Under general abilities is understood as such a system of individual-volitional properties of a person, which provides relative ease and productivity in mastering knowledge and performing various types of activities. General abilities are a consequence of both rich natural talent and the comprehensive development of the individual.

General elementary abilities inherent in all people, although in varying degrees of their severity, are the main forms of mental reflection: the ability to feel, perceive, think, experience, make and implement decisions, and remember. After all, each elementary manifestation of these abilities is a corresponding action performed with varying degrees of success: sensory, mental, volitional, mnestic — and can even become a corresponding skill.

General complex abilities are the abilities for universal human activities: work, study, play, communication with each other. They are inherent to one degree or another in all people. Each of the abilities included in this group is a complex structure of personality traits.

Under special abilities understand such a system of personality traits that helps to achieve high results in any special field of activity, for example literary, visual, musical, stage etc.; these are abilities for a certain activity that help a person achieve high results in it. The development of special abilities is a complex and lengthy process.

There are the following types of special abilities:

Educational and creative: Learning abilities are associated with the assimilation of already known ways of performing activities, the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities. Creativity is associated with the creation of a new, original product, with finding new ways to perform activities. From this point of view, there are, for example, the ability to assimilate, study mathematics and creative mathematical abilities.

Mental and special: General mental abilities are abilities that are necessary to perform not just one, but many types of activities; these abilities meet the requirements that are imposed not by one, but by a whole series, a wide range of relatively related activities. General mental abilities include, for example, such qualities of the mind as mental activity, criticality, systematicity, speed of mental orientation, a high level of analytical and synthetic activity, and focused attention.

Special abilities are abilities that are necessary for the successful completion of any one specific activity - musical, artistic and visual, mathematical, literary, constructive and technical, etc.

These abilities also represent the unity of separate private abilities..

Mathematical;

Structural and technical;

Musical;

Literary;

Artistic and graphic;

physical abilities;

Parapsychological (psychic).

Special elementary abilities are abilities that are no longer inherent in all people; they presuppose a certain severity of some qualitative aspects of mental processes.

Special elementary abilities are developed on the basis of inclinations in the learning process.

Special complex abilities are already inherent not only to varying degrees, but in general not to all people. They are abilities for certain professional activities that have arisen in the process of the history of human culture. These abilities are usually called professional.

Potential and actual abilities:

Depending on whether there are or are not conditions for the development of abilities, they can be potential and actual.

Under potential abilities refers to those that are not implemented in a particular type of activity, but are able to be updated when the relevant social conditions change.

To current abilities, as a rule, include those that are needed at the moment and are implemented in a particular type of activity.

Potential and actual abilities are an indirect indicator of the nature of the social conditions in which a person's abilities develop. It is the nature of social conditions that hinders or promotes the development of potential abilities, ensures or does not ensure their transformation into actual ones. It should be emphasized that the distinction between giftedness, potential, actual abilities of an individual and his achievements should be considered relative.

So, for example, the development of a certain actual ability on the basis of a potential one should be considered an achievement. The objective conditions of an individual's life are sometimes such that not every individual can realize his potential abilities in accordance with his psychological nature. Therefore, actual abilities are only a part of potential ones.

The concept of sensitive periods of ability development.

Sensitive - favorable. Sensitive period - (from Latin sensus - feeling, sensation) a period of special sensitivity of the subject to certain influences of the surrounding reality.

Intellectual abilities:

The most sensitive period for the development of children's intellectual abilities is the age from 3 to 8 years. By the end of adolescence (by the age of 15), the development of a person's intellectual abilities is completed. If, for some reason, classes aimed at the development of memory, thinking, perception, attention were not conducted with the child at preschool and younger ages, then it is not too late to do this in adolescence.

Artistic Ability:

However, if at preschool age (a sensitive period for the development of artistic abilities) a lot of children draw, then very few of those who continue to draw when the sensitive period ends. Compared with preschool childhood, by the age of 15 children who are fond of drawing remain three times less.

Artistry:

With age, the circle of people capable of artistic creativity, which is a continuation of children's play, is significantly reduced. In elementary school, many children's musical ability deteriorates.

Literary ability:

With literary creativity, the opposite happens: every third teenager writes poetry, keeps a diary. However, in most adults, the need for literary creativity, as well as for musical, visual arts, is lost.

Choreographic abilities:

First of all, the child begins to show the ability to move to music. In the first two years of life, the main thing that teachers and parents need to pay attention to is the development of psychomotor skills. However, children often start choreography classes only at the age of 4-5, when the sensitive period is missed. Classes turn into a formal performance of rather complex movements, rarely distinguished by the flexibility and plasticity that is available to an infant.

A special place among the creative abilities of children is occupied by fantasy. Some psychologists identify it with the imagination. When the mental image of an artistically gifted child comes into conflict with the traditional form of education in the garden, at school, he begins to fantasize intensely. The higher the student's dissatisfaction with the system of his education, the stronger the right hemisphere tends to take control over the left, the further the child moves away from rationalism towards free, sometimes uncontrolled creativity even by himself.

Thus, the reason for the fading of creative abilities by the end of schooling and, conversely, a very high need for escape from reality is seen in the neurophysiological mechanisms that ensure the adaptability of the child's psyche to the conditions and forms of education. The traditional form of education is based on the development of the functions of the left hemisphere of the brain (logic, rationalism, emotional retardation) to the detriment of the development of the functions of the right hemisphere (fantasy, creativity, emotional excitability).

Children who easily adapt to the school curriculum quickly lose their ability to music, visual arts, and artistic creativity. On the contrary, children who are included in the category of "three" students are often very passionate about one activity that is most important for their future, defending themselves from the left hemisphere "pressure" by withdrawing into themselves, the world of dreams and fantasies.

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Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution

higher professional education

"Vladimir State University

named after A.G. and N.G. Stoletovs"

Department of PL and SP

by discipline

"Psychology"

"General and Special Abilities"

Performed:

Bagrova Yulia Yurievna, student of EC-112

Checked:

Velikova Svetlana Anatolyevna, KPSN, Associate Professor

Vladimir, 2013

Introduction

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

Meeting different people in life, watching them at work, comparing their achievements, comparing the rates of their spiritual growth, we are constantly convinced that people differ markedly from each other in their abilities.

In this regard, I have long been concerned about several questions. For example: why do such differences occur? What are they related to? Is it possible to somehow change the current situation?

In order to find answers to my thoughts, I decided to choose the topic of the essay “General and special abilities”.

In the process of work, I will first find definitions for the very term “ability”, and then I will consider and try to analyze types and types.

I consider this question very instructive, and also, undoubtedly, useful, since it still does not lose its relevance.

Chapter 1. Definition of abilities. Inclinations and inclinations

The level of development of abilities determines the level of success of the individual. Ability is an individual psychological characteristic that expresses readiness to master certain types of activity.

Each activity imposes a set of requirements on the physical, psycho-physiological and mental capabilities of a person. Abilities are a measure of the conformity of personality traits to the requirements of a particular activity.

The very word "ability" has a very wide application in a wide variety of areas of practice. Usually, abilities are understood as such individual characteristics that are the conditions for the successful implementation of any one or more activities.

The well-known domestic scientist B. M. Teplov identified the following three main features of the concept of "ability":

1) abilities are understood as individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another; no one will talk about abilities where we are talking about properties in respect of which all people are equal;

2) abilities are not called any individual characteristics in general, but only those that are related to the success of the performance of any activity or many activities;

3) the concept of "ability" is not limited to the knowledge, skills or abilities that have already been developed by a given person;

An important characteristic of abilities is the dynamics of acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities.

In science, attempts are known to classify abilities. Most of these classifications distinguish, first of all, natural, or natural, abilities (basically biologically determined) and specifically human abilities that have a socio-historical origin.

Under the natural abilities understand those that are common to humans and animals, especially higher ones. For example, such elementary abilities are perception, memory, the ability for elementary communication. These abilities are directly related to innate inclinations. Inclinations are qualities due to which a person's abilities can be successfully formed and developed. Without appropriate inclinations, good abilities are impossible, but inclinations are not always a guarantee that a person will definitely have good abilities. People differ from each other in their inclinations, and this explains why, under equal conditions of training and upbringing, the abilities of some people develop faster, and ultimately reach a higher level than others. The inclinations are given to a person from birth or arise due to the natural development of the body. Abilities are acquired through learning. A person's abilities are formed on the basis of inclinations. This happens in the presence of elementary life experience, through the mechanisms of learning, etc. In the process of human development, the biological abilities given to him contribute to the formation of a number of other, specifically human abilities. Inclinations are manifested in inclinations to a certain type of activity (special abilities) or in increased curiosity about everything (general ability).

Tendencies are the first and earliest sign of a nascent ability. The propensity is manifested in the desire, attraction of a child or an adult to a certain activity (drawing, playing music).

The system of abilities and inclinations can be represented as follows:

Rice. 1. The system of abilities and inclinations

Chapter 2. General and special abilities, their types

Abilities are usually divided into general and special. General abilities are necessary for all activities. It is customary to refer to these abilities those that determine the success of a person in a variety of activities. For example, this category includes mental abilities, subtlety and accuracy of hand movements, memory, speech, and a number of others, i.e. General abilities are abilities that are common to most people. They are divided into:

1) elementary - the ability to mentally reflect reality, the elementary level of development of perception, memory, thinking, imagination, will;

2) complex - learning abilities, observation, general level of intellectual development, etc.

Without an appropriate level of development of elementary and complex abilities, a person cannot be included in any of the activities.

People with general abilities easily move from one activity to another.

By special abilities are meant those that determine the success of a person in specific activities, for the implementation of which the makings of a special kind and their development are necessary. Such abilities include musical, mathematical, linguistic, technical, literary, artistic and creative, sports, etc. It should be noted that the presence of general abilities in a person does not exclude the development of special abilities, and vice versa.

A person's abilities are really always given in a certain unity of general and special (special and individual) properties. You can not outwardly oppose them to each other. There is both difference and unity between them. Most researchers of the problem of abilities agree that general and special abilities do not conflict, but coexist, mutually complementing and enriching each other. Partial properties that, arising in a certain combination, are included in the structure of abilities, include:

a) attentiveness, the ability to continuously and steadily focus on the task, the object of activity. The more difficult the task, the more concentration it requires;

b) sensitivity to external impressions, observation.

So, in the ability to draw, an important role is played by sensitivity to colors, light relations, shades, the ability to embrace and convey proportions.

Among the general abilities of a person, it is necessary to include the abilities manifested in communication, interaction with people. These abilities are socially determined. They are formed in a person in the process of his life in society. Without this group of abilities, it is almost impossible for a person to live among his own kind. So, without mastering speech as a means of communication, without the ability to adapt in a society of people, interact with them and establish good relationships in various social situations, normal life and mental development of a person are impossible.

Abilities are also usually divided into:

Theoretical, which predetermine a person's tendency to abstract-theoretical reflections;

Practical - a tendency to specific practical actions.

Unlike general and special abilities, theoretical and practical abilities most often do not combine with each other. Most people have either one or the other type of ability. Together they are extremely rare, mainly among gifted, diversified people.

Educational - determine the success of training, the assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities by a person;

Creativity - determine the possibility of discoveries and inventions, the creation of new objects of material and spiritual culture, etc.

If we try to determine which abilities from a given group are more important for humanity, then in the case of recognizing the priority of some over others, we are most likely to make a mistake. Of course, if humanity were deprived of the opportunity to create, then it would hardly be able to develop. But if people did not have learning abilities, then the development of mankind would also be impossible. Development is possible only when people are able to assimilate the entire amount of knowledge accumulated by previous generations. Therefore, some authors believe that learning abilities are, first of all, general abilities, and creative ones are special ones that determine the success of creativity.

There are two levels of ability development:

1) reproductive - the ability to act according to the model;

2) creative - the ability to create something new.

A person who is at the first level of development of abilities reveals a high ability to master a skill, acquire knowledge, master an activity and carry it out according to the proposed model, in accordance with the proposed idea. At the second level of development of abilities, a person creates a new, original.

Reproductive and creative abilities are interconnected. Creative abilities do not reach a high level without a certain level of development of reproductive abilities, and in reproductive abilities there is always an element of creativity.

In the process of mastering knowledge and skills, in the process of activity, a person "transfers" from one level to another. Accordingly, the structure of his abilities also changes. As you know, even very gifted people began with imitation, and then, only as they gained experience, they showed creativity.

Chapter 3 Ability Development Levels

Both general and special abilities are inextricably linked with each other. Only the unity of general and special abilities reflects the true nature of a person's abilities.

Special abilities have developed in the course of the development of human society and human culture. “All the special abilities of a person are, after all, various manifestations, aspects of his general ability to master the achievements of human culture and its further advancement,” noted S.L. Rubinstein. “A person’s abilities are manifestations, aspects of his ability to learn and work.”

The development of special abilities is a complex and lengthy process. Different special abilities are characterized by different time of their revealing. Earlier than others, talents in the field of arts, and above all in music, are manifested. It has been established that at the age of up to 5 years, the development of musical abilities occurs most favorably, since it is at this time that a child’s ear for music and musical memory are formed. Examples of early musical talent are V.A. Mozart, who discovered extraordinary abilities already at the age of 3, F.J. Haydn - at 4 years old, Ya.L.F. Mendelson - at the age of 5, S.S. Prokofiev - at the age of 8. Somewhat later, abilities for painting and sculpture are manifested: S. Raphael - at 8 years old, B. Michelangelo - at 13 years old, A. Dürer - at 15 years old.

Technical abilities are revealed, as a rule, later than abilities in the field of arts. This is explained by the fact that technical activity, technical invention require a very high development of higher mental functions, primarily thinking, which is formed at a later age - adolescence. However, the famous Pascal made a technical invention at the age of 9, but this is one of the rare exceptions. At the same time, elementary technical abilities can be manifested in children as early as 9-11 years old.

In the field of scientific creativity, abilities are revealed much later than in other areas of activity, as a rule, after 20 years. At the same time, mathematical abilities are detected earlier than others.

It must be remembered that any creative abilities in themselves do not turn into creative accomplishments. In order to get a result, you need knowledge and experience, work and patience, will and desire, you need a powerful motivational basis for creativity.

In psychology, the following classification of levels of development of abilities is most often found: ability, giftedness, talent, genius.

All abilities in the process of their development go through a series of stages, and in order for some ability to rise in its development to a higher level, it is necessary that it was already sufficiently formed at the previous level.

Abilities are individual. This means that each person has his own abilities, which differ in quality and level of development from the abilities of other people. Qualitative differences in the abilities of people are manifested in the fact that one person shows abilities in technology, another in agriculture, a third in music, and a fourth in pedagogical activity. There are also people who show abilities in various activities. The totality of general and special abilities inherent in a particular person determines giftedness. Giftedness is a significant advance in mental development compared to age norms or an exceptional development of special abilities (musical, artistic, etc.).

Giftedness determines the particularly successful activity of a person in a certain area and distinguishes him from other people who study this activity or perform it on the same conditions.

A high degree of giftedness realized by a person in a certain area is called talent. Talent is expressed in an extremely high level of development of qualities and in a special originality of manifestations of individual personality traits. A talented person can solve complex theoretical and practical problems, create new and progressive values.

Genius is the highest level of development of abilities, expressed in the results achieved simultaneously in a number of areas of activity. Genius presupposes the ability to create something fundamentally new, to pave new paths in various types of human activity. The creativity of a man of genius has historical and necessarily positive significance for society. The difference between genius and talent is not so much in the degree of giftedness, but in the fact that a genius creates an era in his activity. The scientist M.V. was a genius. Lomonosov, poet A.S. Pushkin, physiologist I.P. Pavlov, chemist D.I. Mendeleev and others.

The most favorable conditions for the formation of talent and genius arise with the comprehensive development of the individual.

Conclusion

ability mastery talent genius

So, abilities are individual psychological characteristics of a person, which are a condition for the successful implementation of one or another productive activity. Abilities are revealed in the process of mastering the activity, in the extent to which the individual, other things being equal, quickly and thoroughly, easily and firmly masters the methods of organizing and implementing it.

It is assumed that the formation of abilities occurs on the basis of inclinations. The study of the specific psychological characteristics of various abilities makes it possible to single out the general qualities of an individual that meet the requirements of not one, but many types of activity and special qualities that meet a narrower range of requirements for this activity.

Literature

1. Gamezo M.V. , Gerasimova V.S., Mashurtseva D.A., Orlova L.M. General psychology: Educational and methodical manual / Under the general. ed. M.V. Gamezo. - M.: Os - 89, 2007. - 352 p. - ISBN 5-98534-569-6 (pp. 181-189)

2. Maklakov A.G. General psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001. - 592 p.: ill. -- (New Age Textbook Series) ISBN 5-272-00062-5 (pp. 535 - 548)

3. Rubinstein S.L. Fundamentals of General Psychology. - M., 1946. - S.643. (The article “The development of the special abilities of each person is nothing but an expression of the individual path of his development.”)

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Correlation of abilities with efficiency of activity. A high degree of giftedness is a talent, in describing the qualities of which many expressive epithets are used. Types of abilities and levels of their manifestation, measurement or diagnostic problems.

• General abilities- these are the abilities that all people have, but developed by everyone to varying degrees (general motor, mental). It is they who determine success and achievements in many activities (sports, learning, teaching).
• Special abilities- these are abilities that are not found in everyone and for which, in most cases, certain inclinations are required (artistic, graphic, literary, acting, musical). Thanks to them, people achieve success in specific activities.

It should be noted that the presence of special abilities in a person can be harmoniously combined with the development of general ones, and vice versa.

Theoretical and practical

• Theoretical ability- these are the abilities that determine the inclination of the individual to abstract-logical thinking, as well as the ability to clearly set and successfully complete theoretical tasks.
• Practical Ability- these are abilities that are manifested in the ability to set and perform practical tasks related to specific actions in certain life situations.

Educational and creative

• Teaching ability- these are abilities that determine the success of training, the assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities.
• Creative skills- these are abilities that determine the ability of a person to create objects of spiritual and material culture, as well as influencing the production of new ideas, making discoveries, etc.

Communicative and subject-activity

• Communication skills- these are abilities that include knowledge, skills and abilities related to communication and interaction with other people, interpersonal assessment and perception, establishing contacts, networking, finding a common language, disposition towards oneself and influencing people.
• Subject-activity abilities- these are abilities that determine the interaction of people with inanimate objects.

All types of abilities are complementary, and it is their combination that gives a person the opportunity to develop most fully and harmoniously. Abilities have an impact both on each other and on the success of a person in life, activity and communication.

In addition to the fact that the concept of “ability” is used to characterize a person in psychology, such terms as “genius”, “talent”, “giftedness” are also used, indicating more subtle nuances of the personality of a person.

• giftedness- this is the presence in a person from birth of inclinations for the best development of abilities.
• Talent- these are abilities that are revealed to the fullest extent through the acquisition of skills and experience.
• Genius- this is an unusually high level of development of any abilities.

As we mentioned above, a person's life outcome is very often related to his abilities and their application. And the results of the vast majority of people, unfortunately, leave much to be desired. Many people start looking for solutions to their problems somewhere outside, when the right solution is always inside a person. And you just have to look into yourself. If a person in his daily activities does not do what he has inclinations and predispositions, then the effect of this will be, to put it mildly, unsatisfactory. As one of the options to change things, you can use the exact definition of their abilities.

If, for example, you have an innate ability to lead and manage people, and you work as a goods receiver in a warehouse, then, of course, this occupation will not bring moral, emotional, or financial satisfaction, because you are doing something completely different deed. In this situation, some kind of managerial position is more suitable for you. You can start at least with a job as a middle manager. Innate leadership abilities, when used systematically and developed, will take you to a completely different level. Set aside time in your schedule to identify your inclinations and abilities, study yourself, try to understand what you really want to do and what will bring you pleasure. Based on the results obtained, it will already be possible to draw a conclusion on the topic in which direction it is necessary to move further.

To determine the abilities and inclinations, there are now a huge number of tests and techniques. You can read more about abilities here.

Aptitude test coming soon.

Along with abilities, as one of the main personality traits, temperament can be distinguished.

Character

character called acquired in certain social conditions, ways of human interaction with the outside world and other people, constituting the type of his life.

In the process of communication between people, character is manifested in the manner of behavior, ways of responding to the actions and actions of others. Manners can be delicate and tactful or rude and unceremonious. This is due to the difference in the nature of people. People with the strongest or, conversely, the weakest character always stand out from the rest. People with a strong character, as a rule, are distinguished by perseverance, perseverance, and purposefulness. And weak-willed people are distinguished by weakness of will, unpredictability, randomness of actions. The character includes many features that modern experts divide into three groups: communicative, business, strong-willed.

Communicative traits - are manifested in a person's communication with others (isolation, sociability, responsiveness, anger, goodwill).

Business features - are manifested in everyday work activities (accuracy, conscientiousness, diligence, responsibility, laziness).

Volitional traits are directly related to the will of a person (purposefulness, perseverance, perseverance, lack of will, compliance).

There are also motivational and instrumental character traits.

Motivational traits - induce a person to action, guide and support his activity.

Instrumental features - give the behavior a certain style.

If you can get a clear idea of ​​the traits and characteristics of your character, this will allow you to understand the motivating force that guides your development and self-realization in life. This knowledge will allow you to determine which of your features are most developed and which need to be improved, as well as to understand through which features of yours you interact with the world and others to a greater extent. An in-depth understanding of yourself provides a unique opportunity to see how and why exactly you react to life situations and events, and what you need to cultivate in yourself so that your lifestyle becomes as productive and useful as possible and you can fully realize yourself. If you know the features of your character, its pros and cons, and begin to improve yourself, you will be able to respond in the best possible way in a given situation, you will know how to respond to harmful or beneficial influences, what to say to another person, responding to his actions and words .

Soon there will be a test to determine the traits of character.

One of the most important personality traits that have the most serious impact on the process of human life and its result is will.

Feel

Feel- these are mental processes that are mental reflections of individual states and properties of the external world, arising from direct impact on the sense organs, subjective perception of external and internal stimuli by a person with the participation of the nervous system. In psychology, sensations are usually understood as the process of reflecting various properties of objects in the surrounding world.

Feelings have the following properties:

• Modality is a qualitative indicator of sensations (for vision - color, saturation, for hearing - loudness, timbre, etc.);
• Intensity - a quantitative indicator of sensations;
• Duration is a temporal indicator of sensations;
• Localization is a spatial indicator.

There are several classifications of sensations. The first one belongs to Aristotle. They identified five basic senses: touch, hearing, sight, taste and smell. But in the 19th century, due to the increase in the types of sensations, the need arose for a more serious classification of them. To date, the following classifications exist:

• Wundt's classification - depending on the mechanical, chemical and physical properties of stimuli;
• Sherrington classification - based on the location of the receptors: exteroceptive, interoceptive and proprioceptive sensations;
• Head's classification is based on origin: protopathic and epicritical sensitivity.

Read more about sensations in the Wikipedia article.

Perception

Perception is a cognitive process that forms a picture of the world in the subject. A mental operation that reflects an object or phenomenon that affects the receptors of the sense organs. Perception is the most complex function that determines the reception and transformation of information and forms the subjective image of the object for the subject. Through attention, the whole object is revealed, its special features and content are distinguished, and a sensual image is formed, i.e. comprehension takes place.

Perception is divided into four levels:

• Detection (perceptual action) - formation of an image;
• Discrimination (perceptual action) - the very perception of the image;
• Identification (identification action) - identification of an object with existing images;
• Identification (identifying action) is the categorization of an object.

Perception also has its own properties: structure, objectivity, apperception, selectivity, constancy, meaningfulness. Read more about perception here.

Memory

Memory is a mental function and a type of mental activity designed to store, accumulate and reproduce information. The ability to store data about the events of the surrounding world and the reactions of the body for a long period of time, and use it.

The following memory processes are distinguished:

• memorization;
• Storage;
• playback;
• Forgetting.

Memory is also divided into typologies:

• By sensory modality - visual, kinesthetic, sound, taste, pain;
• By content - emotional, figurative, motor;
• According to the organization of memorization - procedural, semantic, episodic;
• According to temporal characteristics - ultra-short-term, short-term, long-term;
• According to physiological characteristics - long-term and short-term;
• According to the availability of funds - unmediated and indirect;
• By the presence of a goal - involuntary and arbitrary;
• According to the level of development - verbal-logical, figurative, emotional and motor.

You will find methods and techniques for developing memory in a separate training on our website.

Thinking

In general psychology, there are many definitions of the process of thinking. According to one of the most popular definitions:

Thinking- this is the highest stage of human information processing and the process of establishing links between phenomena and objects of the external world.

It is the highest stage of human cognition, as a process of reflection in his brain of the surrounding reality.

Thinking is divided into:

• Abstract-logical;
• Visual-figurative;
• Specific subject;
• Visually effective.

And the main forms of thinking are:

• Concept - thoughts that single out and generalize phenomena and objects;
• Judgment is the denial or affirmation of something;
• Inference is a conclusion.

These and other components of the thought process are discussed in our training on logical thinking.

Speech

speech called a form of communication between people through language constructions. In this process, thoughts are formed and formulated with the help of language, as well as the perception of the received speech information and its understanding. Speech is a form of existence of human language, because speech is language in action.

Language (speech) performs the following functions:

• Intellectual activity tool;
• Way of communication;
• A way of existence, as well as the assimilation and transfer of experience.

Speech is the most important part of human activity, which contributes to the knowledge of the world around us, the transfer of knowledge and experience to others. Representing a means of expressing thoughts, it is one of the main mechanisms of human thinking. It depends on the form of communication and, thus, is divided into oral (speaking/listening) and written (writing/reading).

Speech has the following properties:

• Content - the number and significance of expressed aspirations, feelings and thoughts;
• Clarity - correctness;
• Expressiveness - emotional coloring and richness of the language;
• Effectiveness - the impact on other people, their feelings, thoughts, emotions, etc.

You can read more about oral and written speech in our trainings on public speaking and writing skills.

Each person differs from others by a huge, truly inexhaustible number individual features, that is, the features inherent in him as an individual. The concept of "individual features" includes not only psychological, but also somatic ("soma" - in Latin "body") features of a person: eye and hair color, height and figure, development of the skeleton and muscles, etc.

An important individual feature of a person is the expression of his face. It manifests not only somatic, but also psychological characteristics of a person. When they say about a person: "he has a meaningful expression on his face, or" he has cunning eyes, "or" a stubborn mouth, "they mean, of course, not an anatomical feature, but an expression in facial expressions of the psychological characteristics characteristic of this individual.

Individual psychological characteristics distinguish one person from another. The branch of psychological science that studies the individual characteristics of various aspects of the personality and mental processes is called differential psychology.

The most common dynamic personality structure is a generalization of all its possible individual psychological characteristics into four groups that form the four main aspects of the personality:
1. Biologically determined features (temperament, inclinations, simple needs).
2. Socially determined features (orientation, moral qualities, worldview).
3. Individual characteristics of various mental processes.
4. Experience (volume and quality of existing knowledge, skills, abilities and habits).

Not all individual psychological characteristics of these aspects of the personality will be character traits. But all character traits, of course, are personality traits.

First of all, it must be said about the fundamental differences between character traits and the general traits discussed above.

Team and its functions A team is an association of people created on the basis of common goals, aspirations, and tasks. The purpose of such social groups is to achieve a certain mission or perform specific functions.-

The collective as a constituent element of an organized society plays an important role. Its main functions are: Educational - the team regulates the behavior of all its members. Organizational - each team is a subject that manages its activities, and any process with proper organization becomes more efficient. Stimulating - the formation of moral incentives for socially useful deeds. Economic - a function of the team that allows you to combine labor activity, as a result of which cultural and material values ​​\u200b\u200bare arising.-

Team structure

The formal structure of the group reflects the official distribution of service roles among the members of the team. This distribution is determined by the technology of production or the position of workers. A clear definition of the service functions of employees increases their personal responsibility, thereby ensuring the success of the entire enterprise as a whole.

At the same time, in addition to the roles determined by the staffing table, there are also roles associated with the production process itself, its needs for various activities. Workers who take on these roles are conditionally classified as follows:

- "idea generators" with non-standard, creative thinking;

- performers, having a reproductive mindset and being conscientious executors of other people's ideas and ideas;

Experts who are able to predict and calculate how the proposed idea will "work" - its pros and cons, possible consequences;

Critics, people with a special, critical mindset, often incapable of productive activity, but on the other hand, they identify negative moments and "bottlenecks" in the production process that other workers do not notice;

- "pea jesters" (a conditionally joking name) - some leaders recognize the need to have people in the team who are light, inoffensive, contactable, able to cheer up or defuse the conflict situation in the team.

The head reveals what type this or that employee belongs to and, accordingly, determines his place in the team. It is unproductive and unprofitable, for example, to use an "idea generator" in performing work, and vice versa, it is useless to reproach the "critic" - they say, it is always easier to criticize, but you try it, do it yourself, etc.

Interestingly, what role type should the leader, manager, manager belong to? Here the opinions of experts are divided. Some believe that the leader must be able to "play" all the roles. Others believe that only a person capable of performing a special, specific role - a "man-director" or "man-conductor" - can lead. That is, the task of the manager is the skillful and clear distribution of roles within the team, the organization of the performance by each employee of his official functions, as well as the control and evaluation of their performance.

The system of official and social functions of employees (formal structure) is the basis on which informal group structure.

The informal structure is a set of psychological connections and relationships that develop between people who are in direct contact with each other in the process of performing their production functions. These relationships are less stable than official ones, since they arise on the basis of personal, subjective perception of each other by people. However, for the people themselves, members of the collective, they are of great importance and have a strong psychological impact on them. The fact is that, depending on the nature of informal relations in the team, one or another moral and psychological climate(or microclimate).

The moral and psychological climate of the team determines the attitude of people to the work performed, as well as their attitude to each other. This is the emotional coloring of the psychological ties of the members of the team, arising on the basis of their relationships, likes or dislikes, differences in characters, inclinations and interests. Psychologists say that everyone contributes his own to the atmosphere of the team, and everyone inhales the common air. Indeed, the nature and state of the psychological climate of the entire team largely depends on each employee.

The psychological climate of the group can be different: benevolent and unfriendly, persistent and less stable, positive and negative, healthy and unhealthy.

A positive, stable, healthy and friendly microclimate in the team creates a feeling of psychological comfort and well-being in people, contributes to the preservation of life optimism, gives rise to a sense of satisfaction from their work.

The moral and psychological climate exists on two levels- at the level of the entire institution or enterprise and at the level of a small group of people who directly and constantly come into contact in the process of work. Both levels are important, but each in its own way. For example, the trouble that exists in a "large" team can be compensated to a certain extent by a good, friendly climate in the micro-collective. But it is unlikely that in this case people will be particularly active at the level of the entire team - at production meetings, at public work, in cultural events.

The moral and psychological climate of any team is determined by several parameters, among which the following play a special role:

1) leadership style, which is determined by the ratio of democracy and authoritarianism;

2) the style of relations in the group, which ranges from the most personally saturated to the most impersonal, formal, dry, bureaucratic. Measure is also important here, since one cannot build work on smiles and personal connections. Too much in this case begins to depend on personal likes and dislikes, the general level of organization and discipline decreases, the importance of the formal moments necessary in any business decreases;

3) degree of personal independence, those. the breadth of the sphere within which the employee has the opportunity to act and make decisions independently;

4) help and goodwill in relationships;

5) degree of tolerance tolerance for different points of view and opinions on issues of an official, and even more so non-productive nature;

6) actually applied scale of rewards and punishments, its flexibility and fairness, a positive impact on the motivational sphere of team members. For a person, it is very important not only how much he did and how much he received, but also the consciousness of the fairness of the assessment of his contribution to the common cause in comparison with the contribution and "reward" of colleagues at work.

The moral and psychological commonality of the team just ensures the coherence and cohesion that characterize a workable and creative team. They appear on three levels:

How unity of purpose;

How community of values;

How emotional communion, based on personal likes and dislikes.

A special form of manifestation of group cohesion can be conformism - the adoption by individuals of certain standards of behavior and assessments, subordination to group opinion. Conformism, on the one hand, makes it easier for the leader to manage the team: a conformist person tends to act "like everyone else" without entering into a dispute with the authorities and the team. But, on the other hand, the leader should not exaggerate the positive role of conformism, since it often prevents the use of new, non-standard solutions, prevents the team from finding its own original development path.

The informal structure of a group can be viewed in several ways.

1. The predisposition of group members to perform various "roles".

Being implemented in the personnel policy of a skilled leader in the form of positions, staffing, etc., it becomes the basis of the formal structure of the team, contributing to the optimization of the microclimate. At the same time, not being realized or being misinterpreted, this predisposition of people often becomes the cause of their discontent, irritability, envy, etc., which naturally leads to a state of psychological discomfort in the team.

In addition, due to the nature of the meetings are divided into the following types:

dictatorial - characteristic of an authoritarian type of management, when only the leader leads the meeting and has the actual right to vote, the rest of the participants are only given the opportunity to ask questions, but not to express their own opinion;

autocratic - based on the leader's questions to the participants and their answers to them, as a rule, there are no discussions, only dialogue is possible;

segregative - the report is discussed only by the participants chosen by the head, the rest listen and take into account the information presented;

debatable - free exchange of opinions and development of a common solution; the right to make a decision in the final wording remains with the head;

free - it does not adopt a clear agenda, sometimes there is no chairman, sometimes it ends with a decision, but basically it comes down to an exchange of views.

Gathering together, the participants of the meeting have the opportunity to express their point of view on the topics under discussion, to bring the information they have to all participants in the meeting, to discuss controversial issues, to consider alternative solutions. After all, it is not in vain that they say that truth is born in a dispute.

The meeting is one of the most important forms of management activity.

Meeting - a meeting, a meeting dedicated to the discussion of some special issue or several issues.

Within a particular organization, depending on the main task, the following types of meetings are distinguished:

§ operational;

§ instructive or informational;

§ problematic.

An operational meeting is held to obtain information about the current state of affairs for management, make operational decisions and control their use.

In the internal affairs department, an operational meeting is one of the forms of collective consideration of current issues of their activities that require prompt resolution.

An informational or briefing meeting is used to transfer service information. It is advisable to use them in the absence of time for written orders or if the leader wants to emotionally influence subordinates. If time permits, it is better to provide information in writing, as it takes less time to master it. In addition, the read information is absorbed better than the perceived by ear.

Problem meetings are meetings aimed at finding optimal solutions, bringing up economic problems for discussion, considering promising development issues, and discussing innovative projects.

The classification of meetings can be based on other criteria, for example, the frequency: scheduled, unscheduled. Psychologists have noticed that meetings held strictly on schedule with a predetermined date and hour are more productive. At the same time, it is recommended to schedule meetings for the first half of the working day.

verbal communication. Verbal communication is carried out with the help of words. Speech is considered a verbal means of communication. We can communicate through written or spoken language. Speech activity is divided into several types: speaking - listening and writing - reading. Both written and oral speech are expressed through language - a special system of signs. To learn how to communicate effectively and use verbal means of communication, you need not only to improve your speech, know the rules of the Russian language or learn foreign languages, although this is certainly very important. In this regard, one of the main points is the ability to talk also in a psychological sense. Too often people have various psychological barriers or fear to establish contacts with other people. For successful interaction with society, they need to be identified and overcome in time. Language and its functions. Language acts as a tool for expressing people's thoughts and feelings. It is necessary for many aspects of human life in society, which is expressed in its following functions: Communicative (interaction between people). Language is the main form of full-fledged communication of a person with his own kind. Accumulative. With the help of language, we can store and accumulate knowledge. If we consider a certain person, then these are his notebooks, notes, creative works. In the global context, these are fiction and written monuments. Cognitive. With the help of language, a person can acquire knowledge contained in books, films, or the minds of other people. Constructive. With the help of language, it is easy to form thoughts, to clothe them in a material, clear and concrete form (either in the form of an oral verbal expression or in the form of a written one). Ethnic. Language allows you to unite peoples, communities and other groups of people. Emotional. With the help of language, one can express emotions and feelings, and here it is their direct expression with the help of words that is considered. But basically this function, of course, is performed by non-verbal means of communication.

Non-verbal communication. Non-verbal means of communication are necessary for people to be clear in understanding each other. Naturally, non-verbal manifestations concern only oral communication. Since the external non-verbal expression of emotions and feelings performed by the body is also a certain set of symbols and signs, it is often called "body language". "Body language" and its functions. Nonverbal expressions are very important in human interaction. Their main functions are as follows: Complementing the spoken message. If a person reports victory in some business, he may additionally throw his hands over his head in victory or even jump for joy. Repetition of what has been said. This enhances the oral message and its emotional component. So, when answering “Yes, this is so” or “No, I don’t agree”, you can repeat the meaning of the message also in a gesture: with a nod of the head or, conversely, by shaking from side to side as a sign of denial. An expression of the contradiction between word and deed. A person can say one thing, but feel completely different at the same time, for example, joking out loud and feeling sad in the shower. It is non-verbal means of communication that make it possible to understand this. Focus on something. Instead of the words "attention", "note", etc. you can show a gesture that attracts attention. So, a gesture with an extended index finger on a raised hand shows the importance of the text spoken at the same time. Word replacement. Sometimes some gestures or expressions of facial expressions can completely replace a certain text. When a person shrugged his shoulders or indicated a direction with his hand, it is no longer necessary to say “I don’t know” or “left-right”.

Conflict- this is the disagreement of the parties or the conscious behavior of one side in conflict with the other side. Conflicts are designed to help meet people's needs. In a conflict situation, each of the parties seeks to achieve its goal, solve its problems, approve and accept its point of view. In practice, this is often done by infringing on the interests of opponents and eliminating the positions of opponents. Conflict is the highest stage in the development of contradictions, it is the absence of agreement between two or more parties, which may be specific individuals or groups.

Reasons for conflicts:

• Resource allocation . R-s are always limited and the management must decide how to distribute them among the various groups in order to achieve the goals of the organization in the most efficient way. To allocate a larger share of resources to any one leader, subordinate, or group means that others will receive a smaller share of the total.
• Task Interdependence . The possibility of conflict exists wherever one person or group is dependent on another person or group for a task. Since all organizations are systems of interconnected elements, if one department or person does not work adequately, the interdependence of tasks can become a cause of conflict.
• Differences in purpose. Specialized units formulate their own goals and may pay more attention to their achievement than the goals of the entire organization.
• Differences in perceptions and values . The idea of ​​a situation depends on the desire to achieve a certain goal. Instead of assessing a situation objectively, people may consider only those views, alternatives, and aspects of the situation that they believe are favorable to their group and personal needs.
• Differences in behavior and life experiences . Differences in life experience, values, education, seniority, age and social characteristics reduce the degree of mutual understanding and cooperation between representatives of different departments.
• Poor communications . Poor communication is both a cause and a consequence of conflict. It can act as a catalyst for conflict, making it difficult for individuals or groups to understand the situation or the perspectives of others.

Types of conflicts

1. intrapersonal conflict . It can take various forms

o role conflict, when conflicting demands are made to one person about what the result of his work should be

o production requirements are not consistent with personal needs, interests, values,

o response to work overload or underload.

2. interpersonal conflict . The most common and manifests itself in different ways:

o management struggles to limit resources, capital or labor, time to use equipment, or project approval. This group includes the well-known conflicts between two candidates for promotion in the presence of one vacancy,

o clash of personalities. People with different personality traits, attitudes and values ​​are sometimes just not able to get along with each other.

3. Conflict between the individual and the group .

o if the expectations of the group are in conflict with the expectations of the individual,

o The leader may be forced to take disciplinary actions that may be unpopular in the eyes of subordinates.

4. Intergroup conflict theory .

o In organizations, there may be conflicts between formal and informal groups. Informal groups that believe that the leader is treating them unfairly can rally more strongly and try to "pay off" with him by a decrease in productivity or a conflict between the trade union and the administration.

1. Structural conflict resolution methods:

The domestic theory of abilities was created by the works of many outstanding psychologists - Vygotsky, Leontiev, Rubinstein, Teplov, Ananiev, Krutetsky, Golubeva.

Teplov, defining the content of the concept ability, formulated 3 her sign, which underlie many works:

1. abilities are understood as individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another;
2. they are related to the success of an Activity or many Activities;
3. abilities are not limited to available skills, abilities and knowledge, but can explain the ease and speed of acquiring this knowledge.

Ability- this is a psychological feature of a person and is not an innate quality, but is a product of development and formation in the process of any Activity. But they are based on congenital anatomical and physiological features - inclinations. Although abilities develop on the basis of inclinations, they are still not their function, inclinations are prerequisites for the development of abilities. Inclinations are considered as non-specific features of the nervous system and the organism as a whole, therefore, the existence of its own pre-prepared inclination for each ability is denied. On the basis of different inclinations, different abilities develop, which are equally manifested in the results of Activity.

Based on the same inclinations, different people can develop different abilities. Domestic psychologists talk about the inseparable connection of abilities with activity. Abilities always develop in Activity and represent an active process on the part of a person. Types of Activity in which abilities are formed are always concrete and historical.

One of the main principles of domestic psychology is a personal approach to understanding abilities. The main thesis: it is impossible to narrow the content of the concept of "ability" to the characteristics of individual mental processes.

I. The problem of abilities arises when considering a Personality as a subject of Activity. A great contribution to the understanding of the unity of the abilities and qualities of the Personality was made by Ananiev, who considered the ability as an integration of the properties of the subjective level (properties of a person as a subject of Activity). In his theory the structure of human properties has 3 levels:

1. Individual(natural). These are sexual, constitutional and neurodynamic features, their highest manifestations are inclinations.
2. subjective properties characterize a person as a subject of labor, communication and knowledge and include features of attention, memory, perception, and so on. The integration of these properties are abilities.
3. Personal properties characterize a person as a social being and are associated primarily with social roles, social status and the structure of values. The highest level in the hierarchy of personality traits is represented by the character and inclinations of a person.

A unique combination of all the properties of a person forms an individuality in which the central role is played by personal properties that transform and organize individual and subjective properties.

II. Most often, the relationship between the orientation of the Personality and its abilities is considered. Interests, inclinations, needs of a person induce him to active activity, in which abilities are formed and developed. Successful performance of the Activity associated with developed abilities has a positive effect on the formation of positive motivation for the Activity.

III. The influence of the characterological traits of the Personality on the formation of abilities is great. Purposefulness, diligence, perseverance are necessary in order to achieve success in solving the tasks set, and hence the development of abilities. The lack of strong-willed character traits can interfere with the development and manifestation of the intended abilities. Researchers note the characterological traits inherent in gifted people - initiative, creativity, high self-esteem.

Foreign psychologists also express similar ideas about abilities. They associate them with achievements in various activities, consider them as the basis of achievements, but do not associate abilities and achievements as identical characteristics.

Capabilities- this is a concept that serves to describe, streamline the possibilities that determine the achievements of a person. Abilities are preceded by skills that are their condition for acquisition in the learning process, frequent exercises and training. Achievements in Activity depend not only on abilities, but also on motivation, mental state.

General abilities- intellectual and creative abilities that find their manifestation in many different types of Activities.

Special abilities– are defined in relation to individual special areas of Activity.

Most often, the ratio of general and special abilities is analyzed as the ratio of the general and the special in the conditions and results of the Activity.

Teplov associated general abilities with general moments in different types of activity, and special ones with special specific moments.

There are many classifications of abilities. Most often, abilities are divided into general and special, which, in turn, can be divided into theoretical and practical, educational and creative, subject and interpersonal.

General abilities include those on the presence of which a person's success in various fields of activity depends. These include abilities that reflect the speed and specificity of the flow of thought processes, such as memory, attention, concentration. General abilities also include general coordination and accuracy of movements, the specificity of speech function, and some others. Thus, general abilities are understood as abilities inherent in most people.

Special abilities are called those abilities of a person that determine his success in a specific activity, the implementation of which requires a specific kind of inclinations and their development. Such abilities include musical, mathematical, linguistic, technical, literary, artistic, sports. Also, communication skills can be attributed to the number of general abilities of a person, with good reason. These abilities are socially conditioned. They are formed in a person throughout his life in the process of social interaction with society. Without this group of abilities, it would be extremely difficult for a person to live among his own kind. So, for example, without the possession of speech skills as a means of communication, without the ability to adapt in society, a normal life and mental development of a person would be impossible. The lack of such abilities in a person would be an insurmountable obstacle on the way of his transformation from a biological being into a social one.

It should be noted that, of course, the presence of general abilities in a person does not exclude the development of special abilities, but, on the contrary, serves as a good basis for their development. Most researchers of the problem of abilities agree that general and special abilities do not contradict or exclude each other, but coexist, mutually complementing and enriching each other. For example, in order to master playing various musical instruments, in addition to special abilities such as ear for music, sense of rhythm, musicality, it is also necessary to have such general abilities as good memory, coordination of movements, and a high level of concentration. Moreover, without the presence of the listed general abilities, mastering a profession at a high level is simply impossible. In addition, in some cases, highly developed general abilities can act as special abilities for some specific activities. Often, the presence of a high level of general abilities in a person can compensate for some missing elements in the complex of special abilities for any type of activity.

giftedness

The concept of giftedness does not have a single generally accepted definition. The most common is the definition given by the German psychologist W. Stern. According to him, giftedness is the general ability of an individual to consciously orient his thinking to new requirements, this is the general ability of the psyche to adapt to new tasks and conditions of life.

Giftedness is a natural and hereditary conditioned phenomenon. This is a function of the individual and the entire system of living conditions in its unity. It is inextricably linked with all stages of a person's life and therefore can manifest itself at different stages of development 7 .

The natural inclinations of the human body in themselves are not determining the degree of human giftedness. They are only integral components of the system of factors influencing the successful development of the individual. The degree of giftedness expresses the potential of internal opportunities for personal development.

Giftedness is manifested only in relation to the conditions in which a certain human activity takes place. It reflects the internal data and capabilities of a person, that is, the internal psychological conditions of activity in their relationship with the requirements that its implementation puts before a person. For the dynamics of giftedness, the level of requirements put forward in the course of human activity, in particular, those requirements that the curriculum sets for the student, is of great importance. In order for the development of giftedness to take place, these requirements must be sufficiently high, however, at the same time, feasible 8 .

In pedagogy, the question of the ratio of giftedness and special abilities is still being actively discussed. The main problem lies in the relationship between general and special education and development. The solution of this kind of problem is of great importance for child pedagogical psychology.

It has been established that genetically the ratio between general and special development, and, accordingly, between giftedness and special abilities, changes with age. The use of each of these psychological concepts is legitimate, but their nature, in fact, is relative. Special abilities are both structurally and genetically related to giftedness, and giftedness manifests itself in special abilities and develops in them.

Giftedness is a kind of combination of several abilities, on which the possibility of achieving different levels and the significance of success in the performance of a particular activity depends. Determining the degree of giftedness essentially depends on how much weight is given to certain types of activity and what is meant by the successful implementation of a particular activity 9 .

Giftedness and abilities of people differ not quantitatively, but qualitatively. Qualitative differences in giftedness are expressed in the level of its formation. Based on this, an important task of research in the field of human abilities is to find qualitative differences.

Thus, the purpose of the study of giftedness is not to rank people into capable and incapable, but to develop methods for scientific analysis of the qualitative features of giftedness and abilities. The main question is not how gifted or capable a particular person is, but what is the nature of the giftedness and abilities of this person.