But in general, the French resistance played one of the key roles in the defeat of Nazi Germany in Europe [ ] .

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"Vichy-Resistance"

The term "Vichy-Resistance" (fr. vichysto-résistance) was born in the French press to refer to a number of prominent politicians of the Vichy regime who sympathized with the Resistance and secretly participated in its activities. These included the future President of France Francois Mitterrand, the Protestant theologian Marc Besnier and a number of others.

Allied intelligence support

The activities of the Resistance were supported by the intelligence services of the United States and Great Britain: the first agent was trained by de Gaulle and delivered to France on January 1, 1941, in total, 375 US intelligence agents, 393 British intelligence agents and 868 de Gaulle agents were delivered to France. When the reserves of French-speaking agents were exhausted towards the end of 1943, the Allies began to form groups of three (consisting of one Englishman, one American and one Frenchman), who were dressed in military uniform and (unlike agents) openly acted together with the partisans.

An example is Jacqueline Nearn, who, after the occupation of northern France, left for England, at the end of 1941 became an agent of the British special services and, after special training in January 1943, was abandoned in France. According to the results of her activities, she was awarded the Order of the British Empire.

Participation of foreign citizens in the French resistance movement

German anti-fascists

About three thousand German anti-fascists took an active part in the armed resistance to the invaders.

Spanish anti-fascists

Also, a significant role in the movement was played by Spanish anti-fascists (anarchists, communists, left-wing republicans, Basque nationalists), who evacuated from the defeated Spanish Republic and had military experience.

Russian emigrants and citizens of the USSR

3 thousand Soviet citizens who ended up in France took part in the resistance movement, as well as Russian emigrants living in France (A. A. Skryabina, Z. A. Shakhovskaya, I. I. Troyan, Boris Vilde, V. A. Obolenskaya, I. A. Krivoshein , A. N. Levitsky , G.  Gazdanov , D. G. Amilakhvari , A. B. Katlama , K. L. Feldzer , B. R. Khreschatitsky , A. A. Bennigsen , G. L. Roshko , F. I. Eliseev and others).

Researchers at the Museum of Man in Paris Boris Vilde and Anatoly Levitsky organized a printing house in the basement of the museum, which at the end of 1940 produced the first issue of a leaflet entitled "Resist!", which gave the name to the entire patriotic movement in France. At the end of 1941, they were arrested and in February 1942, Vilde, Levitsky and five other people from this underground group were shot at the wall of Fort Mont-Valérien.

On October 15, 1943, the Central Committee of Soviet Prisoners of War in France began its activities, uniting the activities of partisan and underground groups of Soviet citizens, and on November 7, 1943, the committee began issuing the newspaper "Soviet Patriot" (in Russian). By the spring of 1944, 35 Soviet partisan detachments (Dede, Donbass, Zheleznyak, For Freedom, Katrin, Kovpak, Kotovsky, Paris Commune, Rodina ”, “Sevastopol”, “Freedom”, “Chapaev”, etc.), and the Rodina detachment under the command of N. Lisovets consisted of women.

The 1st Soviet partisan regiment in France was created by order of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the USSR Armed Forces dated August 22, 1944, on the basis of Armenian partisan detachments in the city of Nimes and, to a large extent, from former legionnaires of the Armenian Legion of the Wehrmacht. Major A. Ghazaryan was appointed commander of the regiment, L. Titanyan was appointed commissar of the regiment, D. Minasyan was appointed chief of staff and deputy. commander of the combat unit - B. Petrosyan. On May 1, 1945, the French government awarded the 1st Soviet Partisan Regiment a battle banner and the Order of the Military Cross with a silver star. In addition, the battalions of the partisan regiment were awarded three red banners (from the city party organizations of the communists of the cities of Leon, Marseille and Nimes), and 665 soldiers of the regiment were awarded French orders and medals.

According to incomplete data, only in the period from the beginning of February to the end of August 1944, Soviet partisan detachments in France participated in the battles for the liberation of Paris, the cities of Toulouse, Limoges, Clermont-Ferrand, Nimes and a number of departments, destroyed 3500 and captured 650 Nazis and German accomplices, damaged 9 high-voltage power lines, blew up three railway bridges, derailed 65 military trains, destroyed 76 locomotives and over 1000 railway cars, platforms and tanks, captured 90 vehicles, three heavy guns, 15 mortars, 50 machine guns, as well as small arms and other trophies.

In 1960, for courage in the battles for the freedom of the French people, orders and medals of France were awarded to a group of Soviet citizens - participants in the Resistance Movement in France.

Kazakhstanis

During the Second World War, the Kazakhs fought in the ranks of the resistance movement of European countries. On the territory of France, two partisan regiments were formed from former Soviet prisoners of war.

The first operated in the area of ​​the city of Marseille. The Ukrainian Vasily Porik, the former resident of the city of Balkhash Galina Temchenko and many others fought in this regiment.

In southern France, in the department of Gard and the region of Toulouse, the second Soviet partisan regiment operated, which liberated the cities of Florent, Villefort, Ales, Albi from the Nazis. Almost 300 Kazakhs fought in this regiment. Among them are former soldiers of the Red Army: deputy regiment commander Abu Moldagaliev, company commander, then deputy. battalion commander Uteuli Bisengaliev, S. Zhumashev (Atyrau), Kanysbaev, N. Kunaev (Saratov region), West Kazakhstan citizens Zh. Katshikov, S. Karenov, D. Karazhumin, N. Uteshev, B. Edrisov, Z. Amangaliev, Sh. Balykov , residents of Semipalatinsk N. Ilyasov, M. Nugmanov, G. M. Martynenko, K. Khangereev, B. Seksenbaev from Taldy-Kurgan, Khusainov Shamil Khasanovich (North Kazakhstan region) and others.

U. Bisengaliyev, called to active service in 1939 from the current village of Akzhayk, Chapaevsky district, served in the cavalry at the beginning of the war as assistant. squadron commander. In October 1941, in one of the heavy battles near Odessa, he was wounded and shell-shocked, in this condition he was captured. When he began to recover a little in the prisoner of war camp, he escaped and hid in the village, where he was captured by the police, surrendered to the invaders and sent to Germany along with other prisoners of war, from 1943 to France in a prisoner of war camp.

Khusainov Shamil Khasanovich, born December 7, 1918, Tatar, native of Petropavlovsk, North Kazakhstan region. He was called up in March 1940 and registered in 1945 in the Petropavlovsk GVK. Served: 747th Infantry Regiment, took part in the resistance movement "Poppies" in France, where he ended up after escaping from the captivity of the Dachau concentration camp. Squad leader, senior sergeant. Injured. Awards: Order of the Patriotic War 2nd class, Order of Glory 3rd class, medals "For the Victory over Germany", "Grand French Cross for the Republic of France", "Small French Cross for the Liberation of France", commemorative medals. He died on May 28, 1993, was buried in the city of Petropavlovsk, North Kazakhstan region.

The Nazis more than once processed the prisoners so that they would join the legion to fight against the Red Army, but when they were finally convinced that they could not be persuaded to treason, they went to the trick, trying to use the prisoners in the fight against partisans in France. However, upon arrival in France, the prisoners began to contact the resistance movement and create an underground organization to escape from captivity.

2nd Ukrainian Battalion named after Taras Shevchenko

In July 1944, as a result of the retreat of German troops from Belarus to France, the 115th and 118th security battalions, formed in occupied Ukraine from prisoners of war of the Red Army, were transferred to perform security functions. After being transferred to France, these formations were renamed, respectively, the 63rd and 62nd Schutzmannschaft battalions as part of the 30th Grenadier Division SS (2nd Russian).

On August 21, 1944, the 62nd and 63rd battalions were merged into a single formation; new German commanders were appointed. However, the new formation did not take part in the battles against the French partisans, since already on August 27 (on the day appointed by the Germans to enter the anti-partisan positions), almost in full strength went over to the side of the French resistance movement. From the French partisans who went over to the side, the 2nd Ukrainian Battalion named after Taras Shevchenko was formed (fr. Le 2 Bataillon Ukrainien des Forces Francaices de L'Interier, Groupement Frontiere, Sous-Region D.2.) .

After the liberation of French territory, both battalions were included in the 13th demi-brigade of the French Foreign Legion, in which they fought until the end of the war. After the war, some of the fighters continued to serve in the Foreign Legion. A small part of the personnel nevertheless returned to the USSR.

Jewish Fighting Organization

French Jews also fought in the ranks of the Resistance, who created the French organization. Organization Juive de Combat. Among them were many emigrants from Russia. In the partisan southern zone, under the name "Rezhin", Sarah Knut fought and died in 1944 (nee Ariadna Skryabina), the wife of the Jewish poet and member of the Resistance, Dovid Knut. She was posthumously awarded a military cross and a resistance medal, a monument to Sarah Knut was erected in Toulouse.

Participation of the Armenian community

The Armenian community of France played an active role in the Resistance. The Armenian poet and communist Misak Manushyan became one of the leaders of the Resistance and the commander of the Manushyan group (the family of chansonnier Charles Aznavour supported Misak and his wife Meline when they were in hiding). A group under the command of Manushyan made an attempt on the commandant of Paris, General Schaumburg, "distinguished" by mass executions, liquidated SS Standartenführer Julius Ritter, responsible for sending 600,000 civilians to forced labor in Germany. The Nazi "Red" poster, published in an edition of 15,000 copies, depicted Manushyan: " Manushyan, Armenian, gang leader, 56 attacks, 150 dead, 600 injured". On November 16, 1943, Manushyan was arrested by the German command at the underground headquarters, tortured, and 3 months later he was executed along with 21 members of his group. Arpen Davityan, another executed member of Manouchian's group, industrialist Napoleon Bullukyan (1905-1984), poets Gegham Atmajyan (1910-1940) and Ruben Melik were among the best-known members of the French Resistance. The Armenian-French writer Louise Aslanyan (1906-1945) - an activist of the Resistance, was arrested with her husband in 1944, sent to a concentration camp and killed. Many of her manuscripts and diaries were confiscated by the Nazis. Alexander Ghazaryan and Bardukh Petrosyan were awarded the highest military orders of France by General Charles de Gaulle. Henri Karayan (1921-2011), member of the Manouchian Group, participated in the underground distribution of L'Humanité in Paris and engaged in armed struggle until the Liberation. In 2012, 95-year-old Arsen Shakarian, the last survivor of the Manouchian Group, was elevated to an officer in the Legion of Honor by the President of France.

The “anti-fascist underground patriotic organization” operating in the territories of the USSR, Poland and France was led by a group of Armenian officers led by Major S. A. Yagdzhyan.

Participation of French citizens in the anti-fascist resistance of European countries

French citizens took part in the anti-fascist resistance on the territory of other European countries, including in the Soviet partisan movement in the occupied territory of the USSR:

Memory

Some patriotic resistance organizations

• United Resistance Movement
• Liberation-Sud

Notable figures

Notes

1. Spelling without quotes with a lowercase letter in the first word resistance movement given in the dictionary: Lopatin V. V. , Nechaeva I. V. , Cheltsova L. K. Uppercase or lowercase? Orthographic dictionary. - M.: Eksmo, 2009. - S. 414. - 512 p.
2. "French resistance played one of the key roles in the defeat of Nazi Germany in Europe."
   Historical speech de Gaulle // Russian service BBC, June 18, 2010.
3. Charles B. McDonald. Ordeal. American military forces in the European Theater during World War II. - M.: Military Publishing House, 1979. - S. 215-217.

Political history of France in the 20th century Arzakanyan Marina Tsolakovna

"Free France"

"Free France"

Simultaneously with the defeat of France, the history of her resistance to the invaders began. It is connected, first of all, with the name of the outstanding French military, political and statesman of the 20th century. General Charles de Gaulle.

De Gaulle was born on November 22, 1890 into an aristocratic family and brought up in the spirit of patriotism and Catholicism. After graduating from the Saint-Cyr Higher Military School, he fought on the fields of the First World War and graduated with the rank of captain. During the interwar period, de Gaulle continued his military career. However, since the mid-1920s, his activities went far beyond the scope of military service. He wrote extensively and made presentations. In four books by de Gaulle - "Discord in the camp of the enemy" (1924), "On the edge of the sword" (1932), "For a professional army" (1934) and "France and its army" (1938) ) - reflected the author's own military doctrine and his life credo. He was essentially the first in France to predict the decisive role of tank troops in a future war and presented himself as an adherent of French nationalism and a supporter of strong executive power.

De Gaulle was a staunch opponent of the defensive tactics developed at the General Staff of the French Army, which was based on the idea of ​​the impregnability of the Maginot Line. He warned of the destructiveness of such views and called for strengthening the country's defense capability. De Gaulle considered it necessary, first of all, to form additional tank corps in France, equipped with the latest vehicles. He sought supporters in military and political circles. In 1934, he even managed to get acquainted with Paul Reynaud, but de Gaulle did not achieve effective support for his ideas.

At the beginning of World War II, de Gaulle, who served with the rank of colonel, was appointed commander of tank forces in Alsace. When Germany launched a swift offensive on the Western Front in 1940, he was ordered to lead an urgently formed armored division. Throughout May, she fought selflessly, suffering heavy losses. The enemy had a huge advantage in tanks, artillery and aircraft. For military merit, de Gaulle was promoted to the rank of brigadier general.

In Paris, Paul Reynaud, while reorganizing his cabinet, appointed de Gaulle deputy minister of war. The general immediately arrived in the capital. He stubbornly insisted on continuing the war and tried to convince Reino of this. De Gaulle suggested that the government move to the North African possessions of France and fight, relying on the country's huge colonial empire. However, the chairman of the council of ministers preferred to transfer power to Marshal Petain. Then de Gaulle made an unprecedented act. He resolutely refused to submit to the new French authorities, who took a course of surrender, and on June 17, 1940, he flew on a military plane to London.

In the British capital, the rebellious general immediately met with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and assured him of his firm intention to continue the fight. On June 18, de Gaulle delivered a famous speech to his compatriots on London radio. In it, he argued that the position of France is far from hopeless, because the war that has begun is of a world nature and its outcome will not be decided only by the battle for France. The speech ended with the following words: “I, General de Gaulle, now in London, invite French officers and soldiers who are on British territory or can be there to establish contact with me. Whatever happens, the flame of the French Resistance must not be extinguished and will not be extinguished.” So already in June 1940 the flag of French resistance to the enemy was raised.

In London, de Gaulle founded the Free France organization, designed to fight against Nazi Germany on the side of Great Britain. The Vichy government sentenced de Gaulle to death in absentia for "desertion" and "treason". Nevertheless, both military and civilians of various political views and beliefs began to join the Free French. At the end of 1940 there were only 7,000 of them; in less than two years, this number had grown tenfold.

On August 7, 1940, de Gaulle and Churchill signed an agreement regarding the organization and use of French volunteer forces in England. De Gaulle undertook to form these forces and exercise supreme command over them in accordance with the general directives of the British Government. Great Britain did not recognize the rights of de Gaulle to exercise state power and considered the "free French" only as volunteers in their service. However, it provided de Gaulle with regular financial support and gave him the opportunity to create a civilian body in addition to the military. An English BBC radio station was also placed at de Gaulle's disposal. Through her, the "Free France" carried out propaganda broadcasting to France.

First of all, de Gaulle directed his efforts to mastering the French colonies, mainly African ones. With the help of his supporters, he began active propaganda there in favor of continuing the war and joining the Free French. The North African administration categorically rejected such proposals and remained loyal to the Vichy government. The colonies of French Equatorial Africa behaved differently. Already in August 1940, Chad joined de Gaulle. After some time, the Congo, Ubangi-Shari, Gabon, Cameroon went over to the side of the general. Several small French possessions in the Pacific announced his recognition. It was the first big success. True, in September 1940 the Gaullists also suffered a serious defeat. The expedition of the Anglo-French squadron, which had the goal of capturing the most important port of French West Africa - Dakar, ended in failure. The garrison of the city remained on the Vichy side. Yet the Free French now have their own territorial base on the African continent. This allowed de Gaulle to start creating his own "state apparatus" and decisively dissociate himself from the Vichy government.

On October 27, 1940, de Gaulle issued a Manifesto regarding the leadership of the French during the war. In it, he condemned the activities of the Petain cabinet, spoke of the illegality of its existence and called collaborators "accidental leaders" who submitted to the enemy. De Gaulle declared that on behalf of France he would exercise power for the sole purpose of protecting the country from the enemy.

At the very end of 1940, the Free French Political Affairs Office was created. Its work was supervised by de Gaulle himself. He also defined the tasks of the Office: “To create and use information services that collect materials on the political situation in France and the Empire. Organize and support the Free French movement in France and the Empire and try to extend its activities to old and new political, social, religious, economic, professional and intellectual organizations and convince them of the need at the moment to subordinate all personal interests to one - national " . The Directorate consisted of the General Staff and the Information Service. Three bureaus were subordinate to them. The first defined specific tasks. The second was to carry them out on the territory of France and the colonial empire. Subsequently, it developed into the well-known Central Bureau of Awareness and Action (BSRA). The third was engaged in establishing contacts with foreign countries. Its representatives were sent by de Gaulle to various regions of the world in order to achieve recognition of the "Free France" by the governments of foreign states.

In September 1941, de Gaulle issued an ordinance on the "Free France". He established the National Committee, which temporarily exercised the functions of state power. It was called upon to exist until "until a representation of the French people is created, capable of expressing the will of the nation independently of the enemy." The National Committee included commissioners appointed by its chairman, General de Gaulle: Rene Pleven (for coordinating the activities of the committee), Maurice Dejan (for foreign affairs), Rene Cassin (for justice and public education), General Legantiom (for military affairs), Admiral Muselier ( military and merchant fleet), General Valen (for aviation), Andre Dietelme (internal affairs). The commissars headed the national commissariats. Thus, within the framework of the Free French, some semblance of a government was created.

The cooperation of the "Free France" (since July 1942 - "Fighting France") with the allies in the anti-Hitler coalition was not easy at first. First of all, this concerned the development of de Gaulle's relations with the British government, before which he defended the French national interests. The head of the "Free French" sought to prevent the spread of British influence in the French colonial possessions.

In the summer of 1941, as a result of a joint British military operation with the "free French", the Vichy regime was overthrown in the French colonies in the Middle East - Syria and Lebanon. In the spring of 1942, Great Britain captured the island of Madagascar and eliminated the Vichy administration there. The British wanted to establish their power in these French possessions. De Gaulle categorically prevented this and, at the cost of great efforts and difficult diplomatic negotiations, joined Syria, Lebanon and Madagascar to the Free French movement.

Immediately after the start of the Great Patriotic War, de Gaulle, on behalf of the Free French, initiated cooperation with the USSR, which had previously maintained diplomatic relations with Vichy.

The events of June 22, 1941 found the general in Africa. On June 30, the Vichy government announced the severance of diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union. Plenipotentiary representative of the USSR under Vichy A.E. Bogomolov was immediately recalled from France. But already on July 1, the Ambassador of the Soviet Union to Great Britain, I. M. Maisky, telegraphed from London to Moscow that even before the break with Vichy, he was privately visited by the representative of de Gaulle Cassin, “who, on behalf of the general, conveyed the sympathies and best wishes of the USSR” and at the same time "raised the question of establishing certain relations between the Soviet government and de Gaulle's forces." In August, Cassin and Dejean posed the same question to IM Maisky for the second time. And on September 26, 1941, the USSR ambassador to Great Britain gave de Gaulle an official written response: “On behalf of my government, I have the honor to inform you that it recognizes you as the leader of all free French, wherever they are, who rallied around you supporting the allied cause.

Both sides decided to exchange official representatives. In early November 1941, A.E. Bogomolov was sent to Great Britain with the rank of Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the USSR to the allied governments in London. The Soviet government entrusted him with the functions of maintaining communication with the Free France. Roger Garraud, Raymond Schmittlen, appointed by de Gaulle, and the military representative, General Ernest Petit, also left for Moscow.

The United States maintained diplomatic relations with Vichy prior to entering World War II. However, the Americans were interested in using the French island colonies in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, controlled by the Free French, as their military naval and air bases.

After the US entered the war on the side of the Allies in December 1941, de Gaulle approached the United States with a proposal to establish diplomatic relations. Official Washington did not give a positive answer to the head of the "Freedom of France" for a long time. Only in March 1942 did the United States recognize the authority of the de Gaulle National Committee in the Pacific Islands. In July 1942, the US government issued a communiqué recognizing the organization headed by de Gaulle.

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Fighting France

On the eve of the holiday on July 14, 1942, de Gaulle decides to rename the Free France he leads as Fighting France. He announces that he thereby includes in his organization all the forces fighting against a common enemy, that is, all groups of the Resistance movement. In a speech on the BBC, the general urges the French of the unoccupied zone to celebrate the main national holiday: “Let every house be decorated with a tricolor national banner tomorrow. French women, gather in every city and every village in one place and sing the Marseillaise in full voice, in one breath, with tears in your eyes ”(208). Indeed, many inhabitants of France heard the call from London and fulfilled de Gaulle's wishes.

On July 28, the general, in confirmation of his idea of ​​​​expanding the organization he had created, introduced the socialist Andre Philip, who had come from France, to the French National Committee. He was appointed Commissioner of the Interior.

Committee meetings were held in London at Carlton Gardens 4. Here is how Jacques Soustel described them. “De Gaulle always tried to make the meetings of the committee at least more or less resemble the meetings of the Council of Ministers. But the atmosphere that reigned in them did not resemble, as there, a funeral. De Gaulle presided. He sat in a wood-panelled room under a large wall clock. On the table in front of him were scattered cigarettes, which he lit one after another. The discussions were very lively. Everyone present vigorously defended his point of view, and the chairman himself did not neglect to participate in the discussions. Upon returning to his office, he patiently considered the thousands of requests and complaints that came to him from the "free French" (among them there were even complaints from wives upset by the windy behavior of their husbands). Then he, together with his employees and visitors, discussed the military and political situation” (209).

Tobacco was de Gaulle's real passion. He smoked forty cigarettes a day plus two cigars. The general also always had a flask of light, sweet, almost non-alcoholic champagne with him. From time to time he sipped from it a small sip (210).

From the beginning of August to the end of September 1942, de Gaulle made a long journey through the territories of the "fighting French" in Africa and the Middle East. On August 5, he leaves for Cairo. The general arrived in the Egyptian capital almost simultaneously with Churchill, who was on his way to Moscow via Tehran to meet with Stalin.

The head of the Fighting France also wanted to visit Moscow. On August 8 in London, Professor Dejan appeared on his behalf to Bogomolov and declared: “If the Soviet government wants to invite de Gaulle to Moscow for a personal meeting, then he will be very glad to accept such an invitation, using his stay in the Middle East as an opportunity for a visit to USSR" (211). On the same day, Roger Garraud met in Moscow with Deputy People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs Vladimir Georgievich Dekanozov and said: “De Gaulle is in Cairo. He would be ready, if the Soviet government considers it desirable, to arrive in Moscow for 2-3 days" (212). However, de Gaulle did not receive an invitation to come to the capital of the USSR. Garro complained about this to the Secretary of the Comintern, Andre Marty. “What a pity,” he stressed in the conversation, “that de Gaulle's request to invite him here did not give him any answer. This is the only case in my thirty-year career that since August 8 I have not received any answer after meeting with Dekanozov. I understand when they explain to me that the situation is unsuccessful. But what does the general think now, without receiving any answer from me on his request? (213)

Indeed, Stalin had no time for de Gaulle. The Germans went to Stalingrad. And Great Britain, because of the great danger on the northern seas, temporarily refused to send convoys with military cargo to Arkhangelsk. The question of opening the Second Front was also postponed. Stalin talked about all this with Churchill in Moscow on August 12. And so far de Gaulle has been able to obtain from the USSR only permission to create the French Normandy squadron for its subsequent dispatch to the Eastern Front.

Having traveled around his African possessions, on September 25, 1942, de Gaulle returned to London. He was not happy with the position of the Fighting France. The situation with Lebanon, Syria and Madagascar remained a stumbling block between him and the allies. The general stubbornly sought to have Britain and the United States recognize his authority over these territories. But Churchill and Roosevelt were in no hurry to do this and generally considered de Gaulle's claims unfounded.

On September 30, the head of the Fighting France once again, in a personal meeting, tried to demand from the Prime Minister of England the recognition of priority rights to Syria, Lebanon and Madagascar. However, Churchill did not give in. De Gaulle was furious and declared that he would put an end to their cooperation. Then the British Prime Minister shouted:

“You say you are France! In fact, you are not France! I do not recognize you as France. Where is your France?

De Gaulle tried to restrain himself, but nevertheless did not fail to remark: “If I am not France, then why are you having this conversation with me?” But Churchill did not let up: “Your worst enemy is yourself. It's impossible to work with you. You sow discord wherever you appear ... Instead of waging war with Germany, you are waging it with Great Britain ”(214). The interlocutors parted, without agreeing on anything.

In his memoirs, Churchill described de Gaulle as follows: “I knew that he was not a friend of England, but I always recognized in him the spirit and idea that would forever establish the word “France” on the pages of history. I understood him and, indignantly, at the same time admired his arrogant behavior. An emigrant who left his country, sentenced to death, he was completely dependent on the benevolence of the British government, and then the government of the United States. The Germans captured his homeland, he had no real foothold anywhere. However, he resisted everything. Always, even when he acted in the worst possible way, he seemed to express the individuality of France, the great state with all its pride, power and ambition ”(215). But these lines were written after the war, when both politicians were no longer in business. In the meantime, the head of the Fighting France will have to defend its right to exist before the allies more than once.

In October, de Gaulle received the leaders of the Resistance in London. On the territory of France, Jean Moulin in the southern zone and Gilbert Renault (known under the pseudonym of Colonel Remy) in the part of the country occupied by the Germans were engaged in the unification of various groups into a single whole. De Gaulle instructed Remy to get in touch with the Communists, who played a decisive role in the resistance movement, and ask them to send their representative to London. However, the leader of the underground PCF, Jacques Duclos, who received directives from Moscow from the leaders of the Comintern, Georgy Dimitrov and Andre Marty, and Maurice Thorez, who was in the USSR, has not yet contacted the Gaullists.

At the end of October, de Gaulle traveled with inspections to the British ports, where the naval forces of the "fighting French" were based. The general saw his son, was able to spend a little time with him, to rest and relax. They passed at dusk along the harbor of Portsmouth. De Gaulle thoughtfully, as in his youth, looked into the distance. He so wanted to see the French coast. How many seas he has seen during the war years! The general recalled the huge blue and white waves of the Atlantic Ocean approaching the capital of Gabon, Libreville, the azure waters of the Mediterranean Sea, splashing off the coast of Beirut. And now these harsh gray waves, breaking to smithereens on the British cliffs. Looking at them, de Gaulle quietly read to his son the lines of Hugo's poem:

Darkness hears

How does he breathe

In space

November brought new trials to the head of the Fighting France, in comparison with which the previous ones seemed not so serious. On November 8, 1942, a large Anglo-American landing began under the command of General Dwight Eisenhower in Algiers. Roosevelt and Churchill decided to seize French North Africa, where there was a large Vichy military contingent. The Americans found two high-ranking French soldiers who, according to their plan, were supposed to help them win over the Vichy officers and soldiers in Algiers to the side of the Allies. The first was Admiral François Darlan, Deputy Prime Minister of the Vichy government, commander of the surviving part of the French squadron. The second is Army General Henri Giraud, who escaped from German captivity and settled in the southern zone. Darlan was in Algiers allegedly by accident. The Americans themselves took Giraud out of France. The admiral ordered the troops in North Africa not to resist the formations of the allies and declared that he was taking power "in the name of the marshal." The Americans immediately appointed him High Commissioner for North Africa. In response, the German army occupied the southern zone of France, Corsica and Tunisia.

The allies did not even warn de Gaulle about the impending operation, he simply faced the fact of their actions behind his back. The general's mood was subdued. He understood that everything that happened was planned and carried out by the Americans. On November 14, de Gaulle wrote indignantly to Churchill: “The coming to power of Darlan in North Africa with the help of the Americans and “on behalf of the marshal” is, in my opinion, one of the main events of this war. I think that this fact will have more serious consequences for the French nation than the capitulation of Bordeaux. The French people now understand that the United States no longer only recognizes a power based on the betrayal of France and its allies, tyrannical, inspired by the Nazis and consisting of people collaborating with the Germans, but has itself joined this power, this regime and these people. 217). However, de Gaulle also had no illusions about Churchill. He understood that everything was done with his consent. The general had long considered the British prime minister "Roosevelt's lieutenant" (218).

On November 19, the head of the Fighting France sent a message to all allied governments: “It is quite obvious that the anger, bitterness and stunnedness provoked in France by this political operation made such a terrible impression on the resistance of the French people and their confidence in the allies that it was even impossible imagine” (219).

After such statements, de Gaulle was deprived of the opportunity to speak on the BBC. He had to use radio stations in Beirut and Brazzaville to broadcast. True, on December 14 Eden finally signed an agreement with the general on the transfer of power in Madagascar to the French National Committee. The head of the Fighting France was satisfied with this event. However, with all his thoughts, he had already rushed to Algiers. De Gaulle understood that they were trying to remove him from participating in important events, he, the only Frenchman who called on his people to continue fighting, the founder of Free France, who had achieved so much in two and a half years solely by his own efforts, will and perseverance! No, he won't let that happen.

And the general begins to act again. He knew that there were also his supporters in Algeria. In addition, almost all the forces of the Resistance movement are behind him. Darlan, like any other Vichy, was considered by de Gaulle to be a traitor with whom nothing could be done. But the general wanted to meet with Giraud, but he refused. Then the head of the Fighting France succeeded in sending his representative, General Francois d'Astier de La Vigerie, brother of the writer Emmanuel, to Algeria. In the Algerian capital, Darlan's entourage included another of their brothers, Henri d'Astier de La Vigerie. De Gaulle's envoy was to study the situation on the spot and report it to the general.

François d'Astier de La Vigerie stayed in Algiers from 19 to 22 December. And on December 24, Admiral Darlan was shot dead in his office by a student at the University of Algiers, Fernand Bonier de La Chapelle. The next day, the student was shot without trial or investigation. Who was behind the assassination of the admiral? So far, it has not been possible to unravel the intricacies of the Algerian events of the distant December 1942. Bonnier de La Chapelle's friend Philippe Raguenaud claimed that at that time they decided with their small student group of patriots that they would kill the traitor admiral. They drew lots. It fell to Fernand (220) to go "to an appointment" with the High Commissioner. De Gaulle himself emphasized many years later that Vichy Darlan "was not killed, but executed" (221). Be that as it may, the head of the Fighting France did not grieve over the death of the admiral. He took this fact calmly, like a Christian and a military man. Even when in 1916 and 1940 the units entrusted to him suffered heavy losses, he simply said: "Our regiment has lost enough feathers" (222). Darlan, of course, was not a feather, but a large bird. Well, so what? They sent him to the forefathers, and now only God can judge him.

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The French Resistance Movement is the common name for several national liberation movements that operated on the territory of the occupied country in 1940-1944. The common goal of the Resistance was to fight for the liberation of the republic from the Germans.

Until 1943, there were several leading centers, which were then united under one French Committee of National Liberation.

Members of the Resistance

The exact number of people who took part in the struggle for the liberation of France is still unknown to historians. Archival documents and memoirs of members of the Resistance Movement allow scientists to name data of 350-500 thousand people. These are very approximate figures, since a huge number of organizations, absolutely unrelated to each other, fought against the fascist regime.

Among the main currents that were represented in the Resistance, it is worth noting such as:

• Communist, represented by members of the Communist Party of France;
• The partisan movement, which was called "Maki";
• The Vichy movement, which included supporters of the Vichy puppet government. Members of this direction supported the French resistance, giving it all kinds of support, but officially they were on the side of Vichy;
• Free French Movement led by General Charles de Gaulle.

Separately, in the Resistance it is necessary to single out representatives of other nationalities:

• German anti-fascists;
• Spaniards, who were represented by various national and political forces (Basques, Catalans, supporters of the left, etc.);
• Former Soviet prisoners of war who organized about 35 partisan detachments in France;
• Ukrainians;
• Jews;
• Armenians;
• Kazakhs.

People from different countries of the world fell into the Resistance after they managed to escape from German concentration camps. Some representatives of national minorities, for example, Armenians and Jews, living in the country, in response to persecution by the Germans, created their own combat units.

"Poppies" and "Free France"

The key players in the Resistance Movement were the Maquis partisan detachments and the Free French national liberation movement.

The "Maki" partisans were created mainly in the mountains of the country, where the citizens of the republic fled in order not to get into the Vichy labor detachments. At first, people created small, unconnected groups. They had practically no weapons and leaders. After a while, the partisan detachments turned into well-organized structures that fought against the Nazis. Although initially the "poppies" sought to simply preserve personal freedom and life. The detachments included many Jews, Englishmen, as well as those who were persecuted by Vichy supporters or the German occupation authorities.

The main regions of partisan activity were:

• Alps;
• Mountainous Brittany;
• Southern France;
• Limousin.

The partisans wore the so-called Basque berets, which distinguished them from other members of the Resistance.

French political and military forces organized in 1940 an organization that went down in history under the name "Free France". The patriotic trend was led by the General of the French Army, Charles de Gaulle, who led the detachments from London, where the headquarters of the organization was located. Her task was to liberate the country from the Nazis and the Vichy collaborationist government. Unlike the Maquis partisans, the members of the Free French were well armed, trained, and had combat experience. Charles de Gaulle and his subordinates were officially recognized as member countries of the anti-Hitler coalition, which allowed the general to establish diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union, England and the United States. Based on the organization of de Gaulle in 1943-1944. a provisional government of France was formed.

Main stages of activity

• 1940-1941 - organizational design of the Movement, establishing contacts between the currents. At the same time, the intelligence of the puppet state began to monitor the small groups of the Resistance, which by June 1941 there were already more than 100 throughout France. In 1940, a mass demonstration of students and young people took place on the Champs Elysees, who protested against the closure of the university in Paris. The demonstration was also supported by ordinary Parisians, who gradually joined the ranks of the demonstrators. The Germans opened fire on the activists, many of whom were armed. The demonstration ended with mass arrests, the death of civilians and invaders. The next highlight in the Resistance Movement was the miners' strike in Pas de Calais (May 1941);
• From 1941 to 1943 - the national liberation trend becomes massive, structured, the goals of the Movement begin to change. The liberation of the country from collaborators and Germans comes to the fore. The number of participants in the current grew every day, which was associated with events on the fronts of the Second World War;
• 1943-1944 - the creation of the Committee of National Liberation, headed by Charles de Gaulle. Military issues were dealt with by a specially created Military Council. Numerous committees were set up throughout France to deal with issues of national liberation. They included representatives from all political forces, parties, military structures and organizations, partisan detachments and the underground.

Fighting methods

• Attack on German and French soldiers, policemen, representatives of the Vichy government;
• Numerous actions of sabotage on railways, production;
• Undermining bridges and railways;
• Destruction of military materials that the German army needed;
• Attack on military factories;
• Actions of civil disobedience were frequent;
• Help for victims of political, racial and religious persecution;
• Public strikes.

Members of the French Resistance helped bring down the Vichy regime and liberate France from the invaders. In May 1944 de Gaulle's provisional government was formed. Most members of the Movement then joined the ranks of the regular units of the Allied armies in order to continue the struggle against the fascist regime of Hitler.