition of the creation of a supra-tribal retinue stratum. It began to be called Rus and subsequently extended its power to the tribes of farmers, assuming the functions of the state.
1. EASTERN SLAVES: SETTLEMENT AND WAY OF LIFE.
The origin of the Eastern Slavs is a complex scientific problem, the study of which is difficult due to the lack of reliable and complete written evidence about the area of their settlement and economic life, life and customs. The first rather meager information is contained in the works of ancient, Byzantine and Arabic authors.
ancient sources. Pliny the Elder and Tacitus (1st century AD) report Wends living between the Germanic and Sarmatian tribes. At the same time, the Roman historian Tacitus notes the militancy and cruelty of the Wends, who, for example, destroyed captured foreigners. Many modern historians see in the Wends the ancient Slavs, who still retain their ethnic unity and occupy approximately the territory of present-day South-Eastern Poland, as well as Volhynia and Polissya.
Byzantine historians of the 6th century. were more attentive to the Slavs, because. they, having grown stronger by this time, began to threaten the Empire. Jordan elevates the contemporary Slavs - the Wends, Sklavins and Antes - to one root and thereby fixes the beginning of their separation, which took place in the 11th-111th centuries. tribes, as well as interaction with the multi-ethnic environment in which they settled (Finno-Ugrians, Balts, Iranian-speaking tribes) and with which they contacted (Germans, Byzantines). It is important to consider that in the formation of the three branches of Slavdom - eastern, western and southern - representatives of all groups recorded by Jordan took part.
Old Russian sources. We find data on the East Slavic tribes in the Tale of Bygone Years (PVL) of the monk Nestor (beginning of the 12th century). He writes about the ancestral home of the Slavs, which he defines in the Danube basin. (According to the biblical legend, Nestor associated their appearance on the Danube with the "Babylonian pandemonium", which, by the will of God, led to the separation of languages and their "scattering" around the world). He explained the arrival of the Slavs to the Dnieper from the Danube by the attack on them by militant neighbors - the "Volokhovs", who ousted the Slavs from their ancestral home.
The second route of the Slavs' advance into Eastern Europe, confirmed by archaeological and linguistic material, passed from the Vistula basin to the area of Lake Ilmen.
Nestor narrates about the following East Slavic tribal unions:
1) glades who settled in the Middle Dnieper "in the fields" and therefore called themselves that way;
2) the Drevlyans who lived from them to the north-west in dense forests;
3) northerners who lived to the east and northeast of the meadows along the Desna, Sula and Seversky Donets rivers;
4) Dregovichi - between Pripyat and Western Dvina;
5) Polochans - in the basin of the river. Cloths;
6) Krivichi - in the upper reaches of the Volga and Dnieper;
7-8) Radimichi and Vyatichi, according to the chronicle, descended from the genus "Poles" (Poles), and were brought, most likely, by their elders - Radim, who "came and sat down" on the river. Sozhe (tributary of the Dnieper) and Vyatko - on the river. Oka;
9) Ilmen Slovenes lived in the north in the basin of Lake Ilmen and the Volkhov River;
10) Buzhans or Dulebs (since the 10th century they were called Volynians) in the upper reaches of the Bug;
11) white Croats - in the Carpathian region;
12-13) and the Tivertsy - between the Dniester and the Danube.
Archaeological data confirm the boundaries of the settlement of tribal unions indicated by Nestor.
Occupations of the Eastern Slavs . Agriculture. The Eastern Slavs, mastering the vast forest and forest-steppe spaces of Eastern Europe, carried with them an agricultural culture. Slash-and-burn (slash-and-burn) agriculture was widespread. On the lands liberated from the forest as a result of deforestation and burning, crops were grown for 2-3 years, using the natural fertility of the soil, enhanced by ash from burnt trees. After the depletion of the land, the site was abandoned and a new one was developed, which required the efforts of the entire community. In the steppe regions, shifting agriculture was used, similar to undercutting, but associated with the burning of field grasses rather than trees.
From U111 in. in the southern regions, field arable farming based on the use of draft cattle and wooden plow, which survived until the beginning of the 20th century, is gaining ground.
The basis of the economy of the Slavs, including the Eastern ones, was arable farming. Occupations of the Eastern Slavs
1. Slash-and-burn agriculture. They grew rye, oats, buckwheat, turnips, etc.
2. Cattle breeding. Bred horses, bulls, pigs, poultry.
3. beekeeping– collection of honey from wild bees
4. Military campaigns to neighboring tribes and countries (primarily to Byzantium)
Other activities. Along with cattle breeding, the Slavs were also engaged in their usual crafts: hunting, fishing, beekeeping. Crafts are developing, which, it is true, have not yet separated from agriculture. Of particular importance for the fate of the Eastern Slavs will be foreign trade, which developed both on the Baltic-Volga route, along which Arab silver entered Europe, and on the route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", connecting the Byzantine world through the Dnieper with the Baltic region.
The lowest link in the social organization was the neighboring (territorial) community - the verv. The basis of the ruling layer was the military-serving nobility of the Kyiv princes - the retinue. By the ninth century the retinue layer advanced to the leading positions. The prince and his retinue, who participated in military campaigns and returned with booty, were in a privileged position
social device. "Military Democracy". The social relations of the Eastern Slavs are being "restored" more difficult. The Byzantine author Procopius of Caesarea (U1 century) writes: "These tribes, Slavs and Antes, are not ruled by one person, but since ancient times they have lived in the government of the people, and therefore decisions are made jointly regarding all happy and unfortunate circumstances." Most likely, we are talking here about meetings (veche) of community members, at which the most important issues of the life of the tribe were decided, including the choice of leaders - "military leaders". At the same time, only male warriors participated in veche meetings. Thus, during this period, the Slavs experienced the last period of the communal system - the era of "military democracy", preceding the formation of the state. This is also evidenced by such facts as the sharp rivalry between military leaders, recorded by another Byzantine author of the 11th century. - Mauritius the Strategist, the emergence of slaves from prisoners, raids on Byzantium, which, as a result of the distribution of looted wealth, strengthened the prestige of military leaders and led to the formation of a squad consisting of professional military men, associates of the prince.
The transition from a tribal community to an agricultural one. In addition, there were changes in the community: the collective of relatives who own all the lands in common is being replaced by a community consisting of large patriarchal families united by a common territory, traditions, beliefs and independently managing the products of their labor.
Tribal reigns. Information about the first princes is contained in the PVL. The chronicler notes that tribal unions, although not all of them, have their own "princeships". So, in relation to the meadows, he recorded the legend of the princes, the founders of the city of Kyiv: Kyi, Shchek, Khoryv and their sister Lybid.
More reliable are the data of the Arab encyclopedist al-Masudi (X century), who wrote that long before his time, the Slavs had a political association, which he called Valinana. Most likely, we are talking about the Volhynian Slavs (annalistic dulebs), whose union was crushed, according to the data of the PVL, by the Avar invasion in the beginning. U11 c. The works of other Arab authors contain information about the three centers of the Eastern Slavs: Kuyavia, Slavia, Artania. Some Russian historians identify the first with Kyiv, the second - with Novgorod or its more ancient predecessor. The location of Artania continues to cause controversy. Apparently they were pre-state formations, including a number of tribal unions. However, all these local principalities were little connected with each other, competed with each other and therefore could not withstand powerful external forces: the Khazars and the Varangians.
Beliefs of the Eastern Slavs . The worldview of the Eastern Slavs was based on paganism - the deification of the forces of nature, the perception of the natural and human world as a whole. The origin of pagan cults occurred in ancient times - in the era of the Upper Paleolithic, about 30 thousand years BC. With the transition to new types of management, pagan cults were transformed, reflecting the evolution of human social life. At the same time, the most ancient layers of beliefs were not replaced by newer ones, but were layered on top of each other. Therefore, the restoration of information about Slavic paganism is extremely difficult. In addition to this circumstance, the reconstruction of the picture of the paganism of the Slavs is also difficult because to this day there are practically no written sources preserved. For the most part, these are Christian anti-pagan writings.
Gods. In ancient times, the Slavs had a widespread cult of the Family and women in childbirth, closely associated with the worship of ancestors. The clan - the divine image of the tribal community contained the entire universe - heaven, earth and the underground dwelling of the ancestors. Each East Slavic tribe had its own patron god.
The priesthood (magicians, sorcerers) who perform sacrifices and other religious ceremonies. Paganism is the worship of the animated forces of nature. It takes the form of polytheism (polytheism)
The main gods of the Slavs were:
Rod - the progenitor of gods and people
Yarilo - god of the sun
Stribog - the god of the wind
Svarog - god of the sky
Perun - god of thunder and lightning
Mokosh - the goddess of moisture and the patroness of spinning
Veles - "cattle god"
Lel and Lada - gods patronizing lovers
Brownies, kikimors, goblin, etc.
Sacrifices were made in special places - temples
In the future, the Slavs increasingly worshiped the great Svarog - the god of heaven and his sons - Dazhdbog and Stribog - the gods of the sun and wind. Over time, Perun, the god of thunder, the "creator of lightning", who was especially revered as the god of war and weapons in the princely retinue, began to play an increasingly important role. Perun was not the head of the pantheon of gods, only later, during the formation of statehood and the strengthening of the importance of the prince and his squad, the cult of Perun began to strengthen. The pagan pantheon also included Veles or Volos - the patron of cattle breeding and the guardian of the underworld of the ancestors, Makosh - the goddess of fertility and others. Totemic ideas were also preserved, associated with the belief in a kindred mystical connection of the genus with any animal, plant, or even object. In addition, the world of the Eastern Slavs was "inhabited" by numerous coastlines, mermaids, goblin, etc.
Priests. There is no exact data about the pagan priests, apparently they were the annalistic "Magi" who fought in the 11th century. with Christianity. During cult rituals that took place in special places - temples (from the Old Slavonic "drop" - an image, an idol), sacrifices were made to the gods, including human ones. A feast was arranged for the dead, and then the corpse was burned on a large fire. Pagan beliefs determined the spiritual life of the Eastern Slavs.
State of the art. In general, Slavic paganism could not satisfy the needs of the states that were emerging among the Slavs, because it did not have a developed social doctrine capable of explaining the realities of the new life. The fractional nature of mythology prevented the holistic understanding of the natural and social environment by the Eastern Slavs. The Slavs never developed a mythology that explains the origin of the world and man, tells about the victory of heroes over the forces of nature, etc. By the 10th century, the need to modernize the religious system became obvious.
Thus, migrations, contacts with the local population and the transition to settled life in new lands led to the formation of the East Slavic ethnos, consisting of 13 tribal unions.
Agriculture became the basis of the economic activity of the Eastern Slavs, and the role of crafts and foreign trade increased.
In the new conditions, in response to the changes taking place both within the Slavic world and in the external environment, a transition is planned from tribal democracy to military democracy, from a tribal community to an agricultural one.
The beliefs of the Eastern Slavs are also becoming more complex. With the development of agriculture, the deification of individual forces of nature comes to replace the syncretic Rod - the main god of the Slavic hunters with the development of agriculture. However, the inconsistency of existing cults with the needs of the development of the East Slavic world is increasingly felt.
So, the Slavs U1-ser. 1X centuries, while maintaining the foundations of the communal system (communal ownership of land and livestock, arming of all free people, regulation of social relations with the help of traditions, i.e. customary law, veche democracy), they underwent both internal changes and pressure from external forces, which in their totality created the conditions for the formation of the state.
The emergence of statehood among the Slavs dates back to the early Middle Ages. This was the time (IV-VIII centuries) when, as a result of the migration of "barbarian" tribes living in the north and east of Europe, a new ethnic and political map of the continent was formed. The migration of these tribes (Germanic, Slavic, Baltic, Finno-Ugric, Iranian) was called the Great Migration of Peoples.
The Slavs joined the migration process in the VI century. AD Prior to that, they occupied the territory from the upper Oder to the middle reaches of the Dnieper. The settlement of the Slavs took place in the IV-VIII centuries. in three main directions: to the south - to the Balkan Peninsula; to the west - to the Middle Danube and the interfluve of the Oder and Elbe; to the east - north along the East European Plain. Accordingly, the Slavs were divided into three branches - southern, western and eastern. The Slavs settled a vast territory from the Peloponnese to the Gulf of Finland and from the middle Elbe to the upper Volga and upper Don.
In the course of settlement among the Slavs, the tribal system was decomposed and a new feudal society began to gradually form.
On the territory that became part of Kievan Rus, 12 Slavic unions of tribal principalities are known. The glades, Drevlyans, Volynians (another name is Buzhans), Croats, Tivertsy, Ulichi, Radimichi, Vyatichi, Dregovichi, Krivichi, Ilmen Slovenes, and northerners lived here. These unions were communities that were no longer consanguineous, but territorial and political in nature.
The social system of the pre-state Slavic societies is a military democracy. The political side of the emergence and development of feudalism among the Slavs in the VIII-X centuries. was the formation of early medieval states.
The state of the Eastern Slavs was called "Rus".
2. The emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs.
a) The first mention of Russia.
The first mentions of the name "Rus" date back to the 5th–7th centuries AD. Describing the tribes that lived between the Dnieper and the Dniester, the Greeks called them Ants, Scythians, Sarmatians, Gothic historians called Rosomani (fair-haired people), and the Arabs called Rus. But it is clear that we are talking about the same people.
The question of the beginning of the state of Russia gave rise to a long discussion between Normanists and anti-Normanists, in which political and ideological considerations will play a large role. The Normanists created and defended the Norman theory, arguing that the state in Russia was created by the Scandinavians - the Normans (Varangians): in the middle of the 9th century (according to the annals in 862), at the call of the Novgorod Slavs, Krivichi and Chud, Rurik arrived to reign from Scandinavia, which, apparently, was called in order to have the strength of the Vikings and to overcome acute internal contradictions, the objective basis for which was created by the complex ethnic composition of the Priilmenye.
Opponents vehemently denied the theory of the Normanists and were looking for the first rulers and creators of the state of Russia among other peoples - Western Slavs, Finns, Hungarians, Khazars, etc. However, both often identified the origin of the state with the origin of the ruling dynasty in it. The problem of the origin of the name "Rus" is also debatable. The most developed is the "Scandinavian" version, which comes from the meaning of the Old Norse verb "to row", meaning rowing warriors or princely combatants.
b) Foundation of Kyiv.
Already by the end of the 5th century AD, scientists attribute the events placed in the Russian chronicle related to the founding of the great city - Kyiv - the capital of one East Slavic union of tribes, named after, which later became the capital of the ancient Russian state.
The chronicle tells that one of the Polyana princes Kiy, together with his brothers Shchek and Khoriv and sister Lybid, founded the city and named it Kyiv in honor of their elder brother. Then Kiy “went to the Tsar-city”, that is, to Constantinople, was received there by the emperor with great honor, and returning back, settled with his squad on the Danube, founded a “gradok” there, but subsequently entered into a fight with the local residents and again returned to the Dnieper banks, where he died. This legend finds a well-known confirmation in archeological data, which indicate that at the end of the 5th - 6th centuries there was a fortified urban-type settlement on the Kyiv mountains, which was the center of the Polyan union of tribes.
The history of the formation of the most ancient city takes place in the entire history of the ancient Russian state. After all, the once small settlement of the Slavs gave the name to the whole state.
c) Formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs.
By the beginning of the 8th century, the name Rus began to be applied to the Eastern Slavs - this indicates the emergence of statehood among them, but before that they had to go a long way.
On the eve of the unification of most of the East Slavic tribes under the rule of Kyiv, there were at least 15 large tribal unions here. A powerful union of tribes lived in the Middle Dnieper region, united by the name "glade". The Middle Dnieper was the most developed region among other East Slavic lands. It was here on the free black earth, in a favorable climate, on the trade "Dnieper" road, that the largest number of the population was primarily concentrated. It was here that the ancient traditions of plow farming, cattle breeding, and gardening were developed and preserved, iron-making and pottery were improved, and other handicraft specialties were born. Especially intensively continued to improve agriculture - the main type of economy of the early medieval world. Improved tools. The plow became a widespread type of agricultural equipment, sickles began to be used when harvesting. Stone and bronze tools are a thing of the past. Every year arable lands expanded, steppe and forest-steppe lands convenient for agriculture were widely developed. Two-field and three-field crop rotations began to spread in the Slavic lands, replacing slash-and-burn agriculture, which was characterized by clearing the land from under the forest, using it to exhaustion, and then abandoning it. The cultivation of the soil began to be widely practiced. And this made the harvests higher, the provision of people's lives more durable. The constantly improving economy of the Eastern Slavs eventually led to the fact that a separate family, a separate house, ceased to need the help of the clan, relatives. The unified tribal economy began to disintegrate, huge houses accommodating up to a hundred people increasingly began to give way to small family dwellings. Common tribal property, common arable land, lands began to break up into separate plots belonging to families. The appearance of a plow with an iron plowshare, an iron ax, a shovel, a hoe, a bow and arrows, steel swords significantly expanded and strengthened the power of an individual, an individual family over nature and contributed to the withering away of the tribal community.
Now it has become neighborly, where each family had the right to its share of the property. This is how the right of private ownership, private property was born, an opportunity appeared for individual strong families
To develop large tracts of land, to obtain more products in the course of fishing activities, to create certain accumulation surpluses. Under these conditions, the power and economic capabilities of tribal leaders, elders, tribal nobility, and warriors surrounding the leaders sharply increased. This is how property inequality was born in the Slavic environment, which most often fell into the hands of the wealthy, deepened the property difference between the rich and the poor, gave rise to classes. And also every year the products of artisans multiplied. Gradually, their work became more and more separated from rural labor. The artisans themselves began to settle where it was more convenient and easier for them to sell and exchange their products.
Such places, of course, were settlements located where there were shrines, where many people came to worship. This contributed to the formation of cities and the development of trade relations.
Cities were born as settlements that simultaneously performed all political, economic, religious, and military tasks. They had prospects for further development and turned into large population centers, uniting vast territories among themselves, which acquired the status of a state.
d) Formation of Kievan Rus as a state.
The political side of the genesis of feudal society among the Slavs in the VIII-X centuries was the formation of medieval states. It went in two main forms: in Great Moravia, in Russia, in Poland and the Czech Republic - by subordinating one union of tribal principalities to other unions; in Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia - within the same union of tribal principalities. With the exception of the territories south of the Danube, taken by the Slavs from the Eastern Roman Empire, the Slavic states arose in areas that were not part of the zone of ancient civilization, and, unlike Western Europe, feudal relations developed in a slow, non-synthetic way. The state of the Eastern Slavs arose in the 9th - 10th centuries. Its capital was the city of Kyiv. Hence the name of the state - Kievan Rus. Already in the 7th-9th centuries, a social structure was formed in it - military democracy, which was the last period of the primitive communal system, which already contained signs of social inequality, future class relations. The leaders of the tribe now turned into princes, in whose hands the control of the tribe and the union of tribes was concentrated. They were marked by wealth, the presence of associates and military support. Next to the prince, the voivode, the leader of the tribal army, also stood out. A more important role was played by the squad, personally devoted to the prince. It was separated from the tribal militia, whose main job was war, a feature-privilege in society. The main part of the tribe was made up of free people - smerds, who had the right to participate in the war and popular tribal meetings - veche. Then, among the free people, they began to single out those who were supposed to obey them - servants. On the lower levels of society were "serfs" - the poor of the community, who did not have their own families and households. And the very bottom of the social ladder was filled with "slaves" - captives engaged in forced labor. Thus, the structure of the tribal life of the ancient Russian state had a complex, branched system in which social differences were clearly distinguished.
The early feudal state was nevertheless characterized by such features as the underdevelopment of the state apparatus and the presence of remnants of the tribal organization of society (veche, militia of peasants and artisans, court based on customs).
e) The subordination of the East Slavic tribes to the Russian princes.
In the 8th-10th centuries, the princes of Kyiv gradually subjugated the East Slavic unions of tribal principalities. The leading role in this was played, of course, by the military service nobility - the squad. Some of the unions were subdued in two stages. .At first, they only paid tax - tribute, while maintaining internal autonomy. Tribute was collected through polyudya - collecting tribute from vassal tribes from late autumn to spring. At the second stage, the direct subordination of the unions to the Kyiv prince took place. The local reign was liquidated, and a representative of the Kyiv dynasty was appointed as a governor. At the same time, in order to neutralize the separatist tendencies of the local nobility, a new “city” was built instead of the old tribal center: Vladimir-Volynsky, Turov, Smolensk, etc.
The lands of the Drevlyans, Dryagovichi, Radimichi, Krivichi were subjugated in the 9th century. Vyatichi still fought for their independence for a long time. Volynians and Croats immediately submitted to Kyiv, but only at the end of the 10th century. The lands of the streets and the Tivirians were occupied by the Pechenegs, also in the 10th century.
f) The first Russian princes.
As mentioned earlier, the ancestor of the reign in Russia was Rurik, invited from Scandinavia by the Slavic tribes. But after his death in 879, his successor, Oleg, seized the throne in Kyiv, uniting the two most important centers of the Eastern Slavs: Kyiv and Novgorod. According to chronicles, in 882 Oleg lured out of Kyiv and killed Askold and Dir, the Varangians, who freed the glades from tribute to the Khazars. Then he subjugated the Drevlyans, Northerners, Radimichi. The prince ruled in Kyiv for 33 years. The legend about his death was sung by A.S. Pushkin in the "Song of the Prophetic Oleg". Thus, the more developed Middle Dnieper became the core of the state territory of Russia, and the northern lands turned into a region subordinate to the Kyiv princes.
Oleg's successor was Igor (912 - 945), according to the annals - the son of Rurik, who was killed while collecting additional tribute from the Drevlyans in 945. His widow, Olga, cruelly took revenge on the Drevlyans, devastating their lands and exterminating the nobility.
g) Activities of the first Russian princes.
Already during the reign of Rurik, the Russian army carried out military campaigns against the Crimean possessions of Byzantium, moving on high-speed boats along the Black, Azov, and Caspian Seas, conquering the coast of Crimea from Chersonese to Kerch. As a result of these campaigns and an accidental serious illness, Rurik was the first to be baptized. Thanks to Rurik, by the beginning of the 9th century, Russia was freed from paying tribute to the Khazars. After Byzantium, Rurik went to Asia Minor, conquering lands along the Dnieper, in the regions of the Black and Azov Seas, the Volga, the Caspian, and also conquering the Greeks and Khazars, Avars and Balts. So, Rurik laid the foundation for the emergence of a powerful state with certain military-strategic interests.
Oleg, having come to power, strengthened it, taking the title of Grand Duke, making other princes his tributaries. He also carried out campaigns against Byzantium.
This was one of the most important areas of Russian foreign policy, because the campaigns of the Kyiv princes, ending in victory, opened the most important trade routes that promised prosperity and strengthening of the barely formed ancient Russian state.
It should also be said that the first Russian princes took the initiative to add the eastern title "kagan" to the title "prince". This act symbolized independence from Khazaria, the Turkish state that emerged in the 7th century between the lower reaches of the Don and the Volga, which was also called the Khazar Khaganate.
3. Kievan Rus at the end of the 9th century.
The formation of the territorial structure of the state of Rus was completed at the end of the 9th century, although not completely. But by this time, autonomy had been eliminated in almost all East Slavic unions of tribal principalities, except for the Vyatichi, Volhynians and Croats. The form of tribute collection has also changed. Polyudye was eliminated. Tribute was now collected by the deputies of the Kyiv prince. Two-thirds of it was sent to Kyiv, and the rest was distributed among the prince's combatants - governors. Territories ruled by princely governors received the name - volost. In general, in the 9th century, the state was called "Rus", "Russian land". The name spread from the Middle Dnieper to the entire territory subject to the great Kyiv princes.
III. Conclusion.
So, in the 9th century AD, the Eastern Slavs developed the feudal state of Rus, the common historical cradle of three peoples: Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. By the name of their capital, this power of the Eastern Slavs was called Kievan Rus. From Kievan Rus there is a continuous thousand-year line of historical development to Muscovite Rus of the 15th-17th centuries, to the Russian Empire of the 18th-early 20th centuries, and, finally, to the modern state - Russia of the 21st century. That is why it is very important for each of us to know not only the history of Kievan Rus, but also to find out the question of how this largest state, which is our Motherland, developed in Europe. This question interests scientists to this day. To answer it, you need to understand the historical roots of the Russian and other Slavic peoples, to identify their place on the ancient geographical map of Europe, to understand their relationship with other European peoples. These questions are passed down from generation to generation, while Russia is considered the only country in the world, a kind of global bridge where two world civilizations Europe and Asia meet, and where they actively interpenetrate and mutually influence.
Bibliography
S.G. Goryainov, A.A. Egorov. History of Russia IX - XVIII century. in. Rostov-on-Don. "Phoenix". 1996
John Fenner. Crisis of Medieval Russia. Moscow. "Progress". 1989.
Textbook: History of Russia. Moscow. "Drofa". year 2000.
B.A. Rybakov. Kievan Rus and Russian principalities. Moscow. " The science ". 1993
A.N. Sakharov, V.I. Buganov. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century. Moscow. "Enlightenment". 1997
Subjugating a mass of ordinary community members, it needs to maintain its dominance in state structures. The processes of decomposition of the primitive communal system and the split of society into classes precede the formation of the ancient Russian state and proceed immanently, of course, in connection with the outside world, evidence of which is foreign trade, coins, and treasures, but without its decisive participation ...
They call another one - “the third Russia”. Studies have shown that Baltic Rus and the “third Rus” are closely related. And this problem today is one of the most important in the topic of the origin of Russia and the formation of the Old Russian state. The previously mentioned legend of the 15th century about the origin of Rurik from the territory of Neman Rus was intended to disavow another legend: about the origin of the Lithuanian (or ...
And showing Igor, he said: - Here is the son of Rurik! With this word, Askold and Dir, condemned to execution, fell dead at the feet of the Olegs under the swords of the murderers. III. The formation of the Old Russian state ancient Rus Varangian Kyiv 1. The initial forms of Russian statehood The embryonic form of statehood was the East Slavic unions of tribes, which united in superunions, however, ...
Lands and tribal principalities. The Old Russian state has not yet taken shape, its formation ends with the confluence of the Dnieper region with the Ilmen region, Kyiv and Novgorod, two of the most important centers of Russia. The merger of Kyiv and Novgorod completes the formation of the Old Russian state. The chronicle associated this event with the name of Oleg. In 882 As a result of the campaign of squads led by Oleg from Novgorod to Kyiv along ...
Good afternoon, dear friends of the muse Clio. Who is it? This is one of the patrons of the arts and sciences among the ancient Greeks - the muse of History! And with you Kotsar Evgeny Sergeevich, the best teacher in Russia, an expert on the Unified State Examination. Today we will start the USE preparation course in history with the best teacher in Russia. The topic and question of the lesson - how did the state of the Eastern Slavs arise?
The history of Russia begins with history. Who is it? This is a whole group of related tribal unions that broke away from the Slavic ethnic layer. To VIII-IX centuries, from which our conversation will begin, they controlled vast expanses of the East European (Russian) plain, from the Baltic to the Black Seas, from the Carpathian Mountains to the upper Volga region.
The main source on the history of Ancient Russia for us will be. These are weather historical records that told the events that took place “from summer to summer”, an analogue of European chronicles.
"Where did the Russian land come from?" Nestor, PVL.
Thus begins the first Russian chronicle. And to be more precise - (PVL). This is the main source on the early history of the Slavs, written OK. 1116 monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra (monastery) Nestor.
We started talking about the historical map. Let's immediately agree that as soon as it comes to geographical objects, wars, economic development and trade, we start working with a map. It is to work, not to look at it. Independently put those events and facts that we are talking about on the map. The map that you drew with your own hand, you will not forget. And this will be very useful to you when working with and for better visual consolidation of the material.
Trends in the development of the history of Russia
So, we have characterized the Eastern Slavs and their neighbors. What important conclusions can we draw? The open nature of the plain, where the Eastern Slavs settled, dictated two development trends:
1. Constant military threat. Through the huge steppe gates from the Ural Mountains to the Caspian Sea, nomads constantly invaded the southern steppes. There was a process from Asia to Europe, and Russia was constantly in the thick of these events.
2.
Neighborhood with multilingual tribes could also develop in the spirit of economic interaction, ethnic and linguistic assimilation. There was a lot of land, weak tribes simply retreated. Another feature of the history of the Slavs is the expansion of their habitat to the east and north, towards the Volga and the Arctic Ocean.
What is the result?
How did the state appear among the Slavs? Historical dispute
We see that among the Slovenes and among the Polans, Nestor names the names of the rulers - This, at a minimum, is the same as the creation - the enlargement of the tribes under common authority, speaks of the beginnings of statehood among the Slavs of the 9th century. We have come to the first key date in Russian history.
862 - the beginning of the history of Russia.
Slovenes were called to reign in Novgorod by Rurik (with Sineus and Truvor).
This fact became the basis for writing (based on the Scandinavian sagas), the authors are German historians of the 18th century Bayern, Miller, Schlozer. In turn, Russian history is largely based on this theory. All the classics of the Russian state school of history of the 19th century were Normanists - those people who wrote the history of Russia that we study at school.
What are the main provisions of the Norman theory?
- Rurik - Scandinavian (Viking,
- Novgorod Slovenes had no power
- Rurik founded the state of the Slavs
- The Slavs were not able to organize the state due to backwardness
- The name of the country Rus - from Russ, Ross(ethnonym of the Vikings of Scandinavia)
The first evidence of the Slavs.
The Slavs, according to most historians, separated from the Indo-European community in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. The ancestral home of the early Slavs (Proto-Slavs), according to archaeological data, was the territory to the east of the Germans - from the Oder River in the west to the Carpathian Mountains in the east. A number of researchers believe that the Proto-Slavic language began to take shape later, in the middle of the 1st millennium BC.
The first information about the political history of the Slavs dates back to the 4th century. ad. From the Baltic coast, the Germanic tribes of the Goths made their way to the Northern Black Sea region. The Gothic leader Germanaric was defeated by the Slavs. His successor Vinitar deceived 70 Slavic elders headed by God (Bus) and crucified them. Eight centuries later, an unknown author " Words about Igor's regiment” mentioned “Busovo time”.
A special place in the life of the Slavic world was occupied by relations with the nomadic peoples of the steppe. Along this steppe ocean, stretching from the Black Sea to Central Asia, wave after wave of nomadic tribes invaded Eastern Europe. At the end of the IV century. the Gothic tribal union was broken by the Turkic-speaking tribes of the Huns, who came from Central Asia. In 375, the hordes of the Huns occupied the territory between the Volga and the Danube with their nomads, and then moved further into Europe to the borders of France. In their advance to the west, the Huns carried away part of the Slavs. After the death of the leader of the Huns, Atilla (453), the Hunnic state disintegrated, and they were thrown back to the east.
In the VI century. the Turkic-speaking Avars (the Russian chronicle called them obrams) created their own state in the southern Russian steppes, uniting the tribes that roamed there. The Avar Khaganate was defeated by Byzantium in 625. “Proud in mind” and in body, the great Avars-obras disappeared without a trace. “Keep dead like an obre” - these words, with the light hand of the Russian chronicler, became an aphorism.
The largest political formations of the VII-VIII centuries. in the southern Russian steppes were Bulgarian kingdom and Khazar Khaganate, and in the Altai region - the Turkic Khaganate. The states of the nomads were unstable conglomerates of the steppes, who hunted for military booty. As a result of the collapse of the Bulgarian kingdom, part of the Bulgarians, led by Khan Asparuh, migrated to the Danube, where they were assimilated by the southern Slavs who lived there, who took the name of Asparuh's warriors, i.e. Bulgarians. Another part of the Bulgarian-Turks with Khan Batbai came to the middle reaches of the Volga, where a new power arose - Volga Bulgaria (Bulgaria). Its neighbor, who occupied from the middle of the 7th century. the territory of the Lower Volga region, the steppes of the North Caucasus, the Black Sea region and partly the Crimea, was the Khazar Khaganate, which levied tribute from the Dnieper Slavs until the end of the 9th century.
Eastern Slavs in the 6th century. repeatedly made military campaigns against the largest state of that time - Byzantium. From that time, a number of works by Byzantine authors have come down to us, containing original military instructions on the fight against the Slavs. For example, the Byzantine Procopius from Caesarea in the book “War with the Goths” wrote: “These tribes, Slavs and Antes, are not ruled by one person, but since ancient times they live in democracy (democracy), and therefore they consider happiness and misfortune in life to be a common thing ... They consider that only God, the creator of lightning, is the lord over all, and bulls are sacrificed to him and other sacred rites are performed ... Both of them have the same language ... And once even the name of the Slavs and Antes was the same Same".
Byzantine authors compared the way of life of the Slavs with the life of their country, emphasizing the backwardness of the Slavs. Campaigns against Byzantium could only be undertaken by large tribal unions of the Slavs. These campaigns contributed to the enrichment of the tribal elite of the Slavs, which accelerated the collapse of the primitive communal system.
For the formation of large tribal associations of the Slavs indicates the legend contained in the Russian chronicle, which tells about the reign of Kyi with the brothers Shchek, Khoriv and sister Lybid in the Middle Dnieper. The city founded by the brothers was allegedly named after the elder brother Kyi. The chronicler noted that other tribes had the same reigns. Historians believe that these events took place at the end of the 5th-6th centuries. AD The chronicle tells that one of the Polyansky princes Kiy, together with his brothers Shchek and Khoriv and sister Lybid, founded the city and named it Kyiv in honor of their elder brother.
Then Kiy went to the Tsar-city, i.e. to Constantinople, was received there by the emperor with great honor, and returning back, he settled with his retinue on the Danube, founded a "city" there, but subsequently entered into a fight with the locals and returned to the Dnieper banks, where he died. This legend finds a well-known confirmation in the data of archeology, which indicate that at the end of the 5th - 6th centuries. on the Kyiv mountains there already existed a fortified urban-type settlement, which was the center of the Polyan union of tribes.
Origin of the Eastern Slavs.
Europe and part of Asia have long been inhabited by tribes of Indo-Europeans who spoke the same language and had many common features in appearance. These tribes were in constant motion, moving and developing new territories. Gradually, separate groups of Indo-European tribes began to separate from each other. Once a common language broke up into a number of separate languages.
Approximately 2 thousand years BC, the Balto-Slavic tribes emerged from the Indo-European tribes. They settled part of the territory of Central and Eastern Europe. In the 5th century BC, these tribes were divided into Balts and Slavs. The Slavs mastered the territory from the middle reaches of the Dnieper to the Oder River.
In the 5th century, Slavic tribes rushed to the east and south in powerful streams. They reached the upper reaches of the Volga and the White Lake, the shores of the Adriatic, penetrated the Peloponnese. During this movement, the Slavs were divided into three branches - eastern, western and southern. The Eastern Slavs settled in the 6th-8th centuries the vast territory of Eastern Europe, from Lake Ilmen to the Black Sea steppes and from the Eastern Carpathians to the Volga, that is, most of the East European Plain.
Economy of the Eastern Slavs.
The main occupation of the Eastern Slavs was agriculture. The main part of the territory inhabited by them was covered with dense forests. Therefore, before plowing the land, it was necessary to cut down the trees. The stumps left on the field were burned, fertilizing the soil with ash. The land was cultivated for two or three years, and when it ceased to produce a good harvest, a new plot was abandoned and burned. This system of farming is called slash-and-burn. More favorable conditions for agriculture were in the steppe and forest-steppe zone of the Dnieper region, rich in fertile lands.
At first, the Slavs lived in dugouts, then they began to build houses - hearths were built in these wooden dwellings in the middle, the smoke escaped through a hole in the roof or wall. Each house necessarily had outbuildings, they were made of wattle, adobe or similar materials and were placed in the yard either freely, scattered, or along the perimeter of a quadrangular yard, forming an open space inside.
There were few households in Slavic settlements: from two to five. They were surrounded by earthen ramparts for protection from enemies.
As mentioned earlier, the main occupation of the Slavs, of course, was agriculture. Archaeological finds suggest that they grew rye, wheat, barley, millet, turnips, cabbage, beets, etc. From industrial crops, the Slavs bred flax and hemp.
Another important activity Slavic tribes were cattle breeding. The cattle breeding of the Eastern Slavs was organically connected with agriculture. Cattle breeding provided meat and milk; livestock was used as a tax on arable land (in the non-chernozem zone - horses, in the black earth zone - oxen); without manure, it was impossible to conduct field farming in the non-chernozem zone; both wool and leather were obtained from livestock. East Slavic peoples bred large and small cattle, horses, pigs, poultry. Ducks and geese were bred less, but chickens were almost certainly kept in every household.
Fishing and hunting were of no small importance, especially since there were many fur-bearing animals in dense forests, the fur of which was used for making clothes, and was also sold.
The Slavs used bows, spears, swords, clubs (sticks with heavy knobs and spikes) as weapons. Fired from hard bows, hardened arrows could overtake the enemy even at a great distance. For protection, the Slavs used helmets and strong "shirts" made of small metal rings - chain mail.
An important role in the life of the Eastern Slavs was also played by beekeeping - the collection of honey from wild bees.
But besides agriculture The Slavs were also engaged in metal processing (blacksmithing), the production of ceramic products. Jewelry, stone-cutting, carpentry crafts were also not alien to them. The settlements located in the most successful (from the point of view of the possibility of trade) places turned into cities. Also became cities and princely fortresses. The most ancient cities of Russia were: Novgorod, Chernigov, Suzdal, Murom, Smolensk, Pereslavl, Ladoga, Rostov, Beloozero, Pskov, Lyubech, Turov. According to scientists, by the beginning of the IX century. On the territory of Russia there were about 30 cities.
The city usually arose on a hill or at the confluence of two rivers, which was associated with trade. And trade relations between the Slavic and neighboring tribes were quite well-established. Cattle were driven from the south to the north. The Carpathians supplied everyone with salt. Bread went to the north and northwest from the Dnieper and Suzdal lands. They traded in furs, linen, cattle and honey, wax and slaves.
There were two main trade routes that passed through Russia: along the Neva, Lake Ladoga, Volkhov, Lovat and Dnieper, the great water route "from the Varangians to the Greeks" passed, connecting the Baltic Sea with the Black Sea; and through the Carpathians, trade routes led to Prague, to German cities, to Bulgaria, to the countries of the Muslim world.
Life and customs of the Eastern Slavs.
The Slavs were distinguished by high stature, strong physique, possessed extraordinary physical strength and unusual endurance. They had blond hair, a ruddy face, and gray eyes.
The settlements of the Eastern Slavs were located mainly along the banks of rivers and lakes. The inhabitants of these settlements lived in families, in semi-dugout houses, with an area of 10 - 20 sq.m. The walls of houses, benches, tables, household utensils were made of wood. Several exits were arranged in the houses, and valuables were hidden in the ground, because enemies could attack at any moment.
Eastern Slavs were good-natured and hospitable. Each wanderer was considered an honored guest. The owner did everything possible to please him, put the best food and drinks on the table. The Slavs were also known as brave warriors. Cowardice was considered their greatest shame. Slavic warriors swam well and could stay under water for a long time. They breathed through hollowed-out reeds, the top of which came out to the surface of the water.
The weapons of the Slavs were spears, bows, arrows smeared with poison, round wooden shields. Swords and other iron weapons were rare.
The Slavs respectfully treated their parents. Between the villages, they arranged games - religious holidays, on which the inhabitants of neighboring villages kidnapped (kidnapped) their wives by agreement with them. At that time, the Slavs had polygamy, there were not enough brides. To appease the clan from which the bride was kidnapped, her relatives were given a wreath (ransom). Over time, the kidnapping of the bride was replaced by the rite of walking the son-in-law after the bride, when the bride was redeemed from her relatives by mutual agreement. This rite was replaced by another - bringing the bride to the groom. The relatives of the bride and groom became brothers-in-law, that is, their own people for each other.
The woman was in a subordinate position. After the death of a husband, one of his wives was to be buried with him. The deceased was burned at the stake. The burial was accompanied by a feast - a feast and military games.
It is known that the Eastern Slavs still had a blood feud: the relatives of the murdered man took revenge on the killer with death.
The spiritual world of the Eastern Slavs.
Like all peoples who were at the stage of decomposition of the primitive communal system, the Slavs were pagans. They worshiped the phenomena of nature, deifying them. So, the god of the sky was Svarog, the god of the sun - Dazhdbog (other names: Dazhbog, Yarilo, Khoros), the god of thunder and lightning - Perun, the god of the wind - Stribog, the patron of cattle - Velos (Volos). Dazhdbog and the deity of fire were considered the sons of Svarog and were called Svarozhichs. Goddess Mokosh - Mother-Cheese earth, goddess of fertility. In the VI century, according to the testimony of the Byzantine historian Procopius of Caesarea, the Slavs recognized one god as the ruler of the universe - Perun, the god of thunder, lightning, war.
At that time there were no public services, there were no temples, no priests. Usually, images of the gods in the form of stone or wooden figures (idols) were placed in certain open places - temples, sacrifices were made to the gods - trebs.
The cult of ancestors was greatly developed. He is associated with the guardian of the clan, family, the ancestor of life - the Family and its Women in Childbirth, i.e. grandparents. The ancestor was also called "chur", in Church Slavonic - "shur".
The expression “Chur me” that has survived to this day means “grandfather keep me”. Sometimes this guardian of the clan appears under the name of a brownie, the guardian of not the whole clan, but of a separate courtyard, house. All nature seemed to the Slavs animated and inhabited by many spirits, goblin lived in the forests, water mermaids lived in the rivers.
The Slavs had their own pagan holidays associated with the seasons, with agricultural work. At the end of December - mummers went from house to house with songs and jokes, glorified the owners, who were supposed to give mummers gifts. The big holiday was the farewell to winter and the meeting of spring - Maslenitsa. On the night of June 24 (according to the old style), the feast of Ivan Kupala was celebrated - rituals with fire and water, fortune telling, round dances, and songs were sung. In autumn, after the completion of field work, the harvest festival was celebrated: a huge honey loaf was baked.
Farming communities.
Initially, the Eastern Slavs lived "each in their own way and in their own places", i.e. united on the basis of consanguinity. At the head of the clan was an elder who had great power. As the Slavs settled over vast areas, tribal ties began to disintegrate. The consanguineous was replaced by the neighboring (territorial) community - the verv. Vervi members jointly owned hayfields and forest land, and the fields were divided among separate family farms. All the householders of the district converged on a general council - a veche. They chose elders to conduct common affairs. During the attacks of foreign tribes, the Slavs gathered the people's militia, which was built according to the decimal system (tens, groans, thousands).
Separate communities united into tribes. Tribes, in turn, constituted tribal unions. On the territory of the East European Plain lived 12 (according to some sources - 15) East Slavic tribal unions. The most numerous were the meadows that lived along the banks of the Dnieper, and the Ilmen Slavs, who lived on the shores of Lake Ilmen and the Volkhov River.
Religion of the Eastern Slavs.
The Eastern Slavs had a patriarchal-clan system for a very long time, so they also retained a family-clan cult in the form of veneration of ancestors associated with a funeral cult for a long time. Beliefs regarding the relationship of the dead to the living were very firmly held. All the dead were sharply divided into two categories: "clean" dead - those who died of natural causes ("parents"); and on the "unclean" - those who died a violent or premature death (they also included children who died unbaptized) and sorcerers. The first ones were usually revered, and the second ones (“dead people” - many superstitions associated with the dead come from here) were afraid and tried to neutralize:
The veneration of "parents" is a family, and earlier (ancestral) cult of ancestors. Many calendar holidays are associated with it - Shrovetide, hence the parental Saturday), Radunitsa, Trinity and others. From here, perhaps, the image of Chur (Shchur) appeared, exclamations such as “Chur me”, “Chur is mine”, could mean a spell calling Chur for help. From the cult of ancestors comes the belief in the brownie (domovik, domozhil, owner, etc.).
- "Unclean Dead". In many ways, these were people who were feared during their lifetime, and did not cease to be feared even after their death. An interesting rite of "neutralization" of such a dead man during a drought, which was often attributed to them. They dug up the grave of a dead man and threw it into a swamp (sometimes they filled it with water), perhaps this is where the name “Naviy” (dead, deceased) comes from, as well as “navka” - a mermaid.
Formation of political associations
In ancient times, the Slavs did not have the opportunity to pursue an independent foreign policy, acting in the international arena under their own name. If they had large political associations, they remained unknown to the written civilizations of that era. Archaeological research does not confirm the existence of significant proto-urban centers on the lands of the Eastern Slavs until the 6th century, which could indicate the strengthening of the power of local princes among the settled population. The East Slavic tribes in their habitat in the south came into contact and were partially involved in the area of distribution of the archaeological Chernyakhov culture, which modern archaeologists tend to associate with the settlement of the Goths in the northern Black Sea region.
Vague information about the wars in the 4th century between the Slavs and the Goths has been preserved. The great migration of peoples from the 2nd half of the 4th century led to global migrations of ethnic groups. The Slavic tribes in the south, previously subordinate to the Goths, submitted to the Huns and, probably under their protectorate, began to expand their area of \u200b\u200bdwelling to the borders of the Byzantine Empire in the south and the German lands in the west, displacing the Goths to the Crimea and Byzantium.
At the beginning of the 6th century, the Slavs become to make regular raids on Byzantium, as a result of which Byzantine and Roman authors started talking about them ( Procopius of Caesarea, Jordan). In this era, they already had large inter-tribal unions, which were formed mainly on a territorial basis and were something more than an ordinary tribal community. The Antes and Carpathian Slavs for the first time had fortified settlements and other signs of political control over the territory. It is known that the Avars, who first conquered the Black Sea (Ants) and West Slavic tribes, for a long time could not destroy a certain alliance of the “Sklavins” with a center in Transcarpathia, and their leaders not only behaved proudly and independently, but even executed the ambassador of the Avar Khagan Bayan for insolence . The leader of the Ants, Mezamir, was also killed during an embassy to the Avars for his insolence in front of the kagan.
The grounds for Slavic pride were, obviously, not only complete control over their own and also adjacent Slavic territories, but also their regular, devastating and mostly unpunished raids on the Transdanubian provinces of the Byzantine Empire, as a result of which the Carpathian Croats and other tribes, apparently, part of the union of the Antes, partially or completely moved beyond the Danube, separating into a branch of the southern Slavs. The Dulebs also expanded their territories to the west to the present-day Czech Republic and east to the Dnieper. In the end, the Avars subjugated both the Antes and the Dulebs, after which they forced them to fight with Byzantium in their own interests. Their tribal unions broke up, the Ants were no longer mentioned from the 7th century, and, according to the assumption of some modern historians, several other Slavic unions separated from the Dulebs, including the meadow.
Later, part of the East Slavic tribes (Polyans, northerners, Radimichi and Vyatichi) paid tribute to the Khazars. In 737, the Arab commander Marwan ibn Mohammed, during a victorious war with Khazaria reached a certain “Slavic river” (obviously, the Don) and captured 20,000 families of local residents, among whom were Slavs. The captives were taken to Kakheti, where they revolted and were killed.
The Tale of Bygone Years lists twelve East Slavic tribal unions that by the 9th century existed in the vast territory between the Baltic and Black Seas. Among these tribal unions are Polans, Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Radimichi, Vyatichi, Krivichi, Slovenes, Dulebs (later known as Volhynians and Buzhans), White Croats, Northerners, Ulichs, Tivertsy.
In the 8th century with the beginning of the Viking Age Vikings began to penetrate into Eastern Europe. By the middle of the IX century. they imposed tribute not only on the Baltic states, which were the first to undergo regular invasions, but also on many territories between the Baltic and Black Seas. In 862, according to the chronicle chronology of the PVL, the leader of Russia Rurik was called to reign at the same time by the Chud (the Finno-Ugric peoples who inhabited Estonia and Finland), the whole and both Slavic tribes that lived next to them: the Pskov Krivichi and Slovenes.
Rurik settled among the Slavic villages in the fortress, near which Veliky Novgorod later arose. His legendary brothers received reigns in the tribal center of the village of Beloozero and the center of the Krivichi Izborsk. By the end of his life, Rurik expanded the possessions of his kind to Polotsk, Murom and Rostov, and his successor Oleg captured Smolensk and Kyiv by 882. The titular ethnos of the new state was not any of the Slavic or Finno-Ugric peoples, but Rus, a Varangian tribe, whose ethnicity is disputed.
Russia stood out as a separate ethnic group even under the closest successors of Rurik, princes Oleg and Igor, and gradually dissolved into the Slavic people under Svyatoslav and Vladimir the Holy, leaving its name to the Eastern Slavs, by whom they now differed from the western and southern ones (for more details, see the article Rus). At the same time, Svyatoslav and Vladimir completed the unification of the Eastern Slavs in their state, adding to it the lands of the Drevlyans, Vyatichi, Radimichi, Turov and the region of Cherven Rus.
Eastern Slavs and their immediate neighbors
The advance of the Slavs across the vast expanses of Eastern Europe and their development were in the nature of peaceful colonization.
Colonization - settlement, development of empty or sparsely populated lands.
The settlers lived next to the local tribes. The Slavs borrowed the names of many rivers, lakes, and villages from the Finno-Ugric tribes. Following the Finns, they began to believe in evil spirits, wizards. The Slavs also adopted from the forest inhabitants the belief in the Magi, sorcerers. Living together with the Finno-Ugric peoples also led to a change in the external appearance of the Slavs. Among them, people with flatter and rounder faces, high cheekbones, and wide noses began to be more common.
The descendants of the Iranian-speaking Scythian-Sarmatian population also had a great influence on the Slavs. Many Iranian words have firmly entered the Old Slavonic language and have been preserved in modern Russian (god, boyar, hut, dog, ax, and others). Some Slavic pagan deities - Horos, Stribog - bore Iranian names, and Perun was of Baltic origin.
However, the Slavs did not have friendly relations with all neighbors. Slavic legends tell about the attack of the Turkic-speaking nomads-Avars on the Slavic tribe of Dulebs, who lived in the Carpathian region. Having killed almost all the men, the Avars harnessed the Duleb women to the cart instead of the horses. In the 8th century, the East Slavic tribes of the Polyans, Severyans, Vyatichi and Radimichi, who lived close to the steppes, conquered the Khazars, forcing them to pay tribute - "for ermine and squirrel from smoke", that is, from each house.
