It is amazing, but most of the authors of books on child psychology, living and writing in our country, are unfamiliar to their parents. We read foreign psychologists. Maybe it's a tribute to fashion, or maybe the publishers' marketing policy. Nevertheless, modern Russian psychologists write books for parents. And what books! If you're lost in the maze of parent-child relationships, check out the books in this article. We are sure that many questions will be answered. Website for parents Growing up in Tver presents 10 child psychologists, authors of books on parenting.

Books on parenting Gippenreiter Yu.B.

1. Julia Borisovna Gippenreiter is our everything. She is deservedly considered a modern classic in the field of psychology. By the way, she writes not only books for parents, but also textbooks for students. Which is not at all surprising: she is a doctor of psychological sciences, a professor. Currently, he is a professor at the Department of General Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Moscow State University. But we are grateful to her for her ability to convey to the heart of every parent the idea that the main tool of education is not a belt, but unconditional love. The books are produced in large numbers, reprinted many times, quotes from them and pocket versions are issued - all this is evidence of her talent as a popularizer click the following article .

Books on child psychology by Irina Mlodik

2. Irina Yuryevna Mlodik - child psychologist, chairman of the association of psychologists-practitioners "Just Together". Her ironic style of writing books and common sense approach to problem solving captivate readers. By allowing us to be “imperfect parents”, Irina Yuryevna not only won the love of the target audience, but also opened the eyes of many parents to what their children feel. She talks with parents on the most pressing topics: how to tell a child about death, how to teach them to make choices, and many others.

Books:

• A book for imperfect parents
• Initiation to a miracle, or non-guide to child psychotherapy
• School and how to survive in it
• While you were trying to become a god... The painful path of the narcissist
• Where you are not yet

Nina Nekrasova

3. Nina Nekrasova - teacher, author of methods, more than 35 years of experience working with children. Another author whose books are as easy to read as they are interesting. Live examples, unexpected angles, scientific depth - that's what characterizes her books. Together with her daughter Zaryana, she writes for many women's and family magazines. We are sure that you have read her articles in the magazine "My Child". Books have been translated into other languages. In each of her books, Nina Nekrasova convinces parents that most problems can be avoided if you remember the main tool of education - unconditional love.

Books:

• Stop raising children - help them grow
• No danger. From birth to school.
• No danger. School years
• How to find contact with a child? Fabulous Opportunities!
• What do you need to live together. Fun parenting for the whole family
• For dad to help. How to teach a man to take care of a baby

Ekaterina Murashova

4. Ekaterina Murashova - family and child psychologist, writer, author of books for teenagers. She worked under the "Doctors of the World" program with children from socially disadvantaged families. Winner of literary awards. He writes a column for Snob magazine. According to her script, the film "Correction Class" about the problems of adolescents was shot.

Books:

• Love or nurture?
• Mattress children and disaster children.
• Your incomprehensible child.
• Psychological recipes for parents

Vladimir Levy

5. Vladimir Levi - writer, psychotherapist, candidate of medical sciences, psychologist. The books have been translated into many languages.

Books:

• Irregular child
• How to raise parents or a new non-standard child
• The art of being yourself
• Quaddy qua
• me and us
• Lucky for people

Alla Barkan

Books:

6. Barkan Alla Isaakovna - pediatrician, doctor of medical sciences, professor of psychology, master of philosophy at the University of Vienna, author of more than 120 articles and 19 books about children.

• The world through the eyes of a baby. Baby through the eyes of a psychologist
• Bad habits of good children
• Ordinary family wars

Belonoshchenko Evgeniya

7. Evgenia Belonoshchenko - psychologist, founder of the baby club, organizer of trainings for parents. The book Born with Character is an attempt to systematize the types of children's personalities. The traditional school of psychology talks about temperaments, here it offers a different look at children's characters. After reading this book and finding in it the type of your child, you will definitely better understand him and his actions.

Book

• Born with character

Olga Vologodskaya

8. Vologda Olga Pavlovna

It turns out that it is very convenient for parents to maintain lack of independence in their child. And it happens on the contrary, too early parents load their children with independence. What portions to give freedom? Where to begin? How to recognize the danger and teach the child to see these boundaries for himself? This is described in the book of Olga Vologodskaya.

Book:

• Education of independence in children. Mom, can I do it myself?!

Ludmila Strelkova

9. L. P. Strelkova. The Emotional Dictionary is an unusual book. This is a psychological workshop that parents do with their children. Plunging into the stories-situations proposed by the author, one can learn to share the feelings of another. But this is one of the secrets of education. No wonder they say that happiness is when you are understood.

• Emotional primer from Ah to ah-yay-yay

Olga Yurchenko

10. Olga Yurchenko - teacher and psychologist. She raises in her books such topical problems of children's education as laziness and deceit. How to distinguish between manipulation and a cry for help? What is hidden behind childish deception and where does laziness come from? Olga Yurchenko tried to find answers to these and other questions. The books contain a large number of tests and exercises to help you sort out your problems.

• The whole truth about children's lies, or what parents of young deceivers need to know
• I don't want to and I won't! How to deal with children's laziness

Like any science, psychology has developed, trying to be above politics, not paying attention to the borders between countries, differences in languages, culture, political directions and ideologies, but could not help but change along with the changes that now and then took place in society. The development of psychology in Russia cannot be considered in isolation from world history and the history of the science of psychology itself.

Most domestic and foreign psychologists were bold and apolitical, they tried to exchange knowledge and experience with each other, living in different countries, regardless of whether it was allowed and what they could expect in case of violation of prohibitions.

Per a century and a half of the existence of world psychology as a science, it has experienced a lot of large-scale social and political changes and cataclysms, as well as its own ups, downs and crises.

Domestic psychology was born in the Russian Empire at a time when this empire did not last long. At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia was still part of the Russian Empire, then it became a republic within the USSR, and at the end of the century it turned into the Russian Federation. All this time, psychology has been developing in spite of everything, has survived all the revolutions, wars, crises, absolute prohibitions and new revivals of science.

Today the names of Russian scientists are known all over the world. Their classics have been translated into many languages, and their concepts and theories have been explored by psychology students, scientists, and psychology enthusiasts.

The origin of Russian psychology in the 19th century

Psychology is a field of knowledge that was recognized by the world community as a science only in the endXIXcentury, when in 1879 German physiologist and psychologist W. Wundt founded the world's first psychological laboratory in Leipzig.

Why was the creation of the laboratory such a significant event? It's all about the fact that it started experimental, and hence an objective, provable psychology, and not just speculative and subjective. It was impossible to say for sure whether the scientist's hypothesis was correct or whether it was just his personal delusion until W. Wundt began to conduct scientific experiments.

Founder of domestic experimental science considered an outstanding Russian psychiatrist, neuropathologist, physiologist and psychologist V.M. Bekhterev(1857-1927). He was the first in the Russian Empire to create laboratory of experimental psychology at the clinic of Kazan University in 1885 year.

Interestingly, a year earlier, in 1884, during a business trip to Europe (Paris, Vienna, Berlin and Leipzig), V.M. Bekhterev met many founders of the world science of psychology, including W. Wundt himself.

In 1908, Bekhterev founded another institution significant for the development of the science of psychology - the Psychoneurological Institute in St. Petersburg, which became the center of a comprehensive study of man.

The contribution of this great scientist is invaluable. He became the founder of reflexology and pathopsychology, wrote many scientific papers, published several psychological journals in Russia and was published in foreign publications.

But even before Bekhterev founded the first Russian psychological laboratory, namely in the sixties of the XIX century, the Russian physiologist (1829-1905) identified the need and developed the first psychology building program as an independent science!

It was this scientist who suggested that the subject of psychology be considered various types of mental activity of the subject in their development and connection with each other. Sechenov defined objective observation as the main method of psychology.

It was Sechenov's ideas about the possibility of an experimental study of thinking, about the activity and target determination of the work of the nervous system, about feedback as a factor in the regulation of behavior, ahead of their time, gave impetus for development domestic psychology and anticipated many studies in world science!

Also, K.D. Kavelin, G. Struve, I.P. Pavlov, V.A. Wagner, N.E. Vvedensky, A.A. Ukhtomsky, N.N. Lange, A.F. Lazursky, P.F. Lesgaft and others.

But in order for psychology to be able to separate from other sciences in the century before last, centuries of existence and development of it within the framework of philosophy, medicine, biology, literature, theology, occultism and in the sphere of everyday life, habits, traditions, myths of peoples had to pass.

A significant contribution to the development of psychology in those days when it was not yet a separate science was made by such Russian scientists and educators like M.V. Lomonosov, Ya.P. Kozelsky, Ya.N. Radishchev, A. Galich (teacher of A.S. Pushkin) and others.

The most the first Russian book on psychology was written in 1796 year by Ivan Mikhailov and was called "The Science of the Soul, or a Clear Image of Its Improvement of Abilities and Immortality". In it, the author wrote about sensations, will, thinking and associations.

Before and during the revolution of 1917, in the twenties (when the USSR was formed) and in the early thirties, the Goths of the 20th century not only did not perish, but even grew stronger.

A young Soviet school of psychology, which continues to develop the theories of the founders of Russian psychology and at the same time solves the urgent social problems of the new Soviet society.

At this time, science was created by such outstanding and world-famous psychologists as L.S. Vygotsky, A.R. Luria, V.N. Myasishchev, L.V. Zankov, I.M. Solovyov, M.Ya. Basov, A.N. Leontiev, S.L. Rubinstein, A.A. Smirnov, P.P. Blonsky, I.A. Sokolyansky, S.G. Gellerstein, K.K. Platonov, N.D. Zavalova and others.

There are such branches of psychology as:

• age,
• children's,
• social,
• engineering,
• aviation,
• pedagogical,
• team psychology,
• ergonomics,
• psychotechnics, others.

Psychodiagnostics is being improved, the scope of psychological counseling is expanding, various areas are united by a single concept of the psyche and consolidated in practice.

And all this at a time when in Europe there is psychology crisis, caused by the differences of psychologists on many points, the main of which was the choice of the subject and the scientific method of psychology.

The crisis of world psychology led to the formation of several of its main directions at once, which exist in our time (deep, cognitive, humanistic, Gestalt psychology, behaviorism), which allowed science to develop further at once in several "streams".

Unfortunately, mid thirties Soviet psychology stops its development abruptly. It was crushed and banned by the authorities, psychological research was abruptly stopped (even ideologically close to the Soviet authorities), psychological journals ceased to be published.

The decline of science lasted for about thirty years. But even under a strict ban, during the period of repression, famine, and a terrible war, there were scientists who did not forget about psychology: B.M. Teplov, B.G. Ananiev, D.N. Uznadze, A.V. Zaporozhets, E.N. Sokolov, others.

Only in sixties In the twentieth century, forbidden psychological schools and psychology began to revive.

Already in 1955, the psychological journal Questions of Psychology began to be published. In 1964, departments of psychology were opened at the Leningrad, Moscow, and Tbilisi universities. In 1971, the Institute of Psychology of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR was established. Since 1980, the Psychological Journal has been published.

Of course, isolation from world science could not but affect the development of domestic psychology. At the time when it became fashionable in Europe and the USA to have a personal psychologist and develop the science of psychology, the USSR did not even think about such a need.

AT sixties - eighties In the 20th century, the leading branches of Soviet psychology remain social, differential, judicial, engineering, the psychology of education and upbringing, and applied branches.

At this time, science was created by P.V. Simonov, N.P. Bekhtereva, A.V. Brushlinsky, O.K. Tikhomirov, V.D. Nebylitsyn, B.F. Lomov, V.V. Davydov, D.B. Elkonin, L.I. Bozhovich, P.Ya. Galperin and others.

In the end eighties a psychological service is formed. Psychology becomes an element of culture and begins to enter the lives of ordinary people.

Psychology in modern Russia

The nineties The 20th century turned out to be a turning point in the history of Russia. With the collapse of the USSR, people's lives change dramatically. Like everyone and everyone, psychology also had to rebuild in a new way.

Recently launched psychological services in schools, at work, in the health care system, individual and family counseling are underdeveloped and widespread. As a result of this, as well as the influx of information from abroad, the insufficient level of psychological culture and education of the population, mass dissemination of pseudopsychology.

What happened to psychology at the end of the last - the beginning of this century still has consequences. There are still people who today:

• do not consider psychology a serious and useful science,
• psychologists are called mind-readers,
• people with psychological problems - "psychos",
• confuse science with magic, healing, mysticism and ordinary quackery,
• do not consider it necessary to develop personal psychological culture and self-improvement.

Although not without damage to itself, Russian psychology crossed the threshold of two millennia, got rid of ideological dogmatism, “met” with world psychology, and, to a large extent, thanks to this, expanded, supplemented, and transformed.

AT last ten to fifteen years in Russia, interest in the science and practice of psychology has been steadily increasing.

An increasing number of applicants go to study psychology at universities, and representatives of other professions study psychology on their own to improve their skills or for general development.

Both foreign and domestic psychological literature popular in Russia. People have become more interested in real science, rather than parapsychology, in order to understand themselves, solve psychological problems, and develop personally and spiritually.

Psychology these days is not only fashionable, but also demanded the science. Psychological knowledge is especially valued in the business environment, education, and politics.

The main problem of modern Russian psychology lies in the fact that it is used as a tool to help manipulate the individual and public consciousness of people.

Of course, this is not only a problem for Russian society. All over the world, psychologists are involved in the formation of an attractive image of a politician, the creation of idols, the imposition of harmful goods and services, the suggestion of dangerous ideas, opinions, attitudes, incitement of enmity between people, and so on.

Psychology has not yet solved many of the tasks facing it, has not fully integrated theoretical and practical knowledge, has not eliminated contradictions and gaps, has not found answers to many topical questions, but it continues to develop, expand and improve.

Today in Russia new directions in psychology, theoretical concepts and practical methods are being created, textbooks and books are being written, large-scale research is being carried out, psychological services are expanding and improving, individual and family counseling, psychological and business trainings, seminars, conferences and much more are gaining popularity.

For anyone interested in the history of psychology, we recommend tutorials:

1. M. Yaroshevsky “History of psychology”

2. A. Morozov “History of psychology”

3. T. Martsinkowska “History of psychology”

4. A. Rudenko “History of psychology in diagrams and tables”

Also read classic writings domestic psychologists! Here are some of them:

1. V.M. Bekhterev “Hypnosis. Suggestion. Telepathy"
2. V.M. Bekhterev "Phenomena of the brain"
3. THEM. Sechenov “Physiology of growth processes in the animal body. Public Lectures”
4. THEM. Sechenov "Reflexes of the brain"
5. S.L. Rubinstein "Fundamentals of General Psychology"
6. S.L. Rubinstein "Being and Consciousness"
7. L.S. Vygotsky "Thinking and Speech"
8. L.S. Vygotsky "Psychology of Art"
9. A. N. Leontiev “Evolution, movement, activity”
10. V.S. Mukhina "Phenomenology of development and being of personality"

History of Russian psychology. The formation of scientific psychology in Russia is associated with the formation of the Russian neurophysiological school. In 1863, the outstanding work of the Russian physiologist was published THEM. Sechenov(1829 - 1905) "Reflexes of the brain." In this work, the scientist proclaimed: “All acts of conscious and unconscious life, according to the mode of origin
the essence of reflexes. Sechenov laid the foundations of the natural-scientific direction of domestic psychology. Sechenov conceptualized the idea of ​​the psyche as a set of separate mental phenomena (feelings, images, representations, thoughts) into a single mechanism of “life meetings of the body? with the environment." Mental phenomena began to be interpreted by I.M. Sechenov as regulators of activity that respond to the signal effects of the environment. Signal formation, isolation in the environment of significant influences began to be considered by him as the main function of the psyche.

Psychophysiological treatise "Reflexes of the brain" by I.M. Sechenov wrote after his sensational discovery of central inhibition. (Prior to this, only the process of excitation was known to physiologists.) With Sechenov's discovery of the process of inhibition in neurophysiology, a complex of problems of neurodynamics arose, connected with the relationship between excitation and inhibition. On the basis of new neurodynamic ideas, Sechenov again turns to the problem of the reflex, considering it as a basis for explaining the "origin of mental activities" ("Psychological Studies", 1873; "Who and How to Develop Psychology?", 1872).

Sechenov believed that the mental and physiological are related in terms of the mechanism of accomplishment. He considered any mental phenomenon as a process that has a certain structure - a beginning, a course and an end. The beginning and end of the mental process is what connects the organism with the environment. The beginning of the process is determined by external influences. Therefore, the psychic is determined by the external - this is one of the main Sechenov postulates. An external influence turns into feeling only under the condition of its significance for the organism.

Before Sechenov, feeling was considered as an immanent phenomenon of consciousness. Sechenov associated it with the adaptive behavior of the organism in its environment. “Feeling always and everywhere has only two general meanings: it serves as an instrument for distinguishing the conditions of action and as a guide for actions corresponding to these conditions (i.e., expedient or adaptive).” The brain, according to Sechenov, receives and processes a double series of signals - from significant objects through feeling and from the results of action through muscular feeling. The muscle, according to Sechenov, is not only an organ of action, but also an instrument for understanding the environment: it transmits signals to the brain about the spatio-temporal coordinates of objects in the external environment. Through movements, the information that underlies mental activity is obtained (“Elements of Thought”, 1878).

So an end was put to the centuries-old point of view on consciousness as an internal contemplation. Sechenov anticipated the fundamental principle of psychology - the principle of internalization: thought is born in real life encounters of the organism with objects of the surrounding world.

Having passed the “school of action”, the thought “curls up, becomes outwardly invisible”, but is always reflected in the micro-movements of the muscles (ideomotor acts). Will arises in the same way, only not from interaction with things, but from interaction with people.

Modeled on the people who regulate his life, the child presents himself as a command center and becomes capable of self-determination. (Creating for idealist psychologists an illusory "I" as the primary source of indeterminate will.)

Developing the concept of Sechenov, an outstanding Russian physiologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov(1849 - 1936) created a holistic doctrine of higher nervous activity. Using the reflex not only as a conceptual position, but also as a method of neurophysiological research, I.P. Pavlov discovered the patterns of higher nervous activity underlying the balancing of the organism with the environment. The activity of the higher parts of the brain, the cerebral cortex Pavlov interpreted as an integrative regulation of all life processes. He considered higher nervous activity as mental activity. The scientist interpreted all acts of behavior as conditioned reflex system. Introducing this conceptual term, Pavlov comprehended higher nervous activity as a mechanism for the formation of conditioned reflexes. Conditioned reflex - a connection formed when any initially indifferent stimulus approaches in time with the subsequent action of the stimulus that causes an unconditioned reflex, an innate reaction - food, defensive or sexual. Under this condition, a previously indifferent stimulus gradually acquires a signal value - becomes a signal that guides innate behaviors.

The traditional doctrine of the sense organs by I.P. Pavlov converted to the doctrine of analyzers, pointing to the connection of the sense organs with the corresponding cortical centers that produce the highest analysis and synthesis.

Revealing the qualitative difference between the higher nervous activity of man and animals, Pavlov created doctrine of two signal systems: sensory signals - the first signal system, speech signals - based on the first second signal system. The word - a signal of signals - reflects reality in a categorically generalized form. In the process of vital activity in stable conditions, the body develops a stable system of reactions - dynamic stereotype. Its maintenance, balanced relationship with the environment is subjectively felt as a positive emotion. Breaking the stereotype causes negative emotions.

The disclosure of the physiological mechanisms of mental activity was also carried out by well-known Russian neurophysiologists N.E. Vvedensky, A.A. Ukhtomsky, V.M. Bekhterev, which gave a powerful impetus to the development of physiologically oriented psychology in Russia.

In 1885, Bekhterev created the first psychological laboratory in Russia in Kazan. At the end of the XIX century. well-equipped experimental psychological laboratories were organized in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Yuriev, and Kharkov. All-Russian congresses of psychologists were convened, psychological journals were published (“Questions of Philosophy and Psychology”, “Bulletin of Psychology, Criminal Anthropology and Hypnotism”, “Review of Psychiatry, Neurology and Experimental Psychology”, etc.). The Russian intelligentsia was keenly interested in the problems of natural science and psychology.

The natural-science direction of Russian psychologists was headed by V.M. Bekhterev, V.A. Wagner, N.N. Lange, A.F. Lazursky, P.F. Lesgaft. In 1908, at the initiative of Bekhterev, the Psychoneurological Institute was created in St. Petersburg - a center for the complex study of man, in 1914 - the Moscow Psychological Institute, and even earlier - the Moscow Psychological Society. The achievements of the Russian psychological school have received worldwide recognition.

Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev(1857 - 1927) - an outstanding Russian neuropathologist, psychiatrist and psychologist, physiologist of nervous activity; founder of the first experimental psychological laboratory in Russia, the Psychoneurological Institute, the first neurological and psychological journals, the founder of the State Institute for the Study of the Brain (1918) and its first director. He rejected the methods of subjective, introspective psychology and brought to the fore the method of objectively studying observed reactions (Objective Psychology, 1907). Rejecting subjectivist psychology, Bekhterev proposed instead a special branch of knowledge - reflexology, the conceptual concept of which he considered "associative reflex." (reflexes acquired as a result of a combination of various external influences with innate reactions of the body). This concept Bekhterev unreasonably extended to the behavior of social groups (Collective Reflexology, 1921).

V.M. Bekhterev prepared a galaxy of Russian neurologists and psychologists. One of them was Alexander Fyodorovich Lazursky(1874 - 1917) - psychologist, psychiatrist, founder of domestic differential psychology, author of fundamental works on characterology and personality classification, creator and head of the Psychological Laboratory at the Psychoneurological Institute, author and developer of the method of natural experiment in psychology. Lazursky first put forward the concept of a multilevel organization of the human psyche(“Essay on the science of characters”, 1906).

In the first post-revolutionary years, a stormy restructuring of psychology began under the flag of Marxism. Particular efforts were directed at criticizing Chelpanov's idealistic positions and the theoretical "mistakes" of those who did not show haste in revising their views (K.N. Kornilov, P.11. Blonsky, etc.). However, interest in the physiological foundations of psychology increased even more in the years following the revolution. Interest in the works of Darwinist biologists (N.A. Severtseva, V.A. Vagner) also increased. A significant event in science was the publication of the main work of I.P. Pavlova - "Twenty years of experience in the objective study of higher nervous activity" (1923) and the publication in the same year in the Russian Physiological Journal of the work of A.A. Ukhtomsky "Dominant as a working principle of nerve centers".

Alexey Alekseevich Ukhtomsky(1875 - 1942) came up with the concept of adapting the body to changing environmental conditions due to the transformation of the regulatory system under the influence dominants - stable excitation of functionally united nervous mechanisms. Ukhtomsky rejected the idea of ​​a rigid attachment of a function only to a certain nerve "center". They were given the problem of functional coordination of these centers. The scientist found that excitation from a significant impact comes not only to a certain brain center, but spreads through the nervous system in the form of a diffuse wave. The concept arose neural network“, as well as questions: why does the excitation of the nervous network not lead to chaotic reactions and how is the exact adaptive response of the organism organized?

In search of an answer to this question, Ukhtomsky came up with the idea of ​​a dominant. In his master's thesis "On the dependence of cortical motor effects on side central influences" (1911), Ukhtomsky argued that a diffuse wave excites only functionally united centers covered by the dominant and inhibits the activity of all other centers. The dominant organizes regulatory processes until the behavior ends with the necessary adaptive result. That is why only one action is performed at a time, requiring complex regulation.

One of the founders of experimental psychology in Russia was Nikolai Nikolaevich Lange(1858 - 1921), professor at Novorossiysk (Odessa) University, creator of Russia's first university psychological laboratory. Lange rightly considered the human psyche to be a product of history, and he saw its features in sociocultural foundations. In the formation of the individual's consciousness, he assigned a decisive role to language: "... Language with its vocabulary and grammar forms the entire mental life of a person, introducing into his consciousness all those forms and categories that historically developed in previous generations." The word is the basic element of consciousness - this is the main postulate of Lange. "An ocean of the history of thought splashes behind every word, like a basic element of consciousness."

Merit N.N. Lange is that he transferred psychology from the path of Darwinian evolutionism to the soil of historicism. As the author of the textbook "Psychology" (1914), Lange made a significant contribution to the development of psychology as an academic discipline. He also acted as an author motor theory of attention, explaining the activity of attention (consciousness) by performing research actions.

Another well-known Russian psychologist, a contemporary of Lange, Alexander Ivanovich Vvedensky(1856 - 1925), having a mathematical education, sought to turn psychology into an objective science, like all natural sciences, to bring Russian psychology closer to European philosophical thought. His main work is "Psychology without any metaphysics" (1917). In contrast to the vague theories of the soul then prevailing, Vvedensky, following I. Kant, argued that psychology should investigate cognitive processes, feelings and will. These processes are associated with external objects of reflection and can be objectively investigated.

At the turn of the century and until the end of the 20s. 20th century natural-scientific, evolutionary ideas occupied a dominant position in the worldview of the progressive Russian intellectuals. Famous naturalists and evolutionists influenced the entire sphere of public consciousness. The ideas of Sechenov, Ukhtomsky, Pavlov, Severtsev, Mechnikov, Timiryazev gained great fame. Developed by A.N. Severtsev, in line with Darwinism, evolutionary theory merges with the problems of the development of the psyche in phylo- and ontogenesis. Questioning Haeckel's biogenetic law (“the development of the individual repeats the development of the species”), Severtsev came to the conclusion that biological progress is associated not only with new morphogenesis, but also with the development of new adaptive mechanisms (“Evolution and Psyche”, 1922).

K.A. Timiryazev puts forward the idea that at a certain stage biology must inevitably come to the historical method, that consciousness is a property of matter that arose at a certain stage of its development. Fundamental ideas about human nature were formulated by I.I. Mechnikov ("Etudes on the Nature of Man", 1903; "Etudes of Optimism", 1907).

The natural-scientific orientation prevailed at that time in the worldview of psychologists. They began to use the term "biopsychology" (V.A. Wagner "Biopsychology and related sciences", 1923). Psychophysiological studies are coming to the fore (S.V. Kravkov, K.Kh. Kekcheev). But, rejecting the former idealistic, introspective psychology, the new psychology, according to N.N. Lange, turned out to be like "Priam on the ruins of Troy." Speculative psychology left the stage of history, leaving behind a scattered conglomerate of concepts. The search for a unified conceptual foundation for psychology began.

The First All-Russian Congress on Psychoneurology (1923) marked the beginning of a new stage in the development of Russian psychology. The report of K.N. Kornilov "Psychology and Marxism" and the report of V.M. Bekhterev "Subjective or objective study of personality". The era of militant materialism began. The first "dialectical etudes" in psychology appeared in V.N. Kornilov (1925), presented from the point of view of dialectical materialism. The Second Congress on Psychoneurology (1924) already defined the tasks of the "ideological and theoretical struggle."

By the end of the 20s. Developmental, child and pedagogical psychology is developing significantly (L.S. Vygotsky, M.Ya. Basov, A.N. Leontiev, A.A. Smirnov, P.P. Blonsky, I.A. Sokolyansky and others). Research on the problem of the psychology of the collective is being activated. The most important branch of psychology is psychotechnics who studied the psychological aspects of professional activity. Test studies of various mental functions - memory, intelligence, attention, sensorimotor reactions - were intensified. The necessary level of development of these mental functions was determined for the successful mastery of various professions. Improved methods of psychological diagnosis. The field of psychological counseling expanded. The mental potential of a person became the object of precise measurements. On this basis, new branches of knowledge were born - , engineering psychology, design.

In the 20s. All over the world and in our country, aviation psychology is intensively developing along with engineering psychology, which studies the mental characteristics of a person who controls a complex aviation system, the problems of human interaction in difficult conditions of mental stress. Research in this area is being carried out by prominent psychologists S.G. Gellerstein, K.K. Platonov, N.D. Zavalova. These studies synthesized the achievements of physiology, medicine and psychology. The general theoretical ideas about the mental states of a person in extreme situations, the patterns of interaction between a person and technology were expanded. The psychological causes of accidents were studied. Methods of activity analysis were developed.

Under the influence of pragmatic shifts, psychological theory also changed. All obsolete, non-life schemes fell away. Human activity became the main object of psychology. In psychology, the figure of a psychologist who knew the psychology of a certain sphere of human activity came to the fore. In the 20s. extensive research is being carried out in the field of pathopsychology and psychotherapy (A.R. Luria, V.N. Myasishchev, K.I. Platonov), in the field of defectological psychology (L.S. Vygotsky, L.V. Zankov, I.M. Solovyov , Zh.I. Shif).

Attempts to create a Marxist social psychology were rejected: the ideologists of totalitarianism did not allow the existence of parallel structures.

In 1930, the first All-Union Congress for the Study of Human Behavior was held. (The fact that 3,200 people took part in the work of the congress speaks of attention to the problem of behavior.) 170 reports were heard. The section of forensic psychology worked at the congress, at which reports were made by A.S. Tager "On the results and prospects of the study of forensic psychology", A.E. Brusilovsky "The main problems of the defendant in the criminal process."

Considering the biosocial determination of behavior, the congress participants criticized all bourgeois psychological schools. Reflexology was also criticized, and then, in the course of a long "reactological discussion", Kornilov's reactology. One of the theses of Marxism came to the fore: "social being determines social consciousness." The behavior of the individual was relegated to the background. The concept of "behavior" began to be considered a kind of bourgeois ideology.

The theoretical problem of the “crisis of bourgeois psychology” arose, the need to “rebuild the foundation of psychology” became actual, and interest in comparative psychology intensified.

The founder of Russian comparative psychology was the famous biologist and psychologist V.A. Wagner(1849 - 1934). He believed that rational forms of behavior are evolutionarily related to instinctive forms of behavior. Considering the development of the psyche in phylogenesis (historical development), Wagner established the genetic connection between the individual stages of evolution (The Origin and Development of Psychic Abilities, 1929). Interest in the genesis of psychic abilities in the process of individual development (in ontogenesis) has become more acute.

The theory of the origin and development of higher mental functions was developed by L.S. Vygotsky(1896 - 1934). Based on the ideas of comparative psychology, Vygotsky began his research where comparative psychology stopped before questions that were insoluble for it: it could not explain human consciousness by the laws of biological evolution. Vygotsky's fundamental idea of social mediation of human mental activity. The instrument of this mediation is, according to Vygotsky, a sign (word). Consciousness in its genesis is conditioned by social interaction. The use of a sign, a word as a specifically human mental regulator restructures all higher mental manifestations, human functions: perception, arbitrary memory and will. Mechanical memory becomes logical, the associative flow of ideas becomes productive thinking and creative imagination, impulsive actions become voluntary actions. Vygotsky, following Piaget, postulated a structural analogy between objective and internal mental activity. The inner plane of consciousness began to be understood in Soviet psychology as an actively mastered outer world. A person is aware of what is presented in a socially normalized form, that is, what matters.

Vygotsky rejected Piaget's postulate about the development of a child's thinking from the individual (authentic) to the social. Answering the question of what happens to the child's thinking in the pre-verbal period of his development, Vygotsky comes to the conclusion that thinking and speech have different roots, develop in different directions, which can converge and diverge at different age stages. There is a pre-speech phase in the development of the intellect and a pre-intellectual phase in the development of speech. Only from the moment the child establishes a connection between the word and the object does thinking become verbal, and speech intellectual. Preverbal thinking, according to Vygotsky, is similar to the thinking of certain animal species. Speech has a social origin. “Internalization” (appropriation) of language leads to the fact that thought begins to be expressed in the form of inner speech. The relationship between thought and speech is not constant.
neither in ontogenetic nor in phylogenetic development (Thinking and Speech, 1934).

Studying child psychology and the disintegration of mental functions on the material of defectology, Vygotsky came to the conclusion that consciousness is a dynamic semantic system that functions in the unity of its emotional, volitional, and intellectual components. Vygotsky created a new direction in child psychology, putting forward the concept of zones of proximal development of the child(“History of the development of higher mental functions”, 1931).

In the mechanisms of brain activity L.S. Vygotsky saw dynamic functional complexes (The Development of Higher Mental Functions, 1960). He, unlike Piaget, argued that mental development does not follow maturation, but is due to the influence of the environment on the human activity sphere. The Soviet theory of mental development (Leontiev) and pedagogical psychology (Zankov, Galperin, Elkonin, Davydov, and others) were formed on these foundations.

In the second half of the 30s. in domestic psychology, a trend of theoretical consolidation is outlined. Psychologists of various trends are increasingly united by the activity concept of the psyche.

The conceptualization and systematization of psychological categories was carried out by S.L. Rubinstein(1889 - 1960) in his fundamental work "Fundamentals of General Psychology" (1946). The main initial postulate of S.L. Rubinshtein: the reflection of real life is mediated by specific human activity. The psyche and activity are one — the psyche is formed and manifested in activity. External influences are ordered through internal factors - goals, motives, attitudes. External causes act through internal conditions("Being and Consciousness", 1957). All mental manifestations should be understood as processes - self-developing dynamic phenomena that generate the corresponding results - mental images, concepts, decision-making, regulatory acts. Mental processes, including thinking, develop as an activity of a subject with an object, as a system of operations, due to personal motivation. In Man and the World (1973), Rubinstein postulates that all being can be understood only through man.

Another well-known Soviet psychologist, A.N. Leontiev(1903 - 1979), developing the concept of an activity approach to the psyche, studied its development in phylo- and ontogenesis ("Problems of the development of the psyche", 1959). In the structure of activity, Leontiev studied the interaction of its components - motives, goals and conditions, and in the structure of consciousness - the hierarchy of its backbone components - the system of meanings and meanings. Leontiev considered this hierarchy of motivational and semantic formations as a basic structure, personality (“Activity, Consciousness, Personality”, 1975).

The studies of Vygotsky, Rubinstein and Leontiev had a significant impact on the development of general, child and educational psychology.

Since the mid 30s. the development of Soviet psychology was drastically slowed down. Totalitarianism, which reduced man to the role of a "cog", did not really need psychological science. As a result of the decision of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks adopted in 1936 “On pedological perversions in the system of people's commissariat of education”, all diagnostic methods of psychology were banned, psychotechnics was crushed and banned, and the development of labor psychology and engineering psychology was stopped. The only psychological journal in the country, Psychotechnics, was closed, all research in the applied branches of psychology, the genetic prerequisites of the psyche, ceased. Research on the psychology of personality and behavior has drastically declined. The influence of the social environment on the formation of the mental qualities of a person has also not been studied. (Social stereotypes, attitudes and value orientations of various social, cultural and ethnic groups are still poorly understood). Such human qualities as aggressiveness, conformity, intrapersonal and interpersonal conflicts were not studied. The whole problem of sexual mental differences fell under the ban. The middle-sex, conflict-free, devoid of inclinations and intellectual characteristics model of the average “Soviet man” has become orthodox-optimal.

Ties with pre-revolutionary and world psychological science were severed. But even against this negative background, leading Soviet psychologists created separate fundamental works that have not lost their significance even today. Among them, we note: “Abilities and Giftedness”, “The Mind of a Commander” B.M. Teplova; “Problems of character formation”, “Man as an object of knowledge” B.G. Ananiev; "Experimental Basis for the Psychology of Set" D.N. Uznadze and others. Significant progress was made in the field of pedagogical and developmental psychology (A.V. Zaporozhets, N.A. Menchinskaya and others), in the field of psychophysics and psychophysiology (E.N. Sokolov, S.V. Kravkov and others .).

Only in the 60s. the “rehabilitation” of psychology began. In 1964, departments of psychology were opened at Moscow, Leningrad, and Tbilisi universities (and then at Yaroslavl). The teaching of general and legal psychology began in law schools. In 1971, the Institute of Psychology of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR was established. Since 1980, the Psychological Journal has been published. (Another psychological journal, Questions of Psychology, has been published since 1955).

From the beginning of the 60s. the problems of social psychology and its applied branches began to be developed again. At the same time, a conceptual restructuring of psychology began, due to advances in cybernetics, information theory, and the physiology of higher nervous activity.

Already in the mid-30s. in the physiology of higher nervous activity, new ideas about the work of the brain are being formed. Active search mental activity was already difficult to explain by a simple reflex. In neurophysiology, the search for physiological mechanisms of active processing of information coming from both the external and internal environment is intensifying.

The teachings of I.P. Pavlova was developed PC. Anokhin(1898 - 1974). Petr Kuzmich Anokhin showed that mental regulation is based on systemic neurophysiological processes that model the behavioral situation. The simulated useful result of behavior organizes all nervous processes into a single functional system that operates on the basis of feedback. Functional theory P.K. Anokhin has become widely used in psychological research.

The brain mechanisms of mental processes have been widely studied A.R. Luria(1902 - 1977) - one of the founders of Russian neuropsychology. Researching in the 20s. state of affect, Luria developed a technique that allows to identify repeated speech and motor symptoms of affective states previously experienced by an individual. Working with Vygotsky, Luria explored the social conditioning of thinking (On the Historical Development of Cognitive Processes, 1974).

But Luria devoted his main research to the problem of cerebral localization of higher mental functions and their disturbances in local brain damage, the development of methods for neuropsychological diagnostics (“Luri’s battery of methods”). Luria revealed the role of speech mediation in the regulation of voluntary movements. (During the war years, he worked in hospitals to restore movement in the wounded.) Investigating mentally abnormal children, Luria established a connection between violations of abstracting activity and defects in volitional regulation and developed a number of recommendations for compensating for mental defects. A.R. Luria was one of the first to synthesize modern neurophysiological and psychological data. He owns the first textbook of neuropsychology - Fundamentals of Neuropsychology (1973).

In the early 70s. after a long neglect of the problem of heredity, a broad discussion unfolded on the question of the relationship between natural and social factors in the formation of the human psyche and his behavior. The discussion on this problem has even moved to the pages of literary and socio-political journals. A sharp discussion of the role of biological factors in the formation of personality has shaken some of the dogmas of official Soviet psychology; new approaches were outlined in the field of differential psychology. I.V. Ravich-Shcherbo in a number of studies comes to the conclusion that mental abilities are largely explained by genetic factors (“Problems of Differential Psychophysiology”, vol. 7, 1972).

In the 60s - 70s. research in the field of the theory of consciousness is being activated (“Problems of Consciousness. Materials of the Symposium”, 1966), the problem of the relationship between consciousness and the subconscious is being updated (F.V. Basin “The Problem of the Unconscious”, 1968). In 1979, the International Symposium on the Problem of the Unconscious was organized in Tbilisi. A three-volume monograph "The Unconscious: Problems, Functions, Research Methods" (1978) was prepared for his discovery.

In the 70s - 80s. research in the field of social psychology and applied branches of psychology is being activated, the brain mechanisms of higher mental functions are being studied (P.V. Simonov, N.P. Bekhtereva). The concept of the systemic structure of thinking is being developed (A.V. Brushlinsky, O.K. Tikhomirov). Research is being carried out in differential psychology (V.D. Nebylitsyn), engineering psychology (B.F. Lomov and others), the psychology of training and education (V.V. Davydov, D.B. Elkonin), forensic psychology (M. I. Enikeev, A.R. Ratinov and others). A psychological service is beginning to form in the sphere of public education, production, transport, health care, law enforcement, family and marriage. The philosophical and humanistic direction of personality psychology is developing (K.A. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya "Strategy of Life", 1991). Scientific psychology becomes an integral element of the culture of society.

Open any newspaper or magazine and you will find the terms proposed by Sigmund Freud. Sublimation, projection, transference, defenses, complexes, neuroses, hysterias, stresses, psychological traumas and crises, etc. - all these words have firmly entered our lives. And the books of Freud and other prominent psychologists also firmly entered it. We offer you a list of the best - those that have changed our reality. Save yourself so you don't lose!

Eric Berne is the author of the famous concept of scenario programming and game theory. They are based on transactional analysis, which is now being studied all over the world. Bern believes that every person's life is programmed up to the age of five, and then we all play games with each other using three roles: Adult, Parent and Child. Read more about this world-famous concept in the review of Bern's bestseller " ", presented in the Library "Main Thought".

Edward de Bono, a British psychologist, developed a method for teaching effective thinking. The six hats are six different ways of thinking. De Bono suggests "trying on" each headgear to learn how to think in different ways depending on the situation. The red hat is emotion, the black hat is criticism, the yellow hat is optimism, the green hat is creativity, the blue hat is mind control, and the white hat is facts and figures. you can read in the Library "Main Thought".

1. Alfred Adler. Understand human nature

Alfred Adler is one of the most famous students of Sigmund Freud. He created his own concept of individual (or individual) psychology. Adler wrote that a person's actions are influenced not only by the past (as Freud taught), but also by the future, or rather the goal that a person wants to achieve in the future. And based on this goal, he transforms his past and present. In other words, only knowing the goal, we can understand why a person acted this way and not otherwise. Take, for example, the image with the theater: only by the last act do we understand the actions of the characters that they performed in the first act. You can read about the universal law of personality development proposed by Adler in the article: "".

MD, psychiatrist and psychoanalyst Norman Doidge devoted his research to brain plasticity. In his main work, he makes a revolutionary statement: our brain is able to change its own structure and work due to the thoughts and actions of a person. Doidge talks about the latest discoveries that prove that the human brain is plastic, which means it can change itself. The book features stories of scientists, doctors, and patients who have achieved amazing transformations. Those who had serious problems managed to cure brain diseases that were considered incurable without surgery and pills. Well, those who did not have any special problems were able to significantly improve the functioning of their brain. More details provided in the Main Thought Library.

Susan Weinshenk is a well-known American psychologist specializing in behavioral psychology. She is called "The Brain Lady" as she studies the latest advances in neuroscience and the human brain and applies her knowledge to business and everyday life. Susan talks about the basic laws of the psyche. In her bestselling book, she identifies 7 main motivators of human behavior that affect our lives. More about this in the review of the book "", presented in the Library "Main Thought".

1. Eric Erickson. Childhood and society

Erik Erikson is an outstanding psychologist who detailed and supplemented the famous age periodization of Sigmund Freud. The periodization of human life proposed by Erickson consists of 8 stages, each of which ends with a crisis. This crisis a person must go through correctly. If it does not pass, then it (the crisis) is added to the load in the next period. You can read about important age periods in the life of adults in the article: "".

The famous book of the famous American psychologist Robert Cialdini. It has become a classic in social psychology. "" is recommended by the best scientists in the world as a guide to interpersonal relationships and conflict resolution. An overview of this book is available in the Main Thought Library.

1. Hans Eysenck. Personality measurements

Hans Eysenck is a British psychologist, one of the leaders of the biological direction in psychology, the creator of the factor theory of personality. He is best known as the author of the popular IQ test.

Psychologist Daniel Goleman completely changed the way we think about leadership when he said that for a leader, “emotional intelligence” (EQ) is more important than IQ. Emotional intelligence (EQ) is the ability to identify and understand emotions, both one's own and those of others, and the ability to use this knowledge to manage one's behavior and relationships with people. A leader without emotional intelligence may be highly trained, sharp-witted, and endlessly generating new ideas, but he will still lose out to a leader who can manage emotions. Why this happens, you can read in the review of Goleman's book "", presented in the Library "Main Thought".

The famous sociologist Malcolm Gladwell presented a number of interesting studies on intuition. He is sure that each of us has intuition, and it is worth listening to it. Our unconscious, without our participation, processes huge amounts of data and gives out the most correct decision on a silver platter, which we just have to not miss and use properly for ourselves. However, intuition is easily frightened by the lack of time to make a decision, the state of stress, as well as the attempt to describe in words your thoughts and actions. An overview of Gladwell's bestseller "" is in the Big Thought Library.

1. Viktor Frankl. Will to Meaning

Viktor Frankl is a world-famous Austrian psychologist and psychiatrist, student of Alfred Adler and founder of logotherapy. Logotherapy (from the Greek "Logos" - the word and "terapia" - care, care, treatment) is a direction in psychotherapy that arose on the basis of the conclusions that Frankl made while being a concentration camp prisoner. This is a meaning-seeking therapy, this is the way that helps a person find meaning in any circumstances of his life, including such extreme ones as suffering. And here it is very important to understand the following: in order to find this meaning, Frankl proposes to investigate no depth of personality(according to Freud) and her height. That's a very big difference in accent. Before Frankl, psychologists mainly tried to help people by exploring the depths of their subconscious, and Frankl insists on the full disclosure of a person's potential, on exploring his heights. Thus, he places emphasis, figuratively speaking, on the spire of the building (height), and not on its basement (depths).

1. Sigmund Freud. Dream interpretation

1. Anna Freud. Psychology Self and defense mechanisms

Anna Freud is the youngest daughter of the founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud. She founded a new direction in psychology - ego psychology. Her main scientific merit is the development of the theory of human defense mechanisms. Anna also made significant progress in studying the nature of aggression, but still her most significant contribution to psychology was the creation of child psychology and child psychoanalysis.

1. Nancy McWilliams. Psychoanalytic diagnostics

This book is the bible of modern psychoanalysis. American psychoanalyst Nancy McWilliams writes that we are all irrational to some extent, which means that for each person it is necessary to answer two basic questions: “How crazy?” and “What exactly is psycho?” The first question can be answered by three levels of the work of the psyche (details in the article: ""), and the second - by types of character (narcissistic, schizoid, depressive, paranoid, hysterical, etc.), studied in detail by Nancy McWilliams and described in the book " Psychoanalytic Diagnosis".

1. Carl Jung. Archetype and symbol

Carl Jung is the second famous student of Sigmund Freud (we have already talked about Alfred Adler). Jung believed that the unconscious is not only the lowest in a person, but also the highest, for example, creativity. The unconscious thinks in symbols. Jung introduces the concept of the collective unconscious, with which a person is born, it is the same for everyone. When a person is born, he is already filled with ancient images, archetypes. They pass from generation to generation. Archetypes affect everything that happens to a person.

1. Abraham Maslow. The far reaches of the human psyche

Martin Seligman is an outstanding American psychologist, the founder of positive psychology. He became world famous for his studies of the phenomenon of learned helplessness, that is, passivity in the face of supposedly unavoidable troubles. Seligman proved that the basis of helplessness and its extreme manifestation - depression - is pessimism. The psychologist introduces us to two of his main concepts: the theory of learned helplessness and the concept of explanatory style. They are closely related. The first explains why we become pessimists, and the second explains how to change the way we think so that we turn from a pessimist into an optimist. An overview of Seligman's book "" is presented in the Main Thought Library.

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